EXPERIMENT NO.

1: HALL COEFFICIENT

Page 1 of 10
 History of Hall Effect:

The history of the Hall effect begins in 1879 when Edwin H. Hall discovered
that a small transverse voltage appeared across a current-carrying thin metal
strip in an applied magnetic field. Until that time, electrical measurements
provided only the carrier density-mobility product, and the separation of these
two important physical quantities had to rely on other difficult measurements.
The discovery of the Hall effect enabled a direct measure of the carrier
density. The polarity of this transverse Hall voltage proved that it is in fact
electrons that are physically moving in an electric current. Development of
the technique has since led to a mature and practical tool, which today is used
routinely for characterizing the electrical properties and quality of almost all
of the semiconductor materials used by industry and in research labs
throughout the world.

Edwin H. Hall

The Hall effect provides a relatively simple method for doing this. Because of
its simplicity, low cost, and fast turnaround time, it is an indispensable
characterization technique in the semiconductor industry and in research
laboratories. Furthermore, two Nobel prizes (1985, 1998) are based upon the
Hall effect.

Page 2 of 10
EXPERIMENT NO. 1

OBJECTIVE: Determine the Hall coefficient of a given sample and also

calculate charge carrier density and carrier mobility.

APPARATUS:
1. (a) Hall Effect Sample Probe (Ge-Crystal)
(b) Hall Effect Gaussmeter Probe (InAs)
2. Hall effect measurement set up (Digital), DHE-21
3. Electromagnet, Model EMU-75 or EMU-50V
4. Constant current power supply, DPS-175 or DPS-50
5. Digital Gaussmeter, DGM-102
SAMPLE DETAILS:
Sample: Ge crystal (n- type)
Thickness (t): 5×10-2 cm = 5×10-4 meter
Conductivity (σ): 0.1 coulomb volt-1 sec-1 cm-1
Standard values of sample: -
Hall coefficient: 33 × 103 cm3/coulomb
Charge Carrier density: 1.89 × 1015 cm-3
Carrier mobility: 3.3 × 102 cm2 V-1sec-1

DIAGRAM:

Page 3 of 10
 FIG. 3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF HALL EFFECT MEASUREMENT SET UP

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:

The Hall effect:

The fundamental observation of the Hall effect is shown in Figure 10. If a

current is flowing in a material in the x direction, and an external magnetic
field is applied in the positive z direction, then an electric field is induced in
the y direction. This electrical field is proportional to the current and magnetic
field. The force on the current by the electric field is balanced by the Lorentz
force. The integral of the electrical field across the width of the sample is the
Hall voltage. It can be either positive or negative.

Fig: (a) sample showing geometry for the Hall Effect (b) The Lorentz force causes the
charge carriers to rotate in circles around the field lines

Page 4 of 10
In this model the sample is long and thin. The width is w and length L. The
contacts are such that the current flows only in the positive x direction. The
resistance of the sample is R. The x component of the electric field is IR/L.
The B field only has a z-component, which is perpendicular to the plane of the
sample and the direction of the current flow. The magnetic force is in the y-
direction and is -qvxBz. No current can flow out of the sample in the y
direction. Carriers in cyclotron orbits (circular orbits that charged particles
exhibit in a uniform magnetic field) in the xy plane within the cyclotron radius
of y = 0 edge accumulate on the y = 0 edge of the sample and deplete on the
y = w edge. This generates an electric field in the y-direction, VHall/w. When
the force from this electric field (-q VHall/w) is equal and opposite to the
magnetic force, there is no net force in the y-direction, and the current flow is
uniform in the x direction. It takes on the order of one half of a cyclotron
period (~5 ps) to establish this new steady state.
−𝑞 𝑉𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙
= −𝑞𝑣𝑥 𝐵𝑧
𝑤
1
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑛𝑞𝑤𝑡

Here n is the carrier density and t is the thickness, hence

𝐼𝐵𝑧
𝑉𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝑛𝑞𝑡

The Hall coefficient (RH) is defined as

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑞
In the simplest theory (free electron gas model), the resistivity is related to
1
material properties by 𝜌 = where μ is the mobility.
𝑛𝑞𝜇

If we measure the resistivity and Hall coefficient, then the following material
properties can be derived:

1 1 |𝑅𝐻 |
Carrier density: 𝑛 = and Carrier Mobility: 𝜇 = =
𝑞𝑅𝐻 𝜌𝑛𝑞 𝜌

Carrier type: electrons if RH is negative; holes if RH is positive.

Page 5 of 10
PROCEDEURE:
1. Connect the width wise contacts of the hall probe to the terminals marked
‘Voltage’ (Red & Black wires) and lengthwise contacts to terminals marked
‘Current’ (Green & Yellow wires).
2. Place the probe perpendicular to the magnetic field as shown in Fig.3 and
switch on the electromagnet power supply and Gauss meter. Set the
magnetic field 1 Kilo Gauss (KG) by rotating current control knob of power
supply. Measure the magnetic field by Gauss meter.
3. Now remove the Hall probe and insert the sample probe (n-type) in the
magnetic field and Switch ‘ON’ the Hall Effect set-up and adjust the current
Ix to 0.5 mA. Measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH. Take the value
of Hall voltage VH at different currents (IX), i.e. at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0
mA keeping the magnetic field constant and then plot a graph between Ix
and VH. The current and the voltage are measured by rotating the knob
provided in the Hall Effect Setup.
4. Adjust the power supply for 2 Killo Gauss and repeat the above steps.
Tabulate the readings as given in Table-1.

[Note: rotate the knob of Hall effect setup gently, it may be damaged easily.]

