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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Chapter 1: Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

I. Introduction
For several years, the control of pneumatic and hydraulic systems has greatly improved. Technological
advancements, supported by the integration of better components, better tools, as well as the
introduction of electronic components have helped to improve these systems.

The applications of pneumatics and hydraulics are currently more and more numerous and their
devices are present almost everywhere. The field covered is vast, all sectors of activity are
concerned: automotive, aeronautics, aerospace, marine, civil engineering, agri-food, oil, chemical
and pharmaceutical industries, etc.

In this chapter, we present the main concepts encountered in pneumatics and hydraulics. The
different components used are also described, including distributors and actuators.

II. Pneumatic and hydraulic automated system

A servo system involving pneumatic or hydraulic systems can be described by Figure 1.

Production of Switching Action

Protection
energy Manage energy Energy conversion

- Pneumatic (Compressor - Conditioning group - Distributors - Cylinders

- Hydraulics (Pump) - Soft starter - Flow reducers - Engines

- Pressure reducers - Grippers

Pre-Actuator Actuator Operator

Supervision Order
Manage energy Conversion of Operate on the
energy product

Enslavement

Sensors

Figure 1: General diagram of an automated pneumatic and hydraulic system

II.1 Pneumatics
Pneumatics is a field of technology that uses pressurized gas to create mechanical movement.
Most often, this gas is simply air, which can be dry or lubricated. Pneumatic systems use air
compressors to reduce the volume of air which increases its pressure. The flow of air under
pressure circulating in the pneumatic lines is controlled via distributors, valves, valves to actuators,
cylinders and motors. It is also important to filter and control the air regularly to guarantee its
quality, which also improves the reliability and efficiency of the pneumatic system.

II.2 Hydraulics
Contrary to the one that comes to mind, that water is generally used as a hydraulic fluid, when in
reality a hydraulic fluid is most often a specific type of oil. The basic concept of

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

hydraulics relies on the fact that if a force is applied to a fluid at a given point in the system, that fluid
will transmit that force exactly and apply it to any other point in the system, since by nature the fluid is
incompressible.

III. Application area

Pneumatic and hydraulic technologies are useful in handling, assembly, robotics, machine tools, etc. The use
of pneumatic energy makes it possible to create automation systems with simple and robust components,
particularly in hostile environments (high temperatures, explosive environments, humid environments).

Pneumatic systems are found in:

- The chemical, petrochemical, medical and food industries.

- Machine tools.
- Mobile machinery (Boats, Cars, Trucks, Loaders, etc.)
- Handling in general such as tightening, transfer, etc.
- In various technological fields such as filling, packaging, opening and closing of doors...

Hydraulic systems are found in:

- Automotive assembly lines,

- Earth-moving and construction machinery, cranes,
- machine tools,
- Flight simulators, performance halls,

IV. The concept of pressure

Pascal's law concerns all fluids (gas or liquid). Its principle is: "Any pressure exerted on a fluid
enclosed in a closed vessel is transmitted entirely to all points of the fluid and the walls". As a
result, air trapped in a tank at a given pressure transmits that pressure to all points in the conduits
and components of the pneumatic system.

If, for example, a cylinder in a pneumatic system must lift a load. Pressure ( )exerted on the surface ( 2)
of the piston creates a force ( )which is the result of the product of the system pressure and the piston
area. We can therefore write the following relation:

= × (1)
The unit of measurement of pressure in systemMKSAis Pascal. The Pascal is a unit which is not
adapted to the level of high pressures observed in industrial installations and especially in
hydraulics. In practice, pressure is very often expressed in bar. We sometimes encounter the
Anglo-Saxon unit thepsi(Pound per square inch).

- 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/m2
- 1 bar = 105Pascal 1
- psi = 0.069 bar

The objective of pneumatic and hydraulic industrial systems is to produce rotational or

translational movements, using actuators (cylinders or motors). Therefore, the output parameters
are defined by:

- An output torque Coutput and a rotation speed output for a motor or rotary cylinder. An
- output force Foutput and a linear speed Voutput for a linear actuator.

