PX Care/MT

MIDTERMS

Types of Infections
Manifestations of Damage to Cause
Bacterial caused by various types of
Tissue Cells
bacteria, such as Streptococcus,
Staphylococcus, and
Physical Trauma mechanical force, such as cut,
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
puncture, or crush injury
Viral caused by viruses, such as the
Chemical damage exposure to harmful chemicals
common cold, flu, hepatitis, and
or toxins, including corrosive
human immunodeficiency virus
substances and drugs
(HIV)
Infection bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other
Fungal caused by fungi, such as
pathogens invading and
Candida, Aspergillus, and
damaging the cells
Cryptococcus
Ischemia/hypoxia insufficient oxygen or blood
Parasitic caused by parasites, such as
supply to the tissues, often
malaria, toxoplasmosis, and
resulting from blocked or
giardiasis
narrowed blood vessels
Protozoal caused by single-celled
Radiation damage exposure to ionizing radiation,
organisms, such as amoebas,
which can damage the DNA and
flagellates, and ciliates, which
other cellular structures
can cause diseases such as
malaria, toxoplasmosis, and
Immunologic damage the body's immune system leishmaniasis
attacking its own cells, as in
autoimmune diseases
Prion caused by abnormal proteins
that can cause
Genetic damage mutations or other genetic neurodegenerative diseases
abnormalities that affect
cellular function or survival. Nosocomial infections are acquired in a hospital or
healthcare setting, often caused
by antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Aging gradual wear and tear on cells
and tissues over time Opportunistic occur in individuals with
weakened immune systems,
such as those with HIV/AIDS or
INFECTION undergoing chemotherapy

Community-acquired are acquired in the community,

 Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms , such as infections such as the common cold or flu
bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, in a host organism
 Can occur at any part sa body, and the symptoms and Sexually transmitted transmitted through sexual
severity depend on the type of microorganism involved, infections (STIs) contact, such as chlamydia,
gonorrhea, and human
where, and the host’s immune response papillomavirus (HPV)
 Spread through direct or indirect contact with the
individual, contaminated surfaces/objects, or insect or
animal bites INFECTION TERMINOLOGIES
SYMPTOMS: Fever, fatigue, inflammation, pain, and swelling
(may also be asymptomatic or present with only mild symptoms)  Bacteremia: refers to the presence of bacteria in the
PREVENTION: Practicing good hygiene, getting vaccinated, bloodstream, which can be a sign of a serious infection.
avoiding contact with infected individuals, and maintaining a  Cellulitis: an infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
healthy immune system through proper nutrition, exercise, and that can cause redness, swelling, and warmth.
adequate sleep
 Sepsis: a life-threatening condition caused by a systemic
infection that has spread throughout the body, often leading
to organ dysfunction and failure.

