DATA COMUNICATION MEDIA.

 Towers used to elevate antennas and

overcome the Earth's curvature.
Guided Media:
4. Satellite:
1. Twisted-Pair Cable:
 Involves communication with
 Commonly used. satellites in space.
 Insulated pairs of wires twisted to  Geosynchronous and Low Earth Orbit
minimize interference. (LEO) satellites.
 Used in LANs and telecommunication  Propagation delay due to signal travel
networks. distance.
2. Coaxial Cable: Considerations for Media Selection:
 Copper core with outer cylindrical 1. Type of Network:
shell for insulation.
 Different media may be suitable for
 More expensive than twisted-pair but LANs or WANs.
less prone to interference.
2. Cost:
 Less commonly used today due to
cost considerations.  Varies among media types.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable:  Twisted-pair is generally the cheapest,
fiber-optic the most expensive.
 Uses light pulses to transmit data
through optical fibers. 3. Transmission Distance:
 Multimode and single-mode  Guided media like twisted-pair and
variations. coaxial have shorter distances.
 Higher capacity, faster data  Fiber-optic cable offers longer
transmission, and better under harsh transmission distances.
conditions.
4. Security:
Wireless Media:
 Wireless media (radio, infrared,
1. Radio: microwave, and satellite) less secure.
 Commonly used for wireless data  Guided media (twisted-pair, coaxial,
transmission. and fiber optics) more secure.
 Utilizes specific frequency ranges to 5. Error Rates:
avoid interference.
 Wireless media prone to interference,
 Low-power transmitters for short- higher error rates.
distance communication.
 Fiber optics provide the lowest error
2. Infrared: rates.
 Uses low-frequency light waves for 6. Speed:
data transmission.
 Transmission speeds vary across
 Direct line-of-sight path required. media types.
 Prone to interference from rain,  Fiber-optic cable generally offers
smoke, and fog. higher data rates.
3. Microwave:
 Extremely high-frequency radio
communication beam.
 Direct line-of-sight path for
communication.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
What Is Network Topology?
1. Definition:
 Network topology refers to the
physical arrangement of endpoints
and links in an enterprise network.
 It defines how network nodes are
linked, categorized into physical and
logical topologies.
2. Physical vs. Logical Topology:
 Physical topology deals with the
structure of the physical medium for
data transmission.
 Logical topology focuses on how data
is transmitted between devices,
regardless of physical connections.
3. Impact on Functioning:
 The structure of a network directly
influences its performance, resource
allocation, and operational costs.
 Network topology diagrams aid in
diagnosing connectivity issues and
troubleshooting.
Types of Network Topology:
1. Point to Point Topology:
 Directly links two nodes with reserved
bandwidth.
 Suitable for small areas with physically
close nodes.
 Benefits: Superior bandwidth, high
speed, simple implementation;
Challenges: High dependence on the
common link.
2. Bus Topology:
 All nodes linked using a single cable
acting as the backbone.
 Benefits: Easy to add/remove devices,
less cable required; Challenges:
Device failure difficult to locate,
network halts with backbone damage.
3. Ring Topology:
 Nodes form a closed network, data
moves unidirectionally or
bidirectionally.
 Benefits: Circular flow minimizes
packet collision, robust system;
Challenges: Single cable failure
disrupts network, difficult to modify.
4. Star Topology:
 Nodes connected to a central hub.
 Benefits: Easy maintenance, failures
affect only one device; Challenges:
Higher cable requirement, hub failure
brings down the network.
5. Tree Topology:
 Nodes arranged like a tree with
leaves, branches, and trunk.
 Benefits: Ideal for grouped nodes,
scalable, fault identification is swift;
Challenges: Large cabling, difficult
configuration, trunk failure disrupts
the network.
6. Mesh Topology:
 All nodes interconnected, can
send/receive data.
 Benefits: Extremely robust and
redundant; Challenges: Costly, time-
consuming installation, maintenance.
7. Hybrid Topology:
 Combines characteristics of multiple
topologies.
 Benefits: Combines advantages,
flexible; Challenges: Potentially
complicated design, resource-
intensive.
8. Daisy Chain Topology:
 Nodes linked in a sequence.
 Benefits: Simple, minimal cable usage,
cost savings; Challenges: Slow data
transmission, easy failure, requires
two transmitters and receivers for all
nodes.
How To Choose a Topology: Best Practices for
2022:
1. Understand Network Requirements:
 Consider network applications,
distance of data transmission, and
expected performance levels.
  Assess existing hardware and account
for new hardware.

2. Set Budget Wisely:

 Balance installation and operating
costs with expected performance.
 Consider long-term implications of
choosing a setup.
3. Don't Compromise on Reliability:
 Choose a reliable topology based on
criticality.
 Assess downtime and latency
implications.
4. Account for Scalability:
 Plan for future expansion.
 Choose an adaptable topology
suitable for growth.
5. Ensure Effective Implementation:
 Consider ease of implementation.
 Commission experienced vendors for
setup if needed.
Takeaway:
 No one-size-fits-all topology.
 Consider factors like network environment,
budget, reliability, and scalability.
 Each topology has pros and cons; the choice
depends on organizational needs.
DATA COMMUNICATION

1. Definition: 8. Architectural Models:

 Data Communications (DC) involves  Traditionally follows a client/server

using computing and communication
technologies to transfer data between
locations or participating entities.
2. Scope:
 It facilitates the movement of
electronic or digital data among
network nodes, overcoming
geographical barriers and utilizing
diverse technological mediums.
3. Technological Landscape:
architecture, where clients request
data from servers.
 Emerging peer-to-peer architectures
challenge traditional client/server
roles.
9. Evolution and Versatility:
 New systems and technologies, such
as the Internet of Things (IoT),
introduce different connectivity and
data communication models.