These parameters essentially depend on:

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

- the pressure P with regard to the force or torque characteristics, the flow
- rate Q for the speeds of the actuators.

Charge

Figure 2: Pascal’s principle (pressure transmission)

1. Control of the pressure parameter P at any point in the circuit is carried out using devices such as:
- Pressure limiters,
- Pressure regulator reducers,
- Sequence valves.
2. As for the flow rate parameter Q, it can be controlled at any point in the circuit by:
- Check valves,
- Flow limiters and regulators,
- Distributors.

The order of magnitude of the operating pressures depends on the field of application:

- Pneumatic applications: in general P < 7 bars,

- Machine tools: P < 100 bars,
- Agricultural machines: P < 200 bars, Standard
- hydraulic cylinders: P < 250 bars. Aeronautics:
- P < 300 bars,
- Civil Engineering Equipment: P < 350 bars,
- Shaping by hydrostatic deformation: P < 20,000 bars.

V. Difference between pneumatics and hydraulics

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems involve the same basic principle to produce mechanical motion
and use the same types of actuators, cylinders and motors to produce linear force or rotary
motion. Most often, hydraulics are thought to be a liquid form of pneumatics, but the reality is
more complicated than that. This is due to the properties of fluids which are very different from
those of gases.

We can summarize the main points of difference between the two technologies in:

Fluid used:The fundamental difference between the two techniques lies in the fluid involved for the
transmit pressure from one point to another. Pneumatics generally uses air while hydraulics
use oil.

Nature of the fluid:Pneumatics uses air which is by nature compressible, on the other hand, in hydraulics
we use oil which is not compressible.

Strength :The hydraulics can develop significant forces greater than 50,000 N because of the strong
pressures involved. In pneumatics the force range is significantly less than 50,000 N.

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Speed :The speed in pneumatics is much faster than in hydraulics. A speed of 15 to 50 m/s
in pneumatics compared to 3 m/s for hydraulics. Because of the incompressibility of the oil, the speed
is more precise and regular in hydraulics in addition to the intermediate and precise positioning of the
cylinders which allows more sophisticated applications in regulation and control.

Pressure :The tire pressure is generally less than 8 bars, although it is rarely
less than 50 bars in hydraulics. The hydraulic systems are capable of handling high
pressures, from 700 bars for handling cylinders up to 20,000 bars for shaping by hydrostatic
deformation.

Cost :Another important difference is cost. Pneumatic systems tend to be

Considerably cheaper than hydraulic systems. The implementation of pneumatic
installations is relatively simple (flexible pipes, quick couplings, etc.) but it is less simple for
hydraulic installations because of the management of sealing, return to the tank, etc. Even if
the actions and applications have common points, each of these technologies meets
different requirements and specialties. One is generally better suited to certain tasks than
the other and vice versa. The efficiency of pneumatic systems is generally 0.3 to 0.5 and 0.7
to 0.9 for hydraulic systems.

Another difference concerns the circulation of the fluid, in pneumatic systems, the air circulation
generally takes place in an open circuit, whereas in the case of hydraulic systems, the fluid is in a closed
circuit.

VI. Pneumatic and hydraulic actuators versus electric actuators

Despite the effectiveness of electric actuators, pneumatic actuators may be preferred over electric
actuators in the following cases:

- If response times are not critical (10 to 20 ms minimum) For

- simple sequential machines.
- In hostile environments (high temperatures, explosive or humid environments, etc.)
- For their low maintenance cost.
- A minimum qualification required for maintenance.

In hydraulics, the speed range of motors is very large. Hydraulics provide a clear advantage over
other technologies with slow motors. In fact, the latter make it possible to produce very large
torques. In addition, and because of the absence of intermediate elements such as speed
reducers, the inertia related to their shaft is low and allows rapid acceleration and braking.

