Anatomy & Physiology

Lecture | Chapter 3
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS

CELL TRANSPORT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

Movement through Cell Membrane
➢ Basic living unit of all organisms
➢ Cell membrane selectively determines what can
FUNCTIONS
pass in and out of the cell.
1. Cell metabolism and energy use ➢ Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in
higher concentrations INSIDE the cell.
2. Synthesis of molecules ➢ Sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher
concentrations OUTSIDE the cell.
3. Communication
➢ may be passive or active
4. Reproduction and inheritance
PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
3 MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL ➢ does not require the cell to expend energy.
1.CELL MEMBRANE / PLASMA MEMBRANE ➢ requires no metabolic energy from the cell but
solely on the physical properties of the substances
➢ the outermost component of a
themselves.
cell, encloses the cytoplasm
➢ e.g. diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
and forms the boundary
between material inside the ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
cell and material outside it.
➢ does require the cell to expend energy, usually in
FUNCTION: the form of ATP.
➢ e.g. active transport, secondary active transport,
1. encloses the cell
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
2. supports the cell contents
3. acts as a selective barrier that determines what Solute + Solvent = Solution
4. moves into and out of the cell Solution
5. plays a role in communication between cells. ➢ a homogenous mixture composed of two or more
substances
STRUCTURE: Solute
➢ a substance dissolved in another substance; the
• Fluid Mosaic Model
chemical dissolved in a solution
• Made of phospholipids that Solvent
form a double layer of molecules ➢ a substance that dissolves a solute
• Phospholipids contain 2
regions: polar, phosphate
containing ends (hydrophilic) and nonpolar, fatty acid ends DIFFUSION
(hydrophobic) ➢ can be viewed as the tendency for solutes, such as
• The double layer of phospholipids forms a lipid barrier ions or molecules, to move from an area of higher
between the inside and outside of the cell concentration to an area of lower concentration of
that solute in a solution.

2.CYTOPLASM CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

➢ the jelly-like fluid that fills a cell
➢ the material between cell ➢ the gradual difference in concentration of a
membrane and the nucleus dissolved substance in a solution between a region
➢ the living material surrounding of high density and one of lower density.
the nucleus, and contains many
types of organelles OSMOSIS

➢ The diffusion of water (a solvent) across a

3.NUCLEUS selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell
• contains the cell’s genetic material membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water concentration.

