Di Electrics

952 A Textbook of Engineering Physics
C H A P T E R
33 Dielectrics
33.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical circuits use insulator materials in various forms. Capacitors use dielectrics as
medium. The dielectric materials, which are also known as insulators, constitute very
important group of electrical (and electronic) engineering materials. They are characterized by
dielectric constant, dielectric loss, dielectric strength and high resistivity. The two properties
namely, dielectric constant and dielectric loss are strongly frequency dependent. The use of
a dielectric in a specific application is dictated by the frequency of the applied voltage. The
dielectric loss is required to be a minimum so that the performance of the dielectric does
not deteriorate with time. Ferroelectric materials exhibit very high dielectric constant and
low dielectric loss. They are used in making miniature capacitors. Piezoelectric materials
are dielectric materials which have very interesting properties. Mechanical deformation
is produced in them in response to electrical force and electrical effects are produced in
response to mechanical forces. These two piezoelectric effects are vastly exploited in all areas
of technology. The dielectric loss manifests in the form of heat. The dielectric heating can
be employed in cases where heating by other means is difficult or is not possible. It finds
application in the fields such as food processing. Material such as glass, ceramics, polymers
and paper are nonconducting materials. They prevent flow of current through them. When the
main function of nonconducting materials is to provide electrical insulation, they are called
insulators.
33.2 DIELECTRICS E
Dielectric materials are non-conducting materials.
There are no free charge carriers in a dielectric. Conduction band
When dielectric materials are placed in an electric
field, they modify the electric field and they Eg
themselves undergo appreciable changes because large
of which they act as stores of electrical charges.
When charge storage is the main function, the
Valence band
materials are called dielectrics. For a material to
be a good dielectric, it must be an insulator. Hence
any insulator is a dielectric. Fig. 33.1
Dielectrics 953
A dielectric may be described in terms of the energy band structure. The forbidden
gap Eg (Fig. 33.1) is very large in dielectrics and excitation of electrons from the normally
full valence band to the empty conduction band is not possible under ordinary conditions.
Therefore, conduction cannot occur in a dielectric. Even if a dielectric contains impurities,
extrinsic conduction such as the one observed in doped semiconductors is not possible. The
resistivity of an ideal dielectric should be therefore infinitely high. However, in practice,
dielectrics conduct electric current to a negligible extent and their resistivities range from 1010
to 1020 ohm-m.
33.3 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

A dielectric is chiefly characterized by its dielectric constant. Dielectric constant of a
dielectric is defined and measured as the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor containing the
dielectric medium to the capacitance of the same capacitor with air as the medium.
C
er = (33.1)
C0
where C0 is the capacitance with air as the medium between the plates and C is the capacitance
with dielectric as medium.
er is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity. It is a dimensionless quantity,
which is always greater than unity in case of dielectrics, and it is independent of the size
or shape of the dielectric. In fact, er describes the ability of the dielectric material to store
electric charges. At times another quantity known as the permittivity of the medium, e, is
used. It is given by
e = e0 er (33.2)
–12
where e0 = 8.854 × 10 F/m represents the permittivity of free space.
33.4 DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION

Let us consider an electrically neutral slab of an isotropic dielectric inserted between the
plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Fig. 33.2.
Very low conductivity of the dielectric rules E0
out the presence of free charges and their possible +
+ – +
–
–
–
+
motion in the electric field. Hence current does not +
+ –p –
Ei –
+ +p ––
flow in the material. However, the electric field can +
+
–
–
+ + –
act on the bound charges in the dielectric. These +
+
– –
–
bound charges are not free to migrate through the +
+ – + –
–
–
+
dielectric. The action of the field E0 on the bound +
+ – +
–
–
–
charge consists in displacing the bound charges +
+
– +
–
–
+ –
relative to one another. The negative charges + –
(electrons) are displaced in a direction opposite to Fig. 33.2