 Encompasses a broad range of  Ongoing advancements aim to

networked technologies across enhance network activity, introducing
platforms and digital environments. more versatile approaches.

 Includes telecommunications,
computer networking, radio/satellite
communication, and more.
4. Mediums and Technologies:
 Requires a communication medium
(copper wire, fiber optic cables,
wireless signals) between
communicating nodes.
 Examples include a computer
connected to the Internet via Wi-Fi.
5. Data Communication Equipment (DCE) and
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE):
 DCE is used at the sending node,
while DTE is used at the receiving
node.
6. Communication Functionality:
 Differentiates between simplex, half-
duplex, and full-duplex
communication models.
 Serial data communications involve
packaging data into units and sending
them sequentially to the receiver.
7. Protocols:
 Relies on various protocols like FTP,
HTTP, and HTTPS, designed to
optimize data communications over
the Internet.
INTRO TO LAN
LAN Protocols and OSI Reference Model:
- LAN protocols operate at the physical and
data link layers of the OSI reference model.
- Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE
802.5, and FDDI are the LAN protocols
discussed in this chapter.
LAN Media-Access Methods:
- Two main methods for dealing with media
contention: CSMA/CD (Ethernet) and token
passing (Token Ring, FDDI).
- CSMA/CD involves devices contending for
the network media and handling collisions by
random backoff.
- Token passing networks use a token that is
passed among devices for controlled access.
LAN Transmission Methods:
- Unicast: One-to-one transmission.
- Multicast: One-to-many transmission to a
specific subset of nodes.
- Broadcast: One-to-all transmission to every
node on the network.
- LAN Extenders: Remote-access multilayer
switches connecting to a host router,
forwarding traffic based on MAC address or
network layer protocol type.
Media Access in Ethernet:
- Ethernet uses CSMA/CD, where devices
listen before and after transmitting, and
collisions are resolved using random backoff.
Media Access in Token Ring:
- Token Ring uses token passing, where
devices must wait for the token to send data,
ensuring deterministic access to the network.
Transmission Types:
- Unicast: One-to-one transmission.
- Multicast: One-to-many transmission to a
specific subset of nodes.
- Broadcast: One-to-all transmission to every
node on the network.

LAN Topologies:
- Bus Topology: Linear architecture where
transmissions propagate the length of the
medium.
- Ring Topology: Closed loop of devices
connected by unidirectional links.
- Star Topology: Endpoints connected to a
central hub or switch.
- Tree Topology: Similar to bus topology but
allows branches with multiple nodes.

LAN Devices:
- Repeaters: Physical layer devices that
amplify and retransmit signals to extend
network segments.
- Hubs: Connect multiple user stations in a
physical star network while maintaining logical
bus/ring configuration.
 INTRO TO WAN WAN Devices:
WAN Definition and Functionality:  WAN Switch: Multiport device used in
carrier networks for switching traffic
 WAN (Wide Area Network) is a data like Frame Relay and X.25.
communications network covering a
broad geographic area.  Access Server: Concentrates dial-in
and dial-out connections.
 Operates at the lower three layers of
the OSI reference model: physical  Modem: Interprets digital and analog
layer, data link layer, and network signals, enabling data transmission
layer. over telephone lines.
Point-to-Point Links:  CSU/DSU (Channel Service
Unit/Digital Service Unit): Connects a
 Provides a single, pre-established router to a digital circuit like T1.
communication path from customer
premises to a remote network.  ISDN Terminal Adapter: Connects
ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
 Often leased from a carrier, known as connections to other interfaces.
leased lines.
 More expensive than shared services
like Frame Relay.
Circuit Switching:
 Allows data connections to be
initiated and terminated as needed,
similar to a telephone line.
 Example: Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN).
Packet Switching:
 Enables sharing of common carrier
resources, making it cost-effective.
 Examples include Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay,
SMDS, and X.25.
WAN Virtual Circuits:
 Virtual circuits are logical circuits
created within a shared network
between two devices.
 Two types: Switched Virtual Circuits
(SVCs) and Permanent Virtual Circuits
(PVCs).
 SVCs are dynamically established on
demand, while PVCs are permanently
established.
WAN Dialup Services:
 Dial-on-Demand Routing (DDR)
dynamically initiates a call when data
needs to be sent.
 Dial Backup uses switched circuits for
backup when a primary circuit fails.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKING  Internet Chat:
Directory Services:  Provides instant text transfer
services; includes voice and
 Mapping between names and values, video chat.
organizing and storing information.
 Discussion Boards:
 Facilitates access to information and
user credentials in cryptic form.  Connects users with similar
interests, allows posting and
Accounting: responding to queries.
 Manages user names and passwords Remote Access:
in organizations.
 Enables users to access data on
 Helps store and retrieve user-related remote computers.
information securely.
 Implemented through features like
Authentication and Authorization: Remote Desktop.
 Verifies user credentials for Application Services:
authentication.
 Resource Sharing:
 Implements hierarchical user
structures for access control.  Efficient sharing of resources
like servers, printers, and
Domain Name Services (DNS): storage media.
 Maps IP addresses to domain names  Databases:
for human-friendly access.
 Stores, processes, and
 Essential for the functioning of the retrieves data efficiently for
internet. decision-making.
File Services:  Web Services:
 File Sharing:  Connects to the internet,
 Enables users to share data accesses files, and
on a server or their own information services.
computer.
 File Transfer:
 Facilitates the copying or
moving of files between
computers over the network.
Communication Services:
 Email:
 Basis of internet
communication, involves
email servers and unique user
IDs.
 Social Networking:
 Connects people, allows
sharing of thoughts, pictures,
and videos.