Hall-Effect & Magnetoresistance in Semi-Conductors and Bismuth

Hrishikesh Malladi, Lab Partner: Konnark Dey

This report consists of working principle and experimental result of Hall-Effect & Magnetore-
sistance in Semi-Conductors and Bismuth. Hall-Effect and Magnetoresistance are fundamental
phenomenon in Conductor Matter Physics caused by Lorentz Force acting on carriers because of a
magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of current flow, in Semi-Conductors and Conductors.

I. OBJECTIVE: B. Hall Effect:

• Hall Effect in Semi-Conductors

Hall Effect or Hall Voltage is the development of a
– Hall Effect in Germanium(Ge) n&p type transverse electric field in a solid material when it carries
– Hall Effect in Silicon(Si) n type an electric current and is placed in a magnetic field that
– Thermal Dependence of Hall Coefficient in is perpendicular to the current.
Germanium(Ge) p type The effect happens because of the Lorentz Force because
of the magnetic field on the current carriers, depending
• Hall Effect & Magnetoresistance in Metals and upon the carriers the direction in which the voltage
Semi-Conductors develops. This phenomenon was discovered in 1879 by
the U.S. physicist Edwin Herbert Hall.
– Hall Effect in Bismuth In metals, Hall voltages are typically negative, suggesting
– Magnetoresistance in Germanium and Bis- that the movement of electric current is driven by nega-
muth at Room Temperature tively charged particles, specifically electrons. However,
certain metals like beryllium, zinc, and cadmium exhibit
a positive Hall voltage, indicating that these metals
II. APPARATUS: conduct electric currents through positively charged
carriers referred to as holes. In semiconductors, where
• Hall Probe (Ge p&n type, Si-n type) the current involves the migration of positive holes in
one direction and electrons in the opposite direction,
• Constant Current Unit
the sign of the Hall voltage helps identify the dominant
• Microvoltmeter charge carrier. The Hall effect can also be utilized to
measure current carrier density, mobility, and to detect
• Oven the presence of a current in the presence of a magnetic
• Four Probe Arrangement field.

• Bismuth sample The magnetic force on the carriers is

• Temperature Sensor
F⃗m = eE⃗m = e(⃗v × H)
⃗ (1)
• Electromagnets
and it is compensated by force F⃗h due to the Hall field
• Digital Gaussmeter E⃗H , F⃗H = eE⃗H = F⃗m . As ⃗v is along x axis and H ⃗
• Multi-Purpose Hall Probe Stand along z axis, the electric field E⃗m is along the y axis and
is given by Em = vH = µEx H where µ is the carrier
mobility given by v = µEx and Ex is the applied electric
III. THEORY field along the x-axis. This electric field is related to the
current density and conductivity, σ = E⃗x = Jx . The Hall
A. Introduction: Coefficient RH is defined as:
Em µEx µ 1
In metals the current carrying is done by electrons, |RH | = = = = (2)
but in semi-conductors the current carriers are of two JH Jx σ ne
types, electrons (n-type) and holes (p-type). Measuring Experimentally the coefficient is given by:
conductivity of sample gives us idea about carrier density
and carrier mobility, but it doesn’t tell us about the type Vy b Vy t
of carriers. To distinguish between the carriers, we have |RH | = = (3)
(Ix /bt)H Ix H
to use the fact that they have different charge and would
react differently under a magnetic field, infact this is the where b,t are breadth and thickness of the sample and Vy
main principal behind Hall Effect. Ix are voltage and current in the respective directions.
2