that of the electric field, while the positive charges
(nuclei) are displaced in the same direction as that of the electric field. Each atom or molecule
then acts as an elementary dipole and acquires an electric dipole moment in the direction of
the field. The cumulative effect of formation of such dipoles is that negative charge is induced
by the electric field on the dielectric surface adjacent to the positive capacitor plate while a
positive charge of equal magnitude is induced on the dielectric surface adjacent to negative
capacitor plate. Thus, the action of the electric field on a dielectric is to induce charges on
its surfaces. When charges of opposite polarity are induced on the surfaces of a dielectric,
the dielectric is said to be polarized. The effect is known as dielectric polarization. The
polarized dielectric is equivalent to a big dipole consisting of polarization charges separated
by a distance d, which is the thickness of the slab. The intensity of polarization P is defined as
the total dipole moment per unit volume of the material. Thus,
P=
∑ dµ (33.3)
V
where dm is the dipole moment of an elemental volume and V is the total volume of the
dielectric. In fact, we can consider the polarized dielectric as a big dipole consisting of
induced charges separated by distance d. Thus,
m = (Asp)d = spV (33.4)
where A is the area of the slab and sp is the surface charge density due to polarization.
Comparing the equs. (33.3) and (33.4), we find that
P = sp (33.5)
It follows that polarization is equal to the surface density of the induced charges in a
dielectric.
The effect of polarization is to reduce the magnitude of the external field E0. The induced
surface charges on the dielectric give rise to an induced electric field Ei which opposes the
external field E0. Therefore, the net electric field E in the dielectric has a magnitude given by
E = E0 – Ei (33.6)
33.5 GAUSS LAW
Gauss law states that the total electric flux, j, through a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed by the surface. Thus,
j = ∫ D ⋅ dA = q0
where D is the displacement vector. It is related to the electric field through the relation
D = eE
Using the above relation, Gauss law can be rewritten as
ε ∫ E ⋅ dA = q0 (33.7)
33.5.1 Gauss Law Applied to a Dielectric

+q +q
++++++++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Gaussian surface E0 Gaussian surface E –q

+q
–q +++++++++++++++++++
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
–q
(a) (b)
Fig. 33.3. A parallel plate capacitor (a) without and (b) with a dielectric.
Let us apply Gauss law to a parallel plate capacitor without a dielectric first and then with a
dielectric. Fig. 33.3(a) shows a Gaussian surface drawn enclosing the charge q on one of the
plates. q is known as the free charge on the capacitor plate. The electric field E0 at any point
on the Gaussian surface is given by
q
∫ E0 ⋅ dA = ε0
Dielectrics 955
q
or E0A =
ε0
q
E0 = (33.8)
ε0 A
Now, let us consider the case of the capacitor with a dielectric and draw a Gaussian
surface, as shown in Fig.33.3 (b) enclosing the free charge on the capacitor plate and induced
charge on the dielectric surface. Let q′ be the induced charge on the surface of the dielectric.
q′ is known as the bound charge. Note that q′ is negative charge. Then (q – q′) is the net
charge within the Gaussian surface. Let E be the resultant field inside the dielectric. Then,
according to Gauss theorem
q − q′
∫ E ⋅ dA = ε0 (33.9)
q q′
or E= − (33.10)
ε0 A ε0 A
Equ. (33.10) indicates that the induced surface charge q′ weakens the original field when
the dielectric is present. The initial field and the resultant field are related through the relation
E0 = erE
E0 q q′
\ = −
εr ε0 A ε0 A
Using equ. (33.8), we write the above relation as
q q q′
= −
ε0 ε r A ε0 A ε0 A
q
= q – q′ (33.11)
εr
Using (33.11) into equ. (33.9), we get
q − q′ q
∫ E ⋅ dA = ε0 = ε0εr
or ε0 ε r ∫ E ⋅ dA = q
or ε ∫ E ⋅ dA = q (33.12)
33.6 DIELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

The magnitude of polarization is directly proportional to the intensity of the electric field.
Thus,
P = ce0 E (33.13)
c(chi) is the proportionality constant and is called the dielectric susceptibility of the
material. Dielectric susceptibility characterizes the ease with which a dielectric material can
be influenced by an external electric field. It is a measure of the polarization produced in the
material per unit electric field.
33.7 THE THREE FIELD VECTORS