|1
 Septicemia: similar to sepsis, this term specifically refers to
the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, such as
bacteria or viruses, in the bloodstream.
 Endocarditis: an infection of the heart valves or lining of
the heart, often caused by bacteria or fungi.
 Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs, typically caused by
bacteria or viruses, which can cause coughing, chest pain,
and difficulty breathing.
 Meningitis: an infection of the meninges, which are the
membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
 Encephalitis: an infection of the brain, typically caused by a
virus, which can cause symptoms such as headache, fever,
and confusion.
 Osteomyelitis: an infection of the bone, often caused by
bacteria, which can cause pain, swelling, and fever.
 Urinary tract infection (UTI): an infection of the urinary
tract, including the bladder, ureters, and kidneys. UTIs are
often caused by bacteria and can cause symptoms such as
painful urination, frequent urination, and lower abdominal
pain.
 Gastroenteritis: an infection of the digestive system,
typically caused by a virus or bacteria, which can cause
diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
INFECTION
ANTIBODIES
 AKA Immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the
immune system to help identify and neutralize foreign
substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens
 Work by binding to antigens on the surface of
pathogens, marking them for destruction by other cells
of the immune system
 Can be produced naturally in response to an infection or
vaccination or can be synthesized in a lab
Main Classes of Antibodies
1. IgM: the first antibody produced in response to an
infection, it is effective at binding to and neutralizing viruses and
bacteria in the blood.
2. IgG: the most abundant antibody in the blood, it can cross the
placenta to provide immunity to the fetus and is effective at
binding to and neutralizing viruses and bacteria in the blood and
tissues.
3. IgA: found in mucosal areas, such as the respiratory and
digestive tracts, it provides localized protection against
infections.
4. IgD: found on the surface of B cells, it plays a role in
activating the immune response.
5. IgE: involved in allergic reactions and defense against
parasites.
es of Infections
INFLAMMATION
 Inflammation is a natural response of the immune
system to infection, injury, or other types of tissue
damage, aimed at protecting and repairing the affected
area.
 Is characterized by redness, swelling, heat, pain, and
sometimes loss of function in the affected are
TWO TYPES:
Acute Inflammation - a short-term response to injury or
infection, characterized by rapid onset, redness, heat,
swelling, and pain at the site of injury. Examples include a
cut, bruise, or infection.
Chronic Inflammation - a long-term response to injury or
infection that persists even after the initial cause has been
resolved, characterized by ongoing tissue damage and
repair, immune cell infiltration, and the production of
inflammatory mediators. Chronic inflammation is associated
with various diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma,
and cardiovascular disease.
GROWTH DISORDERS
 Dwarfism: a condition characterized by short stature
and limbs, caused by genetic mutations or hormonal
imbalances affecting growth hormone production.
 Gigantism: a condition characterized by excessive
height and body size, caused by an overproduction of
growth hormone before the closure of the growth
plates.
 Acromegaly: a condition characterized by overgrowth
of bones in the face, hands, and feet, caused by excessive
growth hormone production after the closure of the
growth plates.
 Hypothyroidism: a condition caused by an underactive
thyroid gland, which can result in growth retardation
and other developmental problems.
 Hyperthyroidism: a condition caused by an overactive
thyroid gland, which can cause rapid growth and
developmental abnormalities.
 Turner syndrome: a genetic disorder affecting females,
characterized by short stature, ovarian failure, and
other developmental abnormalities.
 Klinefelter syndrome: a genetic disorder affecting
males, characterized by tall stature, gynecomastia
(breast development), and other developmental
abnormalities.
 Noonan syndrome: a genetic disorder characterized by
short stature, heart defects, and other developmental
abnormalities.
 Achondroplasia: a genetic disorder characterized by
short limbs, a large head, and other skeletal
abnormalities.
 Russell-Silver syndrome: a genetic disorder
characterized by low birth weight, short stature, and
other developmental abnormalities.
2
 Allergic rhinitis: an inflammation of the nasal passages caused
by an allergic reaction to airborne substances, also known as hay
BLOOD CIRCULATION DISORDERS fever.

Types of Allergies
 Ischemia: a condition characterized by insufficient
blood flow to a part of the body, resulting in tissue
Food allergy an immune reaction to a
damage or death. particular food or ingredient,
 Thrombosis: the formation of a blood clot in a blood such as peanuts, milk, or
vessel, which can obstruct blood flow and cause tissue shellfish.
damage or death.
 Embolism: the obstruction of a blood vessel by a Drug allergy an immune reaction to a
foreign substance, such as a blood clot or air bubble, medication, such as
antibiotics, aspirin, or
that has traveled from another part of the body.
anesthesia.
 Atherosclerosis: a condition characterized by the
buildup of fatty deposits, cholesterol, and other Insect sting allergy an immune reaction to the
substances in the walls of arteries, leading to narrowing venom of an insect, such as a
and hardening of the arteries and reduced blood flow. bee or wasp.
 Hypertension: a condition characterized by
abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries, which Seasonal allergy an immune reaction to
airborne substances such as
can increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other
pollen, dust, and mold, which
complications. can cause symptoms such as
 Hypotension: a condition characterized by abnormally sneezing, itching, and runny
low blood pressure in the arteries, which can cause nose.
dizziness, fainting, and other symptoms.
 Peripheral vascular disease: a condition Skin allergy an immune reaction to a
characterized by reduced blood flow to the legs and substance that comes in
arms, causing pain, cramping, and other symptoms. contact with the skin, such as
 Raynaud's disease: a condition characterized by latex, metals, or chemicals.
spasms of the blood vessels in the fingers and toes,
causing them to turn white, blue, or red in response to
cold or stress.
 Varicose veins: a condition characterized by enlarged,
twisted veins in the legs, caused by faulty valves that
allow blood to flow backward and pool in the veins.