VII. Components used in pneumatics and hydraulics

The components used in pneumatics and hydraulics can be subdivided into:

- Distributors (2/2, 3/2, 4/2, 4/3, 5/2 distributor, etc.),

- Regulators (flow regulator and speed regulator),
- Check valves (non-return valve, circuit selector, double valve distributor), Actuators
- (cylinders, motors, oscillators).

VII.1 Distributors
Distributors are devices that allow the fluid to be directed in the desired directions in order to
control the operation of the system. There are several types of distributors such as:

- 2/2 distributors,
- 3/2 distributors,

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

- 4/2 distributors,
- 5/2 distributors,
- 4/3 distributors.
- 5/3 distributors.

VII.1.1 Principle of symbolization (NF ISO 1219 standard)

The standardization of the symbolization of pneumatic and hydraulic components is ensured by several
AFNOR standards (NF ISO 1219). It is intended to facilitate and reinforce the understanding of circuit
diagrams for hydraulic and pneumatic transmissions. It specifies the representations of the
components as well as their function. It defines the basic elements and rules of symbol formation as
well as the principles of using these symbols in circuit diagrams and on components.

These symbols are intended for all types of applications and industries (automobiles, factories, etc.).
Regarding the symbols of the distributors, the standardization defined:

Name:The name of the distributor includes 2 digits (X/Y). The first number (X) indicates the
number of valve ports (not including control ports). On the other hand, the second digit (Y)
represents the number of switching positions.

Symbol :Each symbol is composed of two or three juxtaposed squares which correspond to the number of
positions that the distributor can take. If there is an intermediate position, the box is
delimited by dotted lines. Each square contains lines that schematize the internal pipes
between the orifices and arrows indicating the direction of fluid circulation. A transverse line
indicates a closed pipe.

Initial position:or rest position is that in which the distributor is located when it is not
order. The connection lines between network and distributor are always shown in the box
symbolizing the initial position. The latter is placed on the right for two-position distributors and
in the center for those with three positions. The pressure symbol (circle) is placed to the right of
the rest box if there is only one exhaust (triangle) and in the middle if there are two exhausts. The
orifices are identified by letters in hydraulics and by numbers in pneumatics.

Arrows:For each position, the paths are represented by arrows indicating the direction of circulation of the fluid
between the holes.

T:the orifices not used in a position are symbolically closed by a straight or inverted T.

Source of pressure:It is indicated by a black circle in hydraulics and clear in pneumatics.

Exhaust :it is symbolized by a black triangle in hydraulics, clear in pneumatics.

The command :Every distributor is equipped with a control means which is designed, by convention, to the
left of the symbol and a reminder means drawn to the right of the symbol. The control
means constitutes the actuation mode and the recall means represents the deactivation
mode of the distributor. The spring is generally the most frequently used means of return.
The distributors can be operated from both sides in different ways.

Ports:The number of holes in a position is equal for all positions. Identifying the orifices
of a pneumatic distributor is made by letters as follows:

- Supply pressure (Energy source): P Output

- or use (Work): A, B, C… Exhaust (Free air
- evacuation): R, S, T… Control (Pilot): X, Y, Z...
-

Or by number:

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

- 1: supply port,
- 2 and 4: use port with 2 outlets,
- 3 and 5 exhaust port with 2 exhaust ports. 12 and 14:
- Command (Piloting)

Figure 2 represents the principle of symbolization of distributors and Figure 3 an example of

operation of a 3/2 distributor.

Depending on the type of order, there are two types of distributors:

Monostable Distributors:they have a single stable position (rest position). The order of
distributor must be activated throughout the entire time it is actuated. When the control is
released, the distributor returns to its rest position under the effect of a return spring. A
push-button valve with spring return is a typical design (Figure 4).

Bistable distributors:they have two stable states. These distributors switch with each actuation
momentary or a short duration control pulse from one stable state to another stable state. These
distributors qualify as memory because they have the ability to maintain their position. When the
control is released, the distributor does not return to its initial position. Distributors equipped
with pneumatic control on each side are bistable distributors.