The resultant field inside the dielectric is given by equ. (33.10) as
q q′
E= −
ε0 A ε0 A
From the Fig. 33.3 (b), it is seen that
q′
= sp = P
A
q P
\ = E+
ε0 A ε0
q
or = e0 E + P
A
q
The quantity is called electric displacement, D.
A
q
Thus, D= (33.14)
A
Therefore, D = e0 E + P (33.15)
The three electric vectors, E, D and P are +
E
shown in Fig. 33.4. The expression (33.14) for +
–
D
D shows that this vector is related to the free +
–
–
charges only; they are the charges stored on +
–
the capacitor plates. The expression (33.5) for + – +
–
P shows that it is related to the bound charges + – +
–
0E
only. The expression for the vector E shows +
–
– +
that it is connected with both types of charges +
–
+
present. It may be seen from Fig. 33.4 that –
–
+
+ –
+
the lines of D begin and end on free charges; – + – P
+
the lines of P begin and terminate on induced P=O – + –
D
charge and the lines of E change from one D P
medium to the other. 0E
0E
33.8 RELATION BETWEEN er AND Fig. 33.4. The field vectors E, D and P.
c The electric field E is connected to the free
In order to describe the combined effects of the charges, the vector P is related to polarization
charges and the vector D to all charges.
applied electric field E and electric polarization
P, we have introduced the auxiliary vector D, called the displacement vector.
D = e0 E + P
Substituting the expression for P from equ. (33.13), we get
D = (1 + c)e0E
which we can write as D = e0 er E = e E
er = 1 + c (33.16)
33.9 RELATION BETWEEN P AND E

From the relation (33.11), we find that
 1
q′ = q 1 − 
 εr 
Dielectrics 957
q′
But P = sp =
A
q′ q D
Therefore, P= = (ε r − 1) = (ε r − 1)t
A εr A εr
or P = e0 (er – 1)E (33.17)
Example 33.1. When NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 50 V/cm, the resulting
polarization is 2.215 × 10–7 C/m2. Calculate relative permittivity of NaCl.
Solution. P = e0(er – 1)E
P 2.215 × 10−7 C / m 2
\ er = 1 + = 1+ = 6.006
ε0 E 8.85 × 10−12 F / m × 50V / cm × 100cm / m
33.10 INDUCED DIPOLES

In order to understand the action of electric field on a dielectric, it is necessary to understand
its action on an atom. In an atom the nucleus is about 10–15m in diameter and it can be
regarded as a point. The electron cloud E
–10
is about 10 m in diameter and it may
be assumed that its negative charge is
concentrated at its centre. Therefore,
–+
the centres of gravity of positive and
negative charges in an atom coincide +
– d
(Fig. 33.5 a). Consequently, such an
atom neither produces any electric
field of its own nor is acted upon by an (a) (b)
external field. Fig. 33.5
If now the atom is placed in an
electric field of strength E, the electron cloud will be displaced in the direction opposite to
that of E by a distance “d” with respect to the nucleus (Fig. 33.5 b). The centres of gravity
of positive and negative charges in the atom no more coincide. The atom is now equivalent
to a system of two charges of equal magnitude q = Ze E
but opposite in sign and separated by a distance “d’.
Such a system is called an electric dipole or simply
a dipole. We say that a dipole is induced in the atom
due to the action of the external electric field. Though a – +
dipole is electrically neutral, the induced dipole sets up
its own electric field in a direction opposite to that of
the external electric field.
The product of the magnitude of the charges and
the distance of their separation is called the dipole Fig. 33.6
moment, m of the electric dipole. Thus,
m = qd (33.18)
The dipole moment is a vector directed along the axis of the dipole from the negative
charge to the positive charge.
In general any neutral system of N point charges Q1, Q2, Q3, …….QN occupying a
volume having linear dimensions “d” acts as a dipole. The sum of charges ∑ Qi in the volume
should be equal to zero to ensure the neutrality of the system. The dipole moment of such a
neutral system of point charges is given by
m= ∑ Qi ri (33.19)
i
where ri is a vector drawn from the origin of coordinate system to the position of the charge
Qi.
Dielectric materials are made up of atoms and +q
molecules, which are neutral systems. When a +
molecule is subjected to an electric field, the electric
field tends to displace the equilibrium positions of
bound charges, as a result of which dipole moment d
is induced in the molecule. The amount of induced
dipole moment, m, will be proportional to the field
strength, E. The larger the field, the greater is the –