ALLERGY

 An allergy is a hypersensitive immune response to a

harmless substance in the environment.
 The immune system overreacts to the substance, called
an allergen, and produces symptoms that range from
mild to severe

Treatment of allergies depends on the severity and type of

allergy and may include avoidance of the allergen,
medications such as antihistamines, steroids, or
epinephrine, and immunotherapy.

Anaphylaxis: a severe and potentially life-threatening allergic

reaction that can affect multiple organ systems and cause
symptoms such as difficulty breathing, rapid heartbeat, and loss
of consciousness.

Exercise-induced allergy: an allergic reaction triggered by

physical activity, which can cause symptoms such as hives,
wheezing, and anaphylaxis.

3

INFECTIOUS FEVER
 Is a fever caused by an infection in the body.
 It is a common symptom of many infectious diseases,
including viral, bacterial, and fungal infections.
 Occurs as a response to the infection, as the body tries
to fight off the invading pathogens.
 Other symptoms that may accompany an infectious fever
include:
 Chills
 Headache
 Body aches
 Fatigue
 Sweating
Examples of Infectious Fever
Malaria fever Caused by the parasite
Plasmodium, which is
transmitted by infected
mosquitoes. Symptoms include
high fever, chills, sweating, and
headache, and can be severe
and life-threatening if not
treated promptly.
Typhoid fever Caused by the bacteria
Salmonella typhi, which is
spread through contaminated
food or water. Symptoms
include high fever, headache,
abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
Dengue fever Caused by the dengue virus,
which is spread by infected
mosquitoes. Symptoms include
high fever, severe headache,
joint and muscle pain, and rash.
Ebola Virus Caused by the Ebola virus,
which is spread through
contact with infected bodily
fluids. Symptoms include high
fever, severe headache, muscle
pain, and hemorrhagic fever.
COVID-19 Caused by the SARS-CoV-2
virus, which is primarily
spread through respiratory
droplets. Symptoms include
fever, cough, and difficulty
breathing, and can range from
mild to severe.
Influenza Caused by the influenza virus,
which is spread through
respiratory droplets. Symptoms
include high fever, cough, sore
throat, and body aches.
f Inf
PYOGENIC INFECTION
 An infection caused by pyogenic bacteria; are bacteria
that causes pus formation
 Can affect the skin, respiratory tract, urinary tract, and
bones.
 Common pyogenic infections include cellulitis,
pneumonia, UTIs, and osteomyelitis
 Pyogenic bacteria include:
 Staphylococcus aureus
 Streptococcus pyogenes
 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Pyogenic Infection Symptoms:
 Fever, pain
 Swelling
 Redness
 Pus formation at the site on infection
TUBERCULOSIS
 An infectious disease caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Symptoms of TB can include:
 coughing
 chest pain
 fatigue, fever
 night sweats
 weight loss
TWO TYPES OF TB:
Latent TB Infection (LTBI) - occurs when a person is infected
with the TB bacteria but does not have any symptoms or signs of
the disease. However, the bacteria can remain dormant in the
body and later become active.
Active TB Disease - occurs when the TB bacteria become active
and start to multiply in the body, causing symptoms and signs of
the disease.
Active TB can be further classified into:
Pulmonary TB – affects the lungs and most common form of TB
Can be classified into:
 Smear-positive - the TB bacteria can be seen under a
microscope in sputum samples.
 Smear-negative - means that the bacteria cannot be
seen under a microscope but may still be present in the
lungs.
Extrapulmonary TB – affects other parts of body such as lymph
nodes, bones, and kidneys
4
 OTHER INFECTIVE DISEASES

Influenza (flu) Influenza virus, this

VENEREAL DISEASE (STIs)
respiratory illness can cause
symptoms such as fever,
 infections that are transmitted through sexual contact, cough, sore throat, and body
including aches. The flu can be
 vaginal particularly dangerous for
 anal people with weakened
 oral sex immune systems
 Prevention measures include safe sex (contraception’s),
Malaria Plasmodium parasite and
getting tested regularly for STIs, and talking openly with
transmitted by the
sexual partners about their STI status.
Anopheles mosquito,
Examples of Venereal malaria can cause fever,
Diseases chills, and flu-like symptoms.