It should be noted that the construction technology of the distributor is not indicated on its symbol
because this concerns only its operation.

2+1 position 2 positions +

2 positions 3 positions intermediate progressive positions

air oil
closed orifice
holes Source of
original
ways of pressure
traffic exhaust
holes
closed orifice for not connectable
the position

connectable

Figure 3: Principle of symbolization of distributors

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

charge charge
symbol
standardized

rest activation

pressure exhaust

Rest position Activation position

Figure 4: Example of representation and operation of a 3/2 distributor.

Figure 5 gives the symbols of some distributors with their different control modes.

VII.2 Regulators (flow regulator and speed regulator)

In general, the purpose of regulators (flow regulator and speed regulator) is to control the flow
rate and pressure of the flow. When it comes to flow control, there are flow control valves such as
flow restrictors. The latter are used essentially to reduce the flow of fluid in a part of the circuit in
order to regulate the speed of the actuators. For pressure control, we find pressure limiters,
pressure reducers and regulators as well as sequence valves. Pressure control used primarily for
safety reasons.

VII.3 Direction control valves

Direction control valves (non-return valve, circuit selector, double valve distributor) generally
control the direction of fluid flow. They prohibit the passage of the latter in one direction and
authorize it in the other direction for the non-return valves. Concerning the circuit selectors and
the double valve distributor, they carry out the logical AND and OR functions between the control
signals (pneumatic and hydraulic control).

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

4/3
1 2/2 NF HAS

2 P open H center closed center

2/2 NO
1 HAS

tendem center center partially

2 P
open
3/2 NOT
.F
2 HAS

31 P.T.
3/2 NOT
.O
2 HAS

manual mechanical
3 1 P T
4/2
4 2 HASB

3 1 P T
5/2 electro magnet piloting
4 2 HASB

513 RST

air oil

Figure 5: Distributors: symbols and control modes

VII.4 Actuators
A pneumatic or hydraulic actuator is a device that converts the energy available at the input into
mechanical work. The actuators make it possible to carry out movements of the type:

- Linear: Cylinder (single acting and double acting cylinder),

- Oscillating: Oscillating cylinder or motor,
- Rotary: Motors

VII.4.1 Cylinders

Cylinders create mechanical movement from pneumatic or hydraulic energy supplied as input. They are
composed of a cylinder divided into two chambers isolated from each other by a moving part called the
piston. The latter moves under the action of the fluid which supplies one or both

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

chambers depending on the type of single or double acting cylinder. Figure 5 shows some types of
cylinders and their control modes. Cylinders are often equipped with additional functions such as
position and end-of-stroke sensors, end-of-stroke cushioning, detection devices, guidance, etc.

Cylinders are generally used for: lifting, pushing, pulling, tightening, turning, blocking, impacting, blocking, etc.
Their classification takes into account the nature of the fluid (pneumatic or hydraulic) and the mode of action of the
single-acting or double-acting rod. Figure 6 shows the different types of actions performed by the cylinders.

Figure 6: Actions performed by the cylinders

There are several types of cylinders such as: single-acting, double-acting, rodless, double-rod and telescopic
cylinder. Figure 7 shows an example of a single-acting and double-acting cylinder.

(has)

(b) (vs)

Figure 7: Cylinder: a) perspective, b) single acting and c) double acting

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

VII.4.2 Oscillating cylinders

They make it possible to transform a linear movement of the piston into a rotary movement by using a
rack machined on the cylinder rod which drives a pinion. For so-called vane cylinders, a vane pivots in
the cylinder of the cylinder under the effect of pressure. Figure 8 shows examples of oscillating motors.

(has) (b)

Figure 8: Oscillating cylinders: a) perspective and b) construction

VII.4.3 Characteristics of the cylinders

A cylinder is characterized by its stroke, by the diameter of its piston and by the pressure it can admit. The
stroke of the cylinder corresponds to the length of movement that it can ensure. The cylinder characteristics
can be calculated theoretically or using the manufacturer's data. The latter are more explicit when it comes to
very specific applications. Figure 9 shows the forces developed by the cylinder. The force F developed by a
cylinder depends on the pressure of the fluid and the diameter of its piston and the friction resistance of the
seals. Theoretically, we most often neglect the friction of the joints and the force F is given by:

= × (2)
- F is the force developed in N (Newton).
- P is the operating pressure in Pa (Pascal)
- S is the pressure application surface (useful surface of the piston) in 2.