displacement of charges and hence the larger the
–q
induced dipole moment. As the charges are displaced
along the field direction, the dipole moment is Fig. 33.7
induced in the same direction. The molecule is then
said to be polarized by the field. When a molecule becomes polarized, restoring forces due
to coulomb attraction come into play, which tend to pull the displaced charges together. The
charges separated until the restoring force balances the force due to the electric field.
Restoring forces vary in magnitude from one kind of molecule to another and therefore,
the extent of dipole moment induced differs. As the amount of induced dipole moment is
proportional to the field strength, we write
mind ∝ E
or mind = a E (33.20)
where a is the proportionality constant and is known as the polarizability of the molecule.
Polarizability characterizes the capacity of the electric charges in the molecule to suffer
displacement in an external field. It has the dimensions of volume. Induced dipole moment
vanishes as soon as the electric field is switched off.
33.11 PERMANENT DIPOLES

In some molecules, known as polar +q +
molecules, the centers of gravity of the F
charges of opposite sign are separated
even in the absence of an external
electric field. Such molecules are said O
E
to have intrinsic dipole moment and

carry permanent dipoles.
–F
–q
When a molecule having intrinsic –
dipole moment is placed in a uniform
electric field E, the field exerts a Fig. 33.8
Dielectrics 959
force +qE on charge +q and –qE on charge –q. The net force on the dipole is zero since the
two forces acting on it are equal and opposite to each other. Therefore, there is no transla-
tional force on the dipole in a uniform electric field. However, the forces are antiparallel and
constitute a couple which tends to rotate the dipole. The torque acting on the dipole is given
by
t = q E d sin q = m E sin q
or t = m×E (33.21)
Thus, a dipole experiences a torque in a uniform electric field and rotates in an attempt to
align with the field direction. In fact, a free dipole aligns its axis with the field direction.
Further, the electric field can also induce a dipole moment in the molecule. Therefore, the
total dipole moment of the molecule is a sum of the induced and permanent dipole moments.
Thus,
mT = mind + mper (33.22)
However, in case of polar molecules, mind << mper and therefore,
mT ≈ mper
33.12 NONPOLAR AND POLAR DIELECTRICS

Dielectrics are broadly divided into two major groups, namely, nonpolar and polar dielectrics
basing on dipole moment.
A molecule is a neutral system in which the algebraic sum of all the charges is equal to
zero. However, the spatial arrangement of charges in a molecule may differ from material
to material. All positive charges of a molecule may be replaced by one equivalent positive
charge located at the center of gravity of positive charges. Similarly, all negative charges in
it may be replaced with a single equivalent negative charge located at the center of gravity of
all negative charges. The two resultant charges are equal in magnitude. Their points of action
in space may coincide or may not coincide. When the points of action coincide, the molecule
will not possess a permanent dipole moment. Such molecules are called nonpolar molecules
and the material is known as a nonpolar dielectric. Their permittivities are low and range
from 1 to 2.2.
If the points of the resultant charges of a molecule do not coincide in space, the molecule
possess an intrinsic dipole moment. Such molecules are called polar molecules and the
materials made up polar molecules are called polar dielectrics. In a polar molecule consisting
of several bonds, each bond may carry a permanent dipole moment. The resultant dipole
moment of the molecule may then be obtained through the vector addition of the moments
associated with the different bonds. The permittivities of polar dielectrics are high ranging
from 3 to 8 and more.
Whether a molecule is a polar or nonpolar can be judged from its structure. It is obvious
that symmetric molecules are nonpolar since the centres of gravity of positive and negative
charges coincide with each other. Thus, monoatomic molecules He, Ne, Ar, and Xe are
nonpolar. Molecules consisting of two identical atoms linked by a homopolar bonds such as
H2, N2, Cl2 are nonpolar.
On the other hand, asymmetric molecules are polar. The molecules of ionic compounds
with a heteropolar bond, such as potassium iodide (KI) have a high dipole moment and are
polar.
In estimating O2
the intrinsic
dipole moment O C O
105°
R
of a molecule R = 0 H H
by its structure,
it is necessary (a) (b)
to consider the Fig. 33.9
actual distribution
of charges in space rather than its chemical formula taken in conventional form. For example,
the chemical formula of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) look identical in form. But CO2
molecule is nonpolar whereas H2O molecule is polar. The dipole moments of the two C = O
bonds in CO2 molecule are oppositely directed and cancel each other (Fig. 33.9 a). Therefore,
the resultant dipole moment of CO2 molecule is zero. On the other hand, the water molecule has
the form of an isosceles triangle with a bond angle of 104.5°. Consequently, the resultant dipole
moment of water molecule comes to 6.1×10–30 C.m. and the molecule is polar.
All hydrocarbons are nonpolar. The intrinsic dipole moment in these molecules is either
zero or very small. But hydrocarbons become polar substances when hydrogen atoms are
replaced by other atoms or groups of atoms. Let us consider the example of methane. Methane
is the simplest hydrocarbon and its chemical formula is CH4. The dipole moment of methane
is zero. When the hydrogen atoms are replaced one after the other with chlorine atoms, we
obtain methyl chloride CH3Cl, methylene chloride CH2Cl2, chloroform CHCl3 and carbon
tetra chloride CCl4 their structures and dipole moments are shown below (Fig. 33.10).
H H H
H C H H C H H C H
H H H
=0 = 6.2 × 10–30 C.m. –30
= 5.17 × 10 C.m.
H Cl
Cl C Cl Cl C Cl
Cl Cl
= 3.8 × 10–30 C.m. =0
Fig. 33.10
33.13 POLARIZATION-AN ATOMIC VIEW