Chlamydia Caused by the bacteria Dengue fever Spread by the Aedes

Chlamydia trachomatis, this mosquito, this viral infection
is one of the most common can cause fever, severe
STIs. Symptoms may include headache, joint and muscle
discharge, pain during pain, and rash. In severe
urination, and pain during cases, dengue fever can lead
sex. to dengue hemorrhagic fever.

Gonorrhea Caused by the bacteria Measles Caused by the measles virus,

Neisseria gonorrhoeae, this this highly contagious
STI can affect the genitals, respiratory illness can cause
rectum, and throat. fever, cough, runny nose, and
Symptoms may include a rash all over the body. In
discharge, pain during severe cases, measles can
urination, and pain during
lead to pneumonia, brain
sex.
damage, or death.
Syphilis Caused by the bacteria Polio Caused by the Poliovirus,
Treponema pallidum, this
this viral infection can cause
STI can progress through
paralysis and even death.
several stages and may cause
a wide range of symptoms, Hepatitis Caused by several different
including sores, rash, fever,
viruses, hepatitis can cause
and fatigue.
inflammation of the liver
Herpes Caused by the herpes and can lead to liver damage,
simplex virus (HSV), this STI cirrhosis, or liver cancer.
can cause outbreaks of
painful sores or blisters Ebola Caused by the Ebola virus,
around the mouth or genitals. this viral infection can cause
The virus can also be spread severe fever, bleeding, and
even when there are no organ failure. Ebola is spread
symptoms present. through contact with bodily
fluids of infected individuals.
Human papillomavirus (HPV) Causes genital warts and
may also increase the risk of Zika Virus Spread by the Aedes
certain types of cancer, mosquito, this virus can
including cervical cancer. cause mild symptoms such as
fever, rash, and joint pain.
HIV/AIDS Caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), this STI can lead to
acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) if left
untreated. Symptoms may
include fever, fatigue, and
swollen lymph nodes, but 5
some people with HIV may
not have any symptoms for
years.
 BODY MECHANICS
Body mechanics - describes how we move in our day-to-day
activities. It encompasses how we sit, stand, lift, carry, bend, and
sleep with our body.
 Safe body mechanics require good posture. Good
posture means that the body is in alignment with all the
parts in balance. This permits the musculoskeletal
system (the bones and joints) to work at maximal
efficiency with minimal amount of strain. Good posture
also aids other body systems to work efficiently.
GRAVITY ASSOCIATED WITH PROPER BODY MECHANICS
Gravity – is any movement requires an expenditure of energy to
overcome the force of gravity.
 When an object is balanced, it is firm and stable. If it is
off balance, it will fall because of the pull of gravity.
Center of gravity is the point at which the mass of any
body is centered.
BODY ALIGNMENT
Body alignment - relates to how joints, tendons, ligaments, and
muscles are aligned. Good posture means that the body is in
alignment with all the parts in balance.
Body balance - refers to a weight distribution that allows
someone or anything to stay upright and steady or it implies to
put anything in a stable posture so that it does not fall. Our sense
of balance is specifically regulated by a complex interaction
between the following parts of the nervous system:
1. The inner ears (or labyrinth) monitor the directions of
motion, such as turning or forward-backward, side-to-
side, and up-and-down motions.
2. The eyes observe where the body is in space (i.e.,
upside down, right side up, etc.) and also the directions
of motion.
3. Skin pressure receptors such as those located in the
feet and seat sense what part of the body is down and
touching the ground.
4. Muscle and joint sensory receptors report what parts
of the body are moving.
5. The central nervous system (the brain and spinal
cord) processes all the bits of information from the four
other systems to make some coordinated sense out of it
all.
PRINCIPLES OF BODY MECHANICS
As a healthcare professional, it's important to use good body
mechanics for a number of reasons, the most important of which
is to avoid injuries to both the patient and the provider.
PURPOSES:
1. To maintain good balance.
2. To reduce the energy required.
3. To avoid excessive fatigue.
4. To avoid muscle strains or tears.
5. To avoid skeletal injuries.
6. To avoid injury to the patient.
7. To avoid injury to assisting staff members
Body alignment depends on the correct positioning of
the head, back, and limbs. Keep feet a shoulder width apart
with a wide base of support. The wider the base of support, the
greater the stability. The lower the center of gravity, the greater
the stability. In lifting the patient, bend your knees and use
the momentum from your legs, not your back to move or lift
the patient. Do not lift, if possible, use mechanical lifts or ask help.
Contract or tighten your stomach muscles when beginning to
lift. This will help to take the weight off the spine and maintain
alignment.
Facing the direction of movement prevents abnormal
twisting of the spine. Do not twist or bend at your waist. Always
use two hands to move someone. Stand close to the patient being
moved. Keep your chin up and look straight ahead. Dividing
balanced activity between arms and legs reduces the risk of back
injury.
PROPER WAY OF TRANSFERRING AND MOVING PATIENTS
Transferring or moving are defined as moving a patient from one
flat surface to another, such as from a bed to a stretcher.
TYPES OF HOSPITAL TRANSFERS
 bed to stretcher
 bed to wheelchair
 wheelchair to chair
 wheelchair to toilet
Several precautions must be taken when moving a patient from
the hospital room to the imaging department:
1. Hand Hygiene, wash your hands with soap for 40-60
seconds to ensure that they are clean. This ensures that
you are handling the patient with clean hands and not
spreading germs.
2. Introduce yourself to the patient and Confirm patient
ID. Tell the patient you are transferring them.
3. Explain the steps you are going to take to transfer them
to a wheelchair, stretcher or a gurney. Be clear about
each step and how you are going to move them or
support them.
4. Never move a patient without first ensuring the
patient’s identity matches the requested order
5. Never move a patient without enough assistance to
prevent injury to you and/or the patient.
MOVING A PATIENT FROM BED TO STRETCHER
1. Always predetermine the number of staff required to
safely transfer a patient.
2. Explain what will happen and how the patient can help.
It provides the patient with an opportunity to ask
questions and help with the transfer.
3. Raise the bed to a comfortable working height. Side rails
and lower head of bed
6
 4. Place the patient on the side of the bed closest to where
the stretcher will be put. RULES IN MOVING A PATIENT
5. To minimize straining and reaching, the patient must be 1. Do not allow patients to place their arms around your
properly positioned before to the transfer. neck. Have them place their arms around your hips.
6. Additional health care personnel may be required to 2. Avoid lifting patients. Let them stand using their own
move the patient to the side of the bed. strength.
3. Stay close to your patient during the transfer to keep
MOVING A PATIENT FROM BED TO STRETCHER VIA SLIDING
the patient’s weight close to your center of gravity
BOARD 4. If the patient has weakness on one side of the body (e.g.,
 Roll patient over and place slider board halfway under due to a cerebral vascular accident — CVA — or stroke),
the patient, forming a bridge between the bed and the place the wheelchair on the strong side.
stretcher. Place sheet on top of the slider board.
 The sheet is used to slide patient over to the stretcher.
 Position stretcher beside the bed on the side closest to
the patient, with stretcher slightly lower. Apply brakes.
 On the count of three, with back straight and knees
bent, the two health care providers use a front-to-back
weight shift and slide the patient into the middle of the
bed. At the same time, the health care providers on the
other side slides the slider board out from under the
patient.
 Replace pillow under head, ensure patient is
comfortable, and cover the patient with sheets.