In case of two type of carriers the Hall Coefficient is given
by:
EH EH µ2h p − µ2e n
RH = = = (4)
Jx H σEx H e(µh p + µe n)2
C. Magnetoresistance:
Magnetoresistance is the property of a material to
change the value of its electrical resistance when an ex-
ternal magnetic field is applied to it. The resistance of
a metal is in general increased by a magnetic field. For
sufficiently small magnetic fields this dependence may, of
course, be expressed by the equation:
∆R
= BH 2 (5)
R point to point, often within an accepted tolerance.
The coefficient B is a proportionality constant depending
on the dimensions of the sample.
With the magnetic field on; the Hall voltage compensates
exactly the Lorentz force for carriers with average veloc-
ity; slower carriers will be over compensated and faster
ones undercompensated, resulting in trajectories that are
not along the applied field. This results in an effective
decrease of the mean free path and hence an increase in
resistivity.
D. Principles of Measurement in Semiconductor
Experiments
General Considerations for All Measurements:
1. Probe Contacts: Using soldered probe contacts,
while desirable, may disrupt current flow and cause
shorting. Pressure contacts can mitigate these
issues, although they may introduce some noise,
manageable by maintaining clean and firm contact.
3. Voltage Measurement: Hall voltage measure-
ments, influenced by galvanomagnetic and thermo-
magnetic effects, require careful consideration. Av-
eraging readings helps eliminate unwanted effects,
and adjusting current values ensures accurate read-
ings in varying magnetic fields.
4. Sample Dimensions: While the formula assumes
carriers move only lengthwise, a closer-to-ideal sit-
uation may be achieved with a crystal length three
times its width.
2. Additional Considerations for Bismuth Strip
Measurements:
1. Resistivity Variation: Acknowledge that resis-
tivity in the specimen may smoothly vary from
2. High Resistance Issues: High resistance or rec-
tification actions in electrical contacts to the spec-
imen can pose challenges and need attention.
3. Overall Experimental Precautions:
1. Avoid Soldering Directly: Soldered probe con-
tacts may disrupt current flow and affect sample
properties due to heat and contamination. Pres-
sure contacts, although potentially noisy, can be a
viable alternative.
2. Controlled Current: Keep the current through
the specimen at a level that avoids heating, and
address injecting effects by minimizing voltage drop
at the contacts.
3. Method of Averaging: Use the method of av-
eraging readings to eliminate unwanted effects in
Hall voltage measurements, and consider using a
constant current power supply for stability.

2. Current Control: Ensure that the current

through the sample is not large enough to cause
heating, and take precautions against the ’injecting
effect’ by minimizing voltage drop at the contacts.

1. Hall Coefficient Measurements:

1. Probe Positioning: Rotate the Hall probe until

maximum voltage is reached, indicating perpendic-
ular alignment of current and magnetic field.

2. Resistance Changes: Be aware of magnetoresis-

tance causing variations in sample resistance when
the magnetic field is applied. Address this by ad-
justing current values as needed.
 3

IV. OBSERVATIONS:

A. Hall Effect in Semi-Conductors and Temperature Dependence of Hall Coefficient:

Table I: Calibration Table for Magnetic Field

Least Count: 0.1 A 1Gauss

Sl No Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss)
1 0.2 6
2 0.4 14
3 0.6 21
4 0.8 27
5 1 35
6 1.2 42
7 1.4 49
8 1.6 55
9 1.8 62
10 2 69
11 2.2 76
12 2.4 83
13 2.6 90
14 2.8 96
15 3 104
16 3.2 110
17 3.4 117
18 3.6 123
19 3.8 129
20 4 135

Table II: Hall Coefficient Measurement of Ge n-type semi-conductor at 296K

Least Count: 0.01mA 1Gauss 0.1mV
Sl No Coil Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage (mV) Hall Coeffiecient (m3 C − 1)
1 0.2 6 22.7 -2.6 -0.5416666667
2 0.4 14 20.3 -5 -0.4464285714
3 0.6 21 17.6 -7.7 -0.4583333333
4 0.8 27 14.9 -10.4 -0.4814814815
5 1 35 12.4 -12.9 -0.4607142857
6 1.2 42 9.9 -15.4 -0.4583333333
7 1.4 49 7.3 -18 -0.4591836735
8 1.6 55 4.7 -20.6 -0.4681818182
9 1.8 62 2.2 -23.1 -0.4657258065
10 2 69 -0.3 -25.6 -0.4637681159
11 2.2 76 -2.7 -28 -0.4605263158
12 2.4 83 -5.2 -30.5 -0.4593373494
13 2.6 90 -7.5 -32.8 -0.4555555556
14 2.8 96 -10 -35.3 -0.4596354167
15 3 104 -12.4 -37.7 -0.453125
16 3.2 110 -14.7 -40 -0.4545454545
17 3.4 117 -17 -42.3 -0.4519230769
18 3.6 123 -19.1 -44.4 -0.4512195122
19 3.8 129 -21.2 -46.5 -0.4505813953
20 4 135 -23.2 -48.5 -0.4490740741
Offset Hall Voltage (mV) = 25.3 Probe Current(mA) = 4mA Thickness of Sample (mm) = 0.5 Temperature (C) = 26
Least Count: 0.1mA 0.1mm 1C
4