The thrust force of the cylinder is calculated by:

ℎ= × (3)

with : = × 2
2

The following equation gives the cylinder retraction force. In this case you must be careful, the pressure is no longer
exerted over the entire diameter of the piston but over a surface area equal to the section of the piston minus the section
of the rod.

ℎ= × ( 1− 2) (4)

with : 1= × 2 And 2= × 2
2 2

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

To be able to seal and guide a cylinder, it is necessary to use seals and guide rings. In reality, we
must consider the frictional resistance of these elements. To take this into account when
determining the forces exerted by a cylinder, it is necessary to take into consideration the load rate
of the cylinder ( ).

= × × (5)

(has) (b)
Figure 9: Force developed by a cylinder: a) when pushing and b) when pulling

The output speed of the cylinder depends on the surface of the piston and the flow of fluid entering the
power chamber:

= (6)

with: V the speed in m/s, Q the volume flow in 3/ ,and S the application surface (piston surface) in 2.

Another notion linked to the characteristics of the cylinder is the cylinder capacity of the cylinder . It is given by the product
of the surface area of the piston ( )by running ( )and it corresponds to the volume of fluid necessary to remove the entire
piston rod.

= × (7)

Example

Calculate the forces when pushing and pulling a cylinder with a piston of diameter D = 10 cm and a rod of
diameter d = 3 cm:

1. Pneumatic cylinder (P = 6 bars),

2. Hydraulic cylinder (P= 240 bars) (1 bar = 10 ∙ 2),
3. With an efficiency of 90% (loss of 10% due to friction at seals and guide rings)

Solution

1. Pneumatic cylinder (P = 6 bars):

- Effort of the cylinder pushing a load ( = ∙ 2):

ℎ= × = 6 ∙ 10 × ∙ 52= 471 (8)

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

- Effort of the cylinder (double acting) pulling a load ( = ∙ ( 2− 2)):

′ ℎ= × ( 1− 2) = 6 ∙ 10 × ∙ (52− 1.52) = 429 (9)

Note: ′ ℎis 10% less than ℎ.

2. Hydraulic cylinder (P= 240 bars)

- Effort of the cylinder pushing a load ( = ∙ 2):

ℎ= × × = 240 ∙ 10 × ∙ 52= 18,840 (10)

- Effort of the cylinder (double acting) pulling a load ( = ∙ ( 2− 2)):

′ ℎ= × × ( 1− 2) = 240 ∙ 10 × ∙ (52− 1.52) = 17,144 (11)

Note:Effort is 40 times greater than that of the pneumatic cylinder.

3. With an efficiency of 90%

- Pneumatic: é = × ℎ= 0.9 × 471 = 424
- Hydraulics: é = × ℎ= 0.9 × 18,840 = 16,956

VII.4.4 Criteria for choosing a cylinder

A certain number of criteria must be taken into account to determine which cylinder to use. They
are generally extracted from the specifications:

- Type of movement: horizontal, vertical, rotating,

- Length of movement to be performed,
- Type of work: static (tightening) or dynamic (moving),
- Effort to provide,
- Kinetic constraints: speed, acceleration, duration of movement, inertia, deformation and fragility of
the load, etc.

This allows us to determine the main characteristics of the cylinder:

1. Type: single acting, double acting (or other actuators),

2. The diameter D of the cylinder by calculations or by manufacturers' charts. The diameter of the rod d depends on D
(normalized),
3. Race C.