OBSERVATION:

Table-1:
Bz = 1 KG Bz = 2 KG
Sl. No.
IX (mA) VH (mV) IX (mA) VH (mV)
1. 0.5 0.5
2. 1.0 1.0
3. 1.5 1.5
4. 2.0 2.0
5. 2.5 2.5
6. 3.0 3.0

Page 6 of 10
CALCULATION:

(a) Plot a graph between VH and IX at a constant magnetic field. From the
slope of the graph the ratio of VH and IX is found. Then calculate the
Hall coefficient RH.
(b) Calculate charge carrier density using the relation

R = 1/nq

n = 1/Rq

(c) Calculate carrier mobility, using the formula

μn = Rσ
using the specified value of conductivity given above.

Slope = (AB/BC)

Hall
Voltage B
C
VH
(in mV)

O Current Ix (in mA)

RESULT: Hall coefficient of the given sample is ……………… m3/C.

Charge carrier density ………... cm-3

Carrier mobility…………... cm2 V-1sec-1

Page 7 of 10
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not short circuit the power supply terminals.
2. Insert the probe gently between pole pieces and adjust it in parallel
plane with the plane faces.
3. Use slope of the line derived from the graph in the calculations.
4. Cover probe tip when not in use.

Sources of error:
The apparent Hall voltage, VH, measured with a single reading can include
several spurious voltages. These spurious error sources include the following:
1. Voltmeter offset (Vo): An improperly zeroed voltmeter adds a voltage Vo
to every measurement. The offset does not change with current or magnetic
field direction.
2. Current meter offset (Io): An improperly zeroed current meter adds a
current Io to every measurement. The offset does not change with current or
magnetic field direction.

3. Thermoelectric voltages (VTE): A temperature gradient across a sample

allows contacts between two different materials (i.e., metallic contacts on a
semiconductor) to function as a pair of thermocouple junctions. The resulting
thermoelectric voltage is due to the Seebeck effect and is designated V TE.
Portions of wiring to the sample can also produce thermoelectric voltages in
response to temperature gradients. These thermoelectric voltages are not
affected by current or magnetic field direction, to first order.
4. Misalignment voltage (VM): The excitation current flowing through a
sample produces a voltage gradient parallel to the current flow. Even in zero
magnetic field, a voltage appears between the two contacts used to measure
the Hall voltage if they are not electrically opposite each other. If contacts are
not identical geometrically and/or not precisely aligned, a misalignment
voltage will be produced. Voltage contacts are difficult to align exactly and
the misalignment voltage is frequently the largest spurious contribution to the
apparent Hall voltage.

Page 8 of 10
Applications:

As can be seen from the formula of Hall coefficient, that it is a sample specific
parameter which depends upon the free carriers of the sample but not the size,
shape and other physical parameters of the sample. Therefore, Hall coefficient
for a specific material remains the same. Hence, the Hall coefficient formula
can be used to calibrate and use it for the measurement of Current, Voltage,
Magnetic fields. It is widely used for sensitive measurements of magnetic
fields.

Magnetometers

Smart phones are equipped with

magnetic compass. These compass
measure Earth magnetic field using
‘s3axis magnetometer. These
magnetometers are sensors based
on Hall Effect. These sensors
produce a voltage proportional to
the applied magnetic field and also
sense polarity.

Joystick

A joystick, sometimes called

a flight stick, is an input
device consisting of a stick that
pivots on a base and reports its
angle or direction to the device it is
controlling. A joystick, also known
as the control column, is the
principal control device in
the cockpit of many civilian and
military aircraft, either as a centre
stick or side-stick. It often has
supplementary switches to control
various aspects of the aircraft's
flight.

Page 9 of 10
Anti-lock braking system

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) driver to maintain more control

is a safety anti-skid braking system over the vehicle.
used on aircraft and on
land vehicles, such
as cars, motorcycles, trucks,
and buses. ABS operates by
preventing the wheels from locking
up during braking, there by
maintaining tractive contact with
the road surface and allowing the

References: -
1. E. H. Hall, “On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents,” American Journal of
Mathematics 2 (3), 287 – 292 (1879).
2. ASTM International, “ASTM-F76,” edited by ASTM.
3. D.K. Schroder, Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization. (Wiley, 1998).
4. Van der Pauw, “1958 Van der Pauw (Philips Res Rep) A method of measuring specific
resistivity and Hall effect of discs of arbitrary shape.”
5. D. C. Look, Electrical Characterization of GaAs Materials and Devices. (Wiley, New York,
1989).
6. J. Volger, “Note on the Hall Potential Across an Inhomogeneous Conductor,” Physical Review
79 (6), 1023 – 1024 (1950).
7. J. Haeusler and H. J. Lippmann, “Hallgeneratoren mit kleinem linearisierungsfehler,” Solid-
State Electronics 11 (1), 173 – 182 (1968).
8. Serge Jandl, K. D. Usadel, and Gaston Fischer, “Resistivity measurements with samples in the
form of a double cross,” Review of Scientific Instruments 45 (11), 1479 – 1480 (1974).
9. Ronald Chwang, B. J. Smith, and C. R. Crowell, “Contact size effects on the van der Pauw
method for resistivity and Hall coefficient measurement,” Solid-State Electronics 17 (12), 1217
– 1227 (1974).
10. H.J. van Daal, “Mobility of charge carriers in silicon carbide,” Philips research reports Suppl.
3, 1 – 92 (1965).
11. AFP (25 July 2009). "English Channel Armada to Mark Centenary of Louis Blériot
Flight". Times of Malta. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
12. Toyota Prius c features safety anti-skid braking system (ABS)". Toyota Motor Corporation
Australia. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2016. Prius c is
equipped with Toyota's Anti-skid Braking System (ABS).

Page 10 of 10