Table III: Hall Coefficient Measurement of Ge p-type semi-conductor at 296K

Least Count: 0.01mA 1Gauss 0.1mV
Sl No Coil Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage (mV) Hall Coeffiecient (m3 C − 1)
1 0.2 6 12.5 3.2 0.6666666667
2 0.4 14 16 6.7 0.5982142857
3 0.6 21 19.4 10.1 0.6011904762
4 0.8 27 22.9 13.6 0.6296296296
5 1 35 26.3 17 0.6071428571
6 1.2 42 29.7 20.4 0.6071428571
7 1.4 49 33 23.7 0.6045918367
8 1.6 55 36.4 27.1 0.6159090909
9 1.8 62 39.3 30 0.6048387097
10 2 69 42.4 33.1 0.5996376812
11 2.2 76 45.5 36.2 0.5953947368
12 2.4 83 48.3 39 0.5873493976
13 2.6 90 51.2 41.9 0.5819444444
14 2.8 96 53.9 44.6 0.5807291667
15 3 104 56.5 47.2 0.5673076923
16 3.2 110 59 49.7 0.5647727273
17 3.4 117 61.4 52.1 0.5566239316
18 3.6 123 64.2 54.9 0.5579268293
19 3.8 129 66 56.7 0.5494186047
20 4 135 67.9 58.6 0.5425925926
Offset Hall Voltage (mV) = 9.3 Probe Current(mA) = 4mA Thickness of Sample (mm) = 0.5 Temperature (C) = 26
Least Count: 0.1mA 0.1mm 1C

Table IV: Hall Coefficient Measurement of Si n-type semi-conductor at 296K

Least Count: 0.01mA 1Gauss 0.1mV
Sl No Coil Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage (mV) Hall Coeffiecient (m3 C − 1)
1 0.2 6 61.2 -5.1 -1.0625
2 0.4 14 55.8 -10.5 -0.9375
3 0.6 21 50.7 -15.6 -0.9285714286
4 0.8 27 45.6 -20.7 -0.9583333333
5 1 35 40.2 -26.1 -0.9321428571
6 1.2 42 35 -31.3 -0.931547619
7 1.4 49 30 -36.3 -0.9260204082
8 1.6 55 25.1 -41.2 -0.9363636364
9 1.8 62 20 -46.3 -0.9334677419
10 2 69 15.1 -51.2 -0.9275362319
11 2.2 76 10.1 -56.2 -0.9243421053
12 2.4 83 5.1 -61.2 -0.921686747
13 2.6 90 0.2 -66.1 -0.9180555556
14 2.8 96 -4.4 -70.7 -0.9205729167
15 3 104 -9.2 -75.5 -0.9074519231
16 3.2 110 -13.7 -80 -0.9090909091
17 3.4 117 -18.1 -84.4 -0.9017094017
18 3.6 123 -22.3 -88.6 -0.9004065041
19 3.8 129 -26.9 -93.2 -0.9031007752
20 4 135 -31.4 -97.7 -0.9046296296
Offset Hall Voltage (mV) = 66.3 Probe Current(mA) = 4mA Thickness of Sample (mm) = 0.5 Temperature (C) = 26
Least Count: 0.1mA 0.1mm 1C

Table V: Temperature Dependence of Hall Coefficient in Ge p-type

Least Count: 1mA 0.01mV 1C 0.1mV
Sl No Heater Current (mA) Thermo EMF (mV) Temperature (C) Corrected Temp.(C) Hall Voltage (mV) Off Set at Residual (mV) Corrected Hall voltage (mV) Hall Coefficient (m3̂C-̂1)
1 0 0 0 25 69.5 14 55.5 0.5177238806
2 50 0.16 4 29 70 11.7 58.3 0.5438432836
3 150 0.32 8 33 69.2 12.3 56.9 0.5307835821
4 250 0.76 19 44 64 13.4 50.6 0.4720149254
5 350 1.04 26 51 57.3 11 46.3 0.4319029851
6 450 1.48 37 62 41.4 10.1 31.3 0.2919776119
7 550 1.89 47 72 25.6 8.6 17 0.1585820896
8 650 2.54 62 87 6.6 6.3 0.3 0.002798507463
9 750 3.11 76 101 1 4.6 -3.6 -0.03358208955
10 850 3.73 90 115 0.1 3.7 -3.6 -0.03358208955
Mag field (Gauss) 134 Least Count: 1Gauss Probe Current (mA( 4 Least Count: 0.1mA
Room Temprature (C) 25 Least Count: 1C Thickness of Sample (mm) 0.5 Least Count: 0.1mm
 5

B. Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance in Bismuth at Room Temperature:

Table VI: Hall Coefficient Measurement in Bismuth at Room Temperature

Least Count: 0.1mA 0.001mV 0.1mm
Probe Current (mA) 159.9 Offset Hall Voltage (mV) -0.021 Thickness(mm) 0.5
Least Count: 1Guass 0.001mV
S. No. Mag Field x10 (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage(mV) HallCoefficient (m3̂C-̂1)
1 23 -0.022 -0.001 -0.000001359545368
2 91 -0.028 -0.007 -0.000002405349497
3 174 -0.035 -0.014 -0.000002515940279
4 254 -0.042 -0.021 -0.000002585277216
5 330 -0.046 -0.025 -0.000002368904808
6 412 -0.053 -0.032 -0.000002428702405
7 481 -0.057 -0.036 -0.000002340340051
8 558 -0.061 -0.04 -0.000002241544334
9 618 -0.064 -0.043 -0.000002175712571
10 677 -0.067 -0.046 -0.000002124666173
11 724 -0.068 -0.047 -0.000002029928927
12 765 -0.069 -0.048 -0.00000196201057
13 798 -0.071 -0.05 -0.000001959244578
14 825 -0.072 -0.051 -0.000001933026323
15 851 -0.073 -0.052 -0.000001910712409
16 874 -0.074 -0.053 -0.000001896208013
Probe Current (mA) 144.5 Offset Hall Voltage (mV) -0.04 Thickness(mm): 0.5 mm 0.5
S. No. Mag Field (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage(mV) HallCoefficient
1 23 -0.041 -0.001 -0.000001359545368
2 91 -0.045 -0.005 -0.000001718106784
3 171 -0.051 -0.011 -0.0000020114911
4 254 -0.057 -0.017 -0.00000209284346
5 334 -0.061 -0.021 -0.00000196604914
6 408 -0.066 -0.026 -0.000001992666985
7 484 -0.068 -0.028 -0.000001808981853
8 557 -0.072 -0.032 -0.000001796454921
9 619 -0.074 -0.034 -0.00000171755166
10 678 -0.077 -0.037 -0.000001706450012
11 724 -0.079 -0.039 -0.000001684409109
12 765 -0.08 -0.04 -0.000001635008809
13 796 -0.081 -0.041 -0.000001610617189
14 824 -0.082 -0.042 -0.000001593835953
15 851 -0.083 -0.043 -0.000001580012184
16 873 -0.084 -0.044 -0.000001576013645
Probe Current (mA) 129.9 Offset Hall Voltage (mV) -0.017 Thickness(mm) 0.5
S. No. Mag Field (Gauss) Hall Voltage (mV) Corrected Hall Voltage(mV) HallCoefficient
1 23 -0.018 -0.001 -0.000001673528132
2 91 -0.024 -0.007 -0.000002960857464
3 172 -0.028 -0.011 -0.000002461643124
4 250 -0.03 -0.013 -0.000002001539646
5 329 -0.031 -0.014 -0.00000163792115
6 405 -0.036 -0.019 -0.000001805757515
7 479 -0.039 -0.022 -0.000001767860615
8 549 -0.041 -0.024 -0.000001682673094
9 619 -0.043 -0.026 -0.000001616752541
10 675 -0.045 -0.028 -0.000001596669803
11 722 -0.047 -0.03 -0.00000159935514
12 765 -0.048 -0.031 -0.000001559771971
13 798 -0.049 -0.032 -0.000001543504643
14 826 -0.05 -0.033 -0.000001537781903
15 851 -0.051 -0.034 -0.000001537836662
16 875 -0.051 -0.034 -0.000001495655999
6

Table VII: Magnetoresistance in Bismuth at Room Temperature:

Current(mA) 191 Least Count: 1mA

Least Count: 1Gauss 0.001mV 1 Ohm
S. No. Mag Field (x10)(Gauss) Voltage(mV) R m(Ohms) Del R/R Log(H) Log(DelR/R)
1 0 0.169 0.0008848167539
2 123 0.172 0.0009005235602 0.01775147929 -0.9100948886 -1.75076545
3 248 0.176 0.0009214659686 0.04142011834 -0.6055483192 -1.382788665
4 364 0.182 0.0009528795812 0.07692307692 -0.4388986164 -1.113943352
5 472 0.188 0.0009842931937 0.1124260355 -0.3260580014 -0.9491331037
6 557 0.192 0.001005235602 0.1360946746 -0.2541448048 -0.8661588686
7 617 0.195 0.001020942408 0.1538461538 -0.209714836 -0.8129133566

V. GRAPHS:

(a) Hall Voltage(mV) vs Magnetic Field (Gauss) (b) Hall Coefficient(m3 C −1 ) vs Temperature(◦ C)

Figure 1: (a) Hall Voltage(mV) vs Magnetic Field (Gauss) in Si and Ge n&p type Semi-Conductors (Probe Current
= 4mA) (b) Temperature Dependence of Hall Coefficient in Ge p-type Semi-Conductor (Probe Current = 4 mA)
 7

(a) Hall Voltage(mV) vs Mganetic Field(x10)(Gauss) DeltaR

(b) R
vsM agneticF ield(T esla)

Figure 2: (a) Hall Voltage(mV) vs Mganetic Field(x10)(Gauss) in Bismuth (b) Change in Linear Resistance vs
Magnetic Field(Tesla) showing Magnetoresistance at room Temperature of 298K
8

VI. CALCULATION AND ERROR ANALYSIS: Table X: Calculation and Error Analysis Table Based
on IV
A. Hall Coefficient in Semiconductors and
Si n-type
Temperature Dependence of Hall Coefficient: x(Magnetic Field(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2
6 -5.1 -3.06E+01 36.00 2.60E+01
14 -10.5 -1.47E+02 196.00 1.10E+02
21 -15.6 -3.28E+02 441.00 2.43E+02
27 -20.7 -5.59E+02 729.00 4.28E+02