VII.4.5 Engines
To transform the input energy (pneumatic hydraulic) into angular or mechanical rotation
movement, motors are used. Pneumatic and hydraulic motors are characterized by a wide range
of speeds, reversibility of the direction of rotation and great reliability even under overload,
especially for hydraulic motors. Pneumatic and hydraulic motors are most commonly piston
motors, vane motors and gear motors. Figure 10 gives examples of vane and gear motors.

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

repression

oil

gear wheel

admission

(has) (b)
Figure 10: Motors: a) vane and b) gear

VII.4.6 Different types of piloting

Pneumatic or hydraulic piloting:When the configuration and rate of complexity of the installation
automated lead to the choice of an "all pneumatic" or "all hydraulic" solution, the
distributors are pneumatically or hydraulically controlled because their control is ensured by
pressure signals emitted by the pneumatic or hydraulic control part.

Electric control:Unlike purely pneumatic or hydraulic control, controls in

electric or electronic version can assume considerably more complex functions through the
use of electronic controls such as PLCs (programmable logic controllers). In this case, it is
necessary that the distributors be equipped with one or two solenoid control valves. Their
role is to transform the electrical signal coming from the control part into a pneumatic or
hydraulic signal for controlling the distributor.

VIII. Coding and identification of pneumatic and hydraulic components

The circuit diagrams of hydraulic and pneumatic systems constitute an aid facilitating the
understanding, study and description of installations. To avoid confusion and errors during
development, production, installation and maintenance, the International Standards Organization
(ISO), has developed the ISO-1219 standard defining hydraulic and pneumatic graphic symbols
( ISO 1219-1). The standard (ISO 1219-2) concerns the coding of circuit diagrams.

The components are represented (unless otherwise indicated) in their starting position, i.e. the rest
position. It is recommended that the symbols for hydraulic and pneumatic devices be arranged
from bottom to top and from left to right:

- Energy sources: bottom left,

- Control components listed in sequential order: up and left to right,
- Actuators: top left to right

Creating and using diagrams requires the identification and location of components. The coding
includes three types of components: components, piping and ports.

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

VIII.1 Coding of components

We use a three-part coding:

- A functional order mark which can contain several characters (functional string number for
example),
- A component code: letters are used to identify component families (Table 1),
- A code of the state or action (for pre-actuators, a number 0 is assigned to control the initial position; for
sensors associated with actuators, the number 0 for the sensor activated in the state initial of the cycle,
the numbers 1, 2, 3, … for the sensor activated in the order of the cycle.

VIII.2 Piping coding

The pipes are identified by function, then possibly by a number.

- Pressure supply P,
- Return to tank T (tank),
- Drainage L.

VIII.3 Coding of orifices

The orifices can generally be identified with numbers in pneumatic circuits or with letters in
hydraulic circuits.

The number 1 or the letter P indicates the supply port and the letter T indicates the reservoir (hydraulic).

Figure 11 represents a typical example of a pneumatic circuit and table 2 gives the coding of its
components.

Table 1: Coding of pneumatic and hydraulic components

Coded Material type Example

HAS Accumulators
B Pressure multipliers and exchangers
VS Cylinders Cylinder

D Distributors Distributer
F Conditioning devices Filtered

G Measuring device Manometer

M Engines
NOT Check valves
P Pumps and compressors
Q Flow control devices Flow reducer
R Pressure adjustment devices
S Mechanical detectors Button
T Tanks
U Line and connection devices Silencer, Connection
Y.V. Online order Solenoid valve

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Table 2: Coding of the circuit components in Figure 11

Coded Material type

P1 Compressor1: Pressure
A1 Actuator: Circuit 1 cylinder
A2 Actuator: Circuit 2 cylinder
A3 Actuator: Circuit 3 cylinder
1S1 Mechanical sensor 1 of circuit 1
1S2 Mechanical sensor 2 of circuit 1
2S1 Mechanical sensor 1 of circuit 2
2S2 Mechanical sensor 2 of circuit 2
3S1 Mechanical sensor 1 of circuit 3
3S2 Mechanical sensor 2 of circuit 3
1YV14 Electromagnet circuit 1 Rod output control
2YV12 Electromagnet circuit 2 Rod retraction control
3YV12 Electromagnet circuit 3 Rod retraction control
U3 Silencer connected to port 3

1S1 1S2 2S1 2S2 3S1 3S2

1A 2A 3A

42 4 2
3
1YV14

31 3 1 2YV12 3YV12 31
U3

P1

Figure 11: Example of component coding.