ORGANELLES OSMOTIC PRESSURE

➢ are specialized structures or membrane-bound ➢ The force required to prevent the movement of H2O
compartments within the cell that have specific across a selectively permeable membrane
functions. ➢ The measure of the tendency of H2O to move by
osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.
 TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
➢ lower conc. of solutes & higher conc. of H2O than
the cytoplasm of the cell
➢ Solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure than
the cell
➢ H2O moves into cell → swell → rupture (lysis)
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
➢ equal concentrations of various solutes and water
on both sides of the cell membrane
➢ The cell neither shrinks nor swells
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
➢ higher concentration of solutes and a lower
concentration of water than the cytoplasm of the
cell.
➢ H2O moves from the cell into the hypertonic
solution → cell shrinkage, or crenation
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISM
➢ the movement/transport of large, water-soluble
molecules or electrically-charged ions across a
membrane by means of a carrier molecule.
➢ exhibits specificity - only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers
KINDS OF CARRIER – MEDIATED TRANSPORT
1. Facilitated Diffusion
➢ a carrier-mediated transport process that moves
substances across the cell membrane from an area
of higher conc. to an area of lower conc. of that
substance
➢ ATP is not required
2. Active Transport
➢ a carrier-mediated process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from regions of lower
conc. to those of higher conc. against a
concentration gradient
➢ requires ATP
3. Secondary Active Transport
➢ Involves the diffusion of a transported substance,
such as Na+, down its concentration gradient that
provides the energy to transport a second
substance, such as glucose, across the cell
membrane
➢ In cotransport, both substances move in the same
direction
➢ In counter transport, both substances move in
opposite directions.
ENDOCYTOSIS
➢ The movement of materials into cells by the
formation of a vesicle.
TYPES:
1. Phagocytosis (cell-eating) - solid particles are ingested
2. Pinocytosis (cell-drinking) - intake of liquid particles
• Receptor – mediated endocytosis -the movement/transport
of a substance into the cell after binding with the receptor
molecule
EXOCYTOSIS
➢ movement out of cells by vesicles
➢ allows the release of materials from cells.
➢ secretion of materials from cells by vesicle
formation.
➢ e.g. secretion of digestive enzymes by the
pancreas secretion of mucus by the salivary
glands.
ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS
• contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which consist of
DNA and proteins
• the chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively called
chromatin
• Nucleoli – diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane that are
found within the nucleus; consist
of RNA and proteins; and are the
sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis
and ribosomal subunit assembly.
RIBOSOMES
• Organelles where proteins are produced
• The protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the
cell
• May be attached to other organelles (ER)
• When not attached to any organelle → free
ribosomes
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm
• ROUGH ER
- studded with ribosomes; transport
channel for protein synthesized by the
ribosomes; a major site of protein
synthesis.
• SMOOTH ER
- without ribosomes; major site of lipid
synthesis; detoxification of chemicals
within cells
GOLGI APPARATUS
• also called Golgi complex
• a series of closely packed membrane
sacs that collect,
modify, package, and distribute proteins
and lipids
produced by the ER
SECRETORY VESICLES CENTRIOLES
• membrane-bound sacs that carry • located in the centrosome, and are made of
substances from the microtubules.
Golgi apparatus to the cell • forms spindle fibers to separate chromosomes during
membrane, where the vesicle cell division.
contents are released. • facilitate chromosome movement during cell
• Pinch off from the golgi complex division.
and move to the cell
membrane
CENTROSOME
• A small region of cytoplasm adjacent to the nucleus
LYSOSOMES • serves to organize microtubules; hence, it is called
• membrane-bound vesicles containing as microtubule organizing center.
enzymes that break down
phagocytized
material or destroy foreign materials CILIA
PEROXISOMES • Project from the cells surface
• Membrane-bound vesicles containing • Vary in number & capable of moving
enzymes that break down fatty acids, • move substances over surfaces of
amino certain cells.
acids, and hydrogen peroxide.

MITOCHONDRIA FLAGELLA
• Small organelles with inner and • Longer than
outer membranes cilia
separated by a space • Usually occur
• outer membranes have a smooth only 1 per cell
contour, but the • Found on
inner membranes have numerous sperm cell
folds, called surface
cristae • Propel sperm
• Mitochondria are the major sites for the cells
production
of ATP, which cells use as an energy
source.
• Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, MICROVILLI
requiring O2 to break down food molecules to • do not actively move as cilia
produce ATP. and flagella do
• abundant on the surface of
cells that line the
CYTOSKELETON intestine, kidney, and other
- cell’s framework areas in which
- made of proteins absorption is an important function.
• increase surface area of certain cells and thus,
FUNCTION .
- supports the cell
- holds organelles in place
- enables cell to change shape WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
• Composed of microtubules, microfilaments,
and intermediate filaments. ➢ A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by
the types of proteins it produces, which are
Microtubules determined by the genetic information in the
• largest diameter nucleus.
• support the ➢ Understanding how genetic information is used in
cytoplasm of cells, the cell and distributed to daughter cells is important
assist in cell for understanding basic cellular activity
division, and form
essential components DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
of cilia and • A long molecule that contains our
flagella. unique genetic code. Like a recipe
Microfilaments book, it holds the instructions for
• smallest diameter making all
• involved with cell movement the proteins in our bodies.
Intermediate filaments • Contains four basic building blocks
• smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in or bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
diameter than microfilaments guanine (G) and thymine (T).
• The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the
information available for building and maintaining an
organism
• DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with
G, to form units called base pairs.
 • Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a ➢ Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes, 2 X
phosphate molecule. chromosomes (female) or an X chromosome and a
• Together, a base, sugar, and Y chromosome (male).
phosphate are called a nucleotide. ➢ The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
• nucleotides joined together to form autosomes
two nucleotide strands ➢ The sex chromosomes determine the individual’s
• has a unique ‘double helix’ shape, sex, and the autosomes determine most other
like a twisted ladder.
characteristics
• with the base pairs forming the
ladder’s rungs and the sugar and
phosphate molecules forming the vertical MITOSIS
sidepieces of the ladder ➢ cell division that occurs in all cells except sex cells
• Each DNA molecule contains many different genes ➢ a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells with
• GENE – a sequence of nucleotides that provides a the same amount and type of DNA as the parent
chemical set of instructions for making a specific protein cell.
• DNA can replicate, or make copies of itself
➢ divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
GENE EXPRESSION
➢ The ultimate expression of a gene is the production
of a protein from the information contained in DNA
➢ its effect on physiology contributes to the trait or
'phenotype' we observe.
➢ The information encoded in a gene goes through a
multi-step process in which it is copied, transported,
read, and finally, used as a template for building
proteins.
➢ involves transcription (making a copy of a gene)
and translation (converting that copied information
into a protein