Table VIII: Calculation and Error Analysis Table Based 35

42
-26.1
-31.3
-9.14E+02
-1.31E+03
1225.00
1764.00
6.81E+02
9.80E+02
on II 49 -36.3 -1.78E+03 2401.00 1.32E+03
55 -41.2 -2.27E+03 3025.00 1.70E+03
62 -46.3 -2.87E+03 3844.00 2.14E+03
Ge n-type 69 -51.2 -3.53E+03 4761.00 2.62E+03
x(Magnetic Field(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2 76 -56.2 -4.27E+03 5776.00 3.16E+03
6 -2.6 -1.56E+01 36.00 6.76E+00 83 -61.2 -5.08E+03 6889.00 3.75E+03
14 -5 -7.00E+01 196.00 2.50E+01 90 -66.1 -5.95E+03 8100.00 4.37E+03
21 -7.7 -1.62E+02 441.00 5.93E+01 96 -70.7 -6.79E+03 9216.00 5.00E+03
27 -10.4 -2.81E+02 729.00 1.08E+02 104 -75.5 -7.85E+03 10816.00 5.70E+03
35 -12.9 -4.52E+02 1225.00 1.66E+02 110 -80 -8.80E+03 12100.00 6.40E+03
42 -15.4 -6.47E+02 1764.00 2.37E+02 117 -84.4 -9.87E+03 13689.00 7.12E+03
49 -18 -8.82E+02 2401.00 3.24E+02 123 -88.6 -1.09E+04 15129.00 7.85E+03
55 -20.6 -1.13E+03 3025.00 4.24E+02 129 -93.2 -1.20E+04 16641.00 8.69E+03
62 -23.1 -1.43E+03 3844.00 5.34E+02 135 -97.7 -1.32E+04 18225.00 9.55E+03
69 -25.6 -1.77E+03 4761.00 6.55E+02 Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum
76 -28 -2.13E+03 5776.00 7.84E+02 1443.00 -1.06E+03 -9.85E+04 135003.00 7.18E+04
83 -30.5 -2.53E+03 6889.00 9.30E+02 n 20 Delta 617811
90 -32.8 -2.95E+03 8100.00 1.08E+03 Slope m: -7.17E-01 Intercept: -1.19E+00
96 -35.3 -3.39E+03 9216.00 1.25E+03 error in slope: 2.93E-03
104 -37.7 -3.92E+03 10816.00 1.42E+03 Hall Coefficient: -895.77E-03 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: -022.69E-03 m3 C −1
110 -40 -4.40E+03 12100.00 1.60E+03 Number Density: 006.97E+18 Error in number Density: 176.50E+15
117 -42.3 -4.95E+03 13689.00 1.79E+03
123 -44.4 -5.46E+03 15129.00 1.97E+03
129 -46.5 -6.00E+03 16641.00 2.16E+03
135 -48.5 -6.55E+03 18225.00 2.35E+03
Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum The graph of Hall Coefficient vs Temperature 1 shows
1443.00
n
-5.27E+02
20
-4.91E+04
Delta
135003.00
617811
1.79E+04
clear dependence of Hall Coefficient on temperature in
Slope m: -3.58E-01 Intercept: -5.03E-01 p-type Germanium Semi-Conductor. As temperature in-
error in slope: 1.62E-03
Hall Coefficient: -448.06E-03 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: -011.38E-03 m3 C −1 creases the Hall-Coefficient decreases. In the graph there
Number Density: 013.93E+18 Error in number Density: 353.89E+15
is a linear region which follows a phase change from p-
type conductivity to n-type conductivity.
Table IX: Calculation and Error Analysis Table Based
on III B. Hall Coefficient and Magnetoresistance in
Bismuth:
Ge p-type
x(Magnetic Field(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2
6 3.2 1.92E+01 36.00 1.02E+01
14 6.7 9.38E+01 196.00 4.49E+01
21 10.1 2.12E+02 441.00 1.02E+02 Table XI: Calculation and Error Analysis Table based
27 13.6 3.67E+02 729.00 1.85E+02
35 17 5.95E+02 1225.00 2.89E+02 on VI
42 20.4 8.57E+02 1764.00 4.16E+02
49 23.7 1.16E+03 2401.00 5.62E+02
55 27.1 1.49E+03 3025.00 7.34E+02 Bismuth Probe Current(mA): 159.9
x(Magnetic Field(x10)(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2
62 30 1.86E+03 3844.00 9.00E+02
23 -0.001 -2.30E-02 529.00 1.00E-06
69 33.1 2.28E+03 4761.00 1.10E+03
91 -0.007 -6.37E-01 8281.00 4.90E-05
76 36.2 2.75E+03 5776.00 1.31E+03
174 -0.014 -2.44E+00 30276.00 1.96E-04
83 39 3.24E+03 6889.00 1.52E+03
254 -0.021 -5.33E+00 64516.00 4.41E-04
90 41.9 3.77E+03 8100.00 1.76E+03
330 -0.025 -8.25E+00 108900.00 6.25E-04
96 44.6 4.28E+03 9216.00 1.99E+03 412 -0.032 -1.32E+01 169744.00 1.02E-03
104 47.2 4.91E+03 10816.00 2.23E+03 481 -0.036 -1.73E+01 231361.00 1.30E-03
110 49.7 5.47E+03 12100.00 2.47E+03 558 -0.04 -2.23E+01 311364.00 1.60E-03
117 52.1 6.10E+03 13689.00 2.71E+03 618 -0.043 -2.66E+01 381924.00 1.85E-03
123 54.9 6.75E+03 15129.00 3.01E+03 677 -0.046 -3.11E+01 458329.00 2.12E-03
129 56.7 7.31E+03 16641.00 3.21E+03 724 -0.047 -3.40E+01 524176.00 2.21E-03
135 58.6 7.91E+03 18225.00 3.43E+03 765 -0.048 -3.67E+01 585225.00 2.30E-03
Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum 798 -0.05 -3.99E+01 636804.00 2.50E-03
1443.00 6.66E+02 6.14E+04 135003.00 2.80E+04 825 -0.051 -4.21E+01 680625.00 2.60E-03
n 20 Delta 617811 851 -0.052 -4.43E+01 724201.00 2.70E-03
Slope m: 4.34E-01 Intercept: 2.01E+00 874 -0.053 -4.63E+01 763876.00 2.81E-03
error in slope: 5.92E-03 Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum
Hall Coefficient: 541.94E-03 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: 015.44E-03 m3 C −1 8455.00 -5.66E-01 -3.71E+02 5680131.00 2.43E-02
Number Density: 011.52E+18 Error in number Density: 328.12E+15 n 16 Delta 19395071
Slope m: -5.89E-05 Intercept: -4.24E-03
error in slope: 2.36E-06
Hall Coefficient: -184.23E-09 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: -007.37E-09 m3 C −1
Number Density: 033.88E+24 Error in number Density: 001.35E+24
 9