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Chapter 1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

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Module: Pneumatics and Hydraulics Chapter 2: The pneumatic automatic

Chapter 2 :
The pneumatic automatic
1. Definition
Pneumatic automation is a branch of general automation which deals with the operation of
devices based on the use of compressed air.
Air is a gas mixture composed of the following elements:
- Nitrogen (dinitrogen N2): 78%;
- Oxygen (dioxygen O2): 21%;
- less than 1% of other gases including: rare gases mainly argon (Ar) 0.93%, neon (Ne),
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4).
2. Areas of application

The pneumatic drive members make it possible to carry out movements of the type:
- Linear;
- Oscillating;
- Rotary.
The areas of application are very diverse:

In the chemical and petrochemical industry (especially in explosive areas) and food.
1. Mechanical parts manufacturing workshops: Machine tools: Turning of parts, Drilling, Milling,
Sawing, Forming.
2. Mobile machinery (Boats, Cars, Trucks, Loaders, etc.)
3. For everything relating to handling in general;
- Tightening,
- Transfer,
- Positioning,
- Orientation,
4. Implementation in various technological areas:
- Filling,
- Dosage,
- Lockdown,
- Packaging,
- Opening and closing doors,
- Transfer,
3. Fundamental laws

3.1. Absolute pressure, effective pressure and vacuum pressure:

It is necessary that :
- Convert the temperature T to degrees kelvins K: K = T+ 273.
- Convert the pressure to absolute pressure: Pa = Peff + Patm.

Dr: A.MESSAOUDI 1
Module: Pneumatics and Hydraulics Chapter 2: The pneumatic automatic

3.2. Boyle–Mariotte law (1662–1672) At

a constant temperature, the volume of a
gas is inversely proportional to its
absolute pressure or, in other words, the
product of volume and absolute pressure
is constant for a given quantity of gas.

P1-V1 = P2-V2 = P3-V3 = Constant

ExampleAt atmospheric pressure, air can be compressed to 1/7 of its volume. What will be its pressure if
the temperature remains constant?
Solution

3.3. Law of Charles – Gay-Lussac (1787-1802)

Constant pressure (isobaric evolution)
The relationship between the pressure and the temperature
of a gas maintained at constant volume is expressed as
follows:

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Constant volume (Isochoric evolution)

Likewise, the relationship between the volume and temperature
of a gas maintained at constant pressure is as follows:

P1/T1 = P2/T2

Which gives, as a general equation:

P1xV1/T1 = P2xV2/T2
Example 1:
A football is inflated with air to 2 bars and its
temperature is 21°C. What will be the effective pressure of the air in the balloon at °5 C?
Dr: A.MESSAOUDI 2
Module: Pneumatics and Hydraulics Chapter 2: The pneumatic automatic

Example 2A compressor draws in air at

atmospheric pressure and compresses it in a tank
with a capacity of 1.5 m3under a pressure of 550
kPa. From the full tank, what is the volume of air to
extract, knowing that the temperature has
increased from 22°C to 38°C?

3.4. Pascal's principle:

Any pressure exerted on a fluid (gas or liquid) enclosed in a closed
vessel is transmitted entirely to all points of the fluid and the
walls.

Figure 1: Pascal's principle applies to all points of

conduits and components of the pneumatic system.

Typically, factory compressed air systems have effective pressures of 620 to 760 kPa. The
load to be lifted is generally known, because a system is built based on the work to be done.

F=P-A
F: Force (in newtons), Pressure (in pascals) and Area (in m2)

Example :The air reserve in a tank is under a pressure of 825 kPa. It is part
of a neumatic circuit controlling a cylinder. This cylinder must push a load of
827 kg. What diameter of cylinder will be needed to move the load?