TRANSCRIPTION

• First step in gene expression

• Takes place in the nucleus of the cell
• the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to
mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein
synthesis.

TRANSLATION

• the synthesis of proteins based on the information in

mRNA
• The mRNA formed in transcription is transported out of
the nucleus, into the cytoplasm, to the ribosome (the cell's
protein synthesis factory) Chromatid
➢ two genetically identical strands of chromatin
Centromere
CELL LIFE CYCLE ➢ region on a chromosome that joins two sister
chromatids
Includes two major phases: Centriole
➢ a specialized region on the centromeres of
1. INTERPHASE chromosomes
➢ forms spindle fibers to separate chromosomes
➢ Is divided into G1, S, G2
during cell division.
➢ G1, cell carries out routine metabolic activities Kinetochore
➢ S, DNA is replicated ➢ a specialized region on the centromeres of
➢ G2, cell prepares for division chromosomes
Cytokinesis
2. CELL DIVISION (MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS) ➢ the cytoplasmic division of a cell, bringing about
the separation into 2 daughter cells
➢ formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent
cell
➢ Mitosis - new cells necessary for growth and tissue ✓ PROPHASE
repair are formed ➢ chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes,
➢ Meiosis - sex cells necessary for reproduction are each composed of two chromatids
formed ➢ microtubules called spindle fibers extend from
➢ Each human cells have 46 chromosome, Sex cells centrioles
half the number ➢ nucleolus and nuclear envelop disappear
➢ 46 chromosome (diploid number) are organized to
form 23 pairs of chromosome
 ✓ METAPHASE
➢ chromosomes align near the center of the cell
(equator)
➢ chromosomes are now attached to a pair of spindle
fibers

✓ ANAPHASE
➢ chromatids separate
➢ moved towards opposite poles by the spindle fibers
➢ cleavage or pinching in is evident
➢ cytoplasm begins to divide

✓ TELOPHASE
➢ chromosome disperse
➢ nuclear envelop is forming again
➢ spindle fibers disappear

✓ CYTOKINESIS
➢ cytoplasm divides

APOPTOSIS

• programmed cell death

• a normal process by which cell numbers within various
tissues are adjusted and controlled.
• As apoptosis begins, the chromatin within the nucleus
condenses and fragments → fragmentation of the nucleus
→ death and fragmentation of the cell.
• Specialized cells called macrophages phagocytize the
cell fragments.

Factors Affecting Aging

• Cellular clock

• Death genes

• DNA damage

• Free radicals

• Mitochondrial damage