Table XII: Calculation and Error Analysis Table based Table XIV: Calculation of Hall Coefficient in Bismuth
on VI at Room Temperature XI XII XIII
Bismuth Probe Current(mA): 144.5 Sl No Probe Current Hall Coefficient Error in Hall Coefficient
x(Magnetic Field(x10)(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2
1 159.9 -184.23E-09 -007.37E-09
23 -0.001 -2.30E-02 529.00 1.00E-06
91 -0.005 -4.55E-01 8281.00 2.50E-05
2 144.5 -169.57E-09 -005.64E-09
171 -0.011 -1.88E+00 29241.00 1.21E-04 3 129.9 -140.78E-09 -004.06E-09
254 -0.017 -4.32E+00 64516.00 2.89E-04 Hall Coefficient -164.86E-09 m3 C −1
334 -0.021 -7.01E+00 111556.00 4.41E-04 Error in Hall Coefficient -009.80E-09 m3 C −1
408 -0.026 -1.06E+01 166464.00 6.76E-04
484 -0.028 -1.36E+01 234256.00 7.84E-04
557 -0.032 -1.78E+01 310249.00 1.02E-03
619 -0.034 -2.10E+01 383161.00 1.16E-03 Table XV: Calculation of Carrier Number Density in
678 -0.037 -2.51E+01 459684.00 1.37E-03
724 -0.039 -2.82E+01 524176.00 1.52E-03 Bismuth at Room Temperature XI XII XIII
765 -0.04 -3.06E+01 585225.00 1.60E-03
796 -0.041 -3.26E+01 633616.00 1.68E-03
824 -0.042 -3.46E+01 678976.00 1.76E-03 Sl No Probe Current Number Density Error in Number Density
851 -0.043 -3.66E+01 724201.00 1.85E-03 1 159.9 033.88E+24 001.35E+24
873 -0.044 -3.84E+01 762129.00 1.94E-03 2 144.5 036.81E+24 001.22E+24
Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum 3 129.9 044.33E+24 001.28E+24
8452.00 -4.61E-01 -3.03E+02 5676260.00 1.62E-02
Number Density 038.34E+24
n 16 Delta 19383856
Slope m: -4.90E-05 Intercept: -2.93E-03
Error in Number Density 002.28E+24
error in slope: 1.63E-06
Hall Coefficient: -169.57E-09 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: -005.64E-09
Number Density: 036.81E+24 Error in number Density: 001.22E+24

VII. RESULTS,INFERENCE AND

Table XIII: Calculation and Error Analysis Table based CONCLUSION:
on VI
A. Hall Coefficient in Semi-Conductors and
Bismuth Probe Current(mA): 129.9
x(Magnetic Field(x10)(Gauss)) y(Hall Voltage(mV)) xy x2 y2 Temperature Dependence of Hall Coefficient:
23 -0.001 -2.30E-02 529.00 1.00E-06
91 -0.007 -6.37E-01 8281.00 4.90E-05
172 -0.011 -1.89E+00 29584.00 1.21E-04
250 -0.013 -3.25E+00 62500.00 1.69E-04 The Hall Coefficient of Ge n-type Semi-Conductor:
329 -0.014 -4.61E+00 108241.00 1.96E-04
405 -0.019 -7.70E+00 164025.00 3.61E-04 RH = −448.06E − 03 ± −011.38E − 03m3 C −1
479 -0.022 -1.05E+01 229441.00 4.84E-04
549 -0.024 -1.32E+01 301401.00 5.76E-04 The Number Density of Ge n-type Semi-Conductor:
619
675
-0.026
-0.028
-1.61E+01
-1.89E+01
383161.00
455625.00
6.76E-04
7.84E-04
ne = 013.93E + 18 ± 353.89E + 15
722 -0.03 -2.17E+01 521284.00 9.00E-04
765 -0.031 -2.37E+01 585225.00 9.61E-04
798 -0.032 -2.55E+01 636804.00 1.02E-03 The Hall Coefficient of Ge p-type Semi-Conductor:
826 -0.033 -2.73E+01 682276.00 1.09E-03
851 -0.034 -2.89E+01 724201.00 1.16E-03 RH = 541.94E − 03 ± 015.44E − 03m3 C −1
875 -0.034 -2.98E+01 765625.00 1.16E-03
Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum The Number Density of Ge n-type Semi-Conductor:
8429.00
n
-3.59E-01
16
-2.34E+02
Delta
5658203.00
19483207
9.70E-03
ne = 011.52E + 18 ± 328.12E + 15
Slope m: -3.66E-05 Intercept: -3.17E-03
error in slope: 1.05E-06
Hall Coefficient: -140.78E-09 m3 C −1 Error in Hall Coefficient: -004.06E-09 m3 C −1 The Hall Coefficient of Si n-type Semi-Conductor:
Number Density: 044.33E+24 Error in number Density: 001.28E+24
RH = −895.77E − 03 ± −022.69E − 03m3 C −1
The Number Density of Ge n-type Semi-Conductor:
ne = 006.97E + 18 ± 176.50E + 15
The graph of ∆R
R vs Magnetic Field(Tesla) 2 shows
a quadratic relation between the same, corresponding
with our theory as per equation 5. This indicates a Materials with n-type carriers have a negative hall
clear magnetic dependence of linear resistance and coefficient and materials with p-type carriers have a
indicates Bismuth shows magnetoresistance at Room positive hall coefficient and this can be clearly seen from
Temperature. the above attained results. So, hall effect can be used to
identify type of carrier in a material, also they can be
used to build sensors to find magnetic field value and
direction.