MOVING A PATIENT FROM BED TO WHEELCHAIR

1. Explain the steps to the patient.
2. Park the wheelchair next to the bed, close to you.
3. Put the brakes on and move the footrests out of the way.
4. Before transferring into the wheelchair, the patient
must be sitting.
5. Perform Hygiene
6. To get the patient into a seated position, roll the patient
onto the same side as the wheelchair.
7. Put one of your arms under the patient's shoulders and
one behind the knees. Bend your knees.
8. Swing the patient's feet off the edge of the bed and use
the momentum to help the patient into a sitting
position.
9. Move the patient to the edge of the bed and lower the
bed so the patient's feet are touching the ground.

MOVING A PATIENT USING GAIT BELT

If you have a gait belt, place it on the patient to help you
get a grip during the transfer. During the turn, the patient can
either hold onto you or reach for the wheelchair. Stand as close as
you can to the patient, reach around the chest, and lock your
hands behind the patient or grab the gait belt.

FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ASSESSMENT FOR

THE PATIENT’S ABILITY TO TRANSFER:
1. Patient’s medication history/Patient’s General
Condition
2. Range of motion & weight-bearing ability
3. Patient’s strength and endurance
4. Patient’s ability to maintain balance
5. Patient’s ability to understand what is expected during
the transfer
6. Patient’s acceptance of the move