Dr: A.MESSAOUDI 3
Module: Pneumatics and Hydraulics Chapter 2: The pneumatic automatic

Solution

4. Compressed air – Production and distribution

For a pneumatic automation to be reliable, it is essential to have good quality compressed
air. This requirement involves observing the following factors:
- Correct pressure,
- dry air,
- Clean air.
Failure to comply with these requirements can result in increased machine downtime and,
therefore, increased operating costs.

2.1. Compressed air production

The compressed air supply device must include the following elements:
- Suction filter;
- Compressor;
- Compressed air tank;
- Dehydrator;
- Compressed air filter with condensate separator;
- Pressure regulator ;
- Lubricator;
- Condensate drain points.
Poorly conditioned compressed air can contribute to increased failures and reduced lifespan
of pneumatic systems by increasing wear on seals and moving parts in valves and cylinders.

2.4. Dehydrator
The humidity contained in the air evaporates or condenses depending on the rise or fall in
temperature. As this moisture deteriorates pneumatic components, it must be removed as
quickly as possible.
It is therefore essential to install a dehydrator on the network which allows the humidity of the air to be
reduced to the desired rate. Air dehydration can be achieved by:
- Dehydration from cold;
- Dehydration by adsorption;
- Absorption drying.

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Figure: Compressed air supply device

2.4.1 Cold dehydrator:If the air temperature is lowered and circulated through the cooling
unit, the water condenses and can be recovered.

4.2.2 Adsorption dehydrator:Adsorption is the attachment of substances to the body surface

solid. The desiccating agent, also called gel, is a granulate composed essentially of
silicon dioxide.
Adsorption dehydrators (Figure) are always used in pairs. When the gel of the first is
saturated, we move on to the second while we proceed to regenerate the first by
drying with hot air.

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4.2.3 Absorption dehydratorAnother process, called

absorption, consists of passing compressed air through a
desiccator which extracts the moisture. It is possible to easily
regenerate the desiccator by blowing hot air through it.

The compressed air is freed from large drops of water

and oil in a pre-filter by chemical reaction. The compressed
air is rotated and passes through the drying chamber filled
with a flux (desiccant). The moisture combines with the
desiccant and dilutes it. The resulting liquid combination is
then collected in the lower receptacle. The mixture should be
drained regularly and the consumed desiccant replaced.

4.3 Air conditioning unit

The conditioning unit is used to prepare the compressed air. It is mounted upstream of the
pneumatic controls. In general, an air conditioning unit is composed of:
1. Compressed air filter;
2. Pressure regulator;
3. Lubricator.

4.3.1 Filter:This device has the function of blocking dust and impurity particles circulating in
the pipes. The filter also recovers residual humidity contained in the air.

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4.3.2 Pressure regulator:All devices that operate on compressed air require optimal
operating pressure. This pressure, lower than the system operating pressure, must
be maintained at a constant and adjustable level. In all cases, it is therefore advisable
to install a pressure regulator at the inlet of each pneumatic system.

4.3.3 Lubrication:Most lubricators operate on the venturi principle. The difference between the
pressure prevailing upstream of the restriction and the pressure prevailing in the most
restricted part thereof allows the suction of a liquid (oil from a tank) and its mixing with
the compressed air.

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2.2. Compressors
The choice of a compressor depends on the working pressure and air flow required. Compressors
are classified according to their type of construction. There are several types of compressor,
including:
1. Piston compressor
2. Diaphragm compressor
3. Rotary piston compressor
4. Screw compressor
5. Advantages
- Pneumatic systems require minimal maintenance. Air is a
- safe and non-toxic energy;
- Even leaks in pipes cannot be harmful to people in their environment.

6. Disadvantages
Air is not necessarily cheap. The greatest expenses incurred by the use of compressed air
come from poor maintenance of compressors, inadequate installation of distribution
circuits and failure to condition the air throughout its use.

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