Regarding the behaviour of Hall Coefficient with

respect to change in temeperature seen in graph 1:
Theory suggests that,
In p-type germanium, at low temperatures, the domi-
nant scattering mechanism for carriers may be ionized
impurity scattering, which leads to a positive Hall
coefficient due to the dominance of hole carriers. As
temperature increases, other scattering mechanisms
such as phonon scattering become more significant.
10
Phonon scattering affects both electrons and holes but
has a stronger influence on electrons due to their lower
effective mass compared to holes.
At high temperatures, the mobility of electrons can
become greater than that of holes due to the increased
influence of phonon scattering. As a result, the contribu-
tion of electrons to the Hall effect can start to dominate,
leading to a change in the sign of the Hall coefficient
from positive to negative.
This change in sign of the Hall coefficient is often
associated with a transition from p-type to n-type con-
ductivity behavior in the semiconductor. It signifies a
shift in the majority carrier type from holes to electrons
as the dominant charge carriers.
The exact temperature at which this sign change
occurs and the behavior of the Hall coefficient with
temperature beyond that point can vary depending on
factors such as the specific material properties, impurity
concentrations, and sample preparation conditions.
Experimental characterization of the temperature
dependence of the Hall coefficient in p-type germanium
would involve measuring the Hall coefficient over a range
of temperatures and analyzing the observed behavior in
the context of the material’s electronic structure and
scattering mechanisms.
B. Hall Coefficient and Magnetoresistance in
Bismuth:
The Hall Coefficient of Bismuth:
RH = −164.86E − 09 ± −009.80E − 09m3 C −1
The Number Density of Ge n-type Semi-Conductor:
ne = 038.34E + 24 ± 002.28E + 24
Clearly from the negative value of the hall coefficient
obtained, we can tell that bismuth has n-type carriers,
also comparison of the carrier umber density clearly
shows that Bismuth being a metal has more carriers
than Semi-Conductors like Ge or Si
Regarding the change in linear resistance with respect
to applied magnetic field seen in graph 2:
The graph shows a good quadratic fit matching with
the theory of magnetoresistance which suggest quadratic
increase in linear resistance with increasing applied mag-
netic field. This is not true for all metals, but Bismuth
shows this unique property of magnetoresistance.
The quadratic magnetoresistance in bismuth arises
due to its unique electronic structure, particularly the
presence of nearly massless charge carriers known as
Dirac fermions. Bismuth is a semimetal with a small
energy gap between its valence and conduction bands,
and near the band edges, the electronic dispersion
relation takes on a linear form reminiscent of relativistic
Dirac fermions
Also, the error % for the values found for semi-
conductors are well within 5% and the values found of
Bismuth are well with 6%. The error value support the
figures obtained further.
VIII. REFERENCES:
• Introduction to Solid State Physics, C. Kittel; John
Wiley and Sons Inc., N.Y. (1971), 4th edition.
• Hall Effect and Related Phenomena, E.H. Putley,
Butterworths, London (1960).
• Chandan et al 2020 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 53
425102
• Electrons and Holes, W. Shockley, D. Van Nostrand
,N.Y. (1950).