Let us once more consider a slab of dielectric located between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor. In the absence of an external electric field each elementary volume of the dielectric
has no dipole moment. If the dielectric is a nonpolar material, the constituent molecules do
not possess intrinsic dipole moments and in case the dielectric is a polar material, the
individual molecular dipoles are randomly oriented so that in an elementary volume ∑ µ = 0.
Hence, the polarization is zero. When the electric field is switched on dipoles are induced in
nonpolar molecules, which form chains along the field lines, as shown in Fig. 33.11.
Dielectrics 961
The polarization is given by

P = N m = N a E Nonpolar dielectric (33.23)
where N is the number of molecules per unit volume.
In a polar dielectric, the molecular dipoles experience a torque that tends to align them
with the field direction. Total alignment is not achieved because of the disordering effects of
thermal agitation. An average alignment < m > is achieved in the direction of the field. The
polarization is therefore given by
P = N < m > Polar dielectric (33.24)
Thus, the action of electric field brings the dipoles into a certain ordered arrangement
in space. It is seen that the ends of adjacent dipoles carrying opposite charges neutralize
each other. Only the charges of the dipole ends terminating on the opposite faces of the slab
remain uncompensated. Thus, the application of an –P +P
electric field to a dielectric produces a displacement + –
+ – – + – + – + – +
of charge within the material through a progressive + –
orientation of intrinsic or induced dipoles. This is + – + – + – + – + – +
–
+ –
known as dielectric polarization. + –
+ – + – + – + – + – +
–
+
33.14 TYPES OF POLARIZATION + – + – + – + – + – +
–
+ –
Dielectric polarization is classified into four basic + –
– + – + – + – + – +
types. + –
+ –
(i) Electronic polarization,
(ii) Ionic polarization, + –
(iii) Orientation polarization, and Fig. 33.11. Polarization of a dielectric

(iv) Space charge polarization. according to atomic point of view.
The induced charge density sp on the
One or two of the polarizations are always
dielectric is less than the free charge
present and at a particular temperature or frequency density s on the plates.
of applied field, one or another may contribute in a
large measure to the total polarization.
Applied
33.14.1 Electronic Polarization field, E
No field
This is the polarization that results from
the displacement of the electron clouds of
atoms, molecules and ions with respect to +
+
heavy ‘fixed’ nuclei to a distance that is less
than the dimensions of the atoms, molecules or
(a) (b)
ions. It occurs in all dielectrics for any state of
aggregation. The phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 33.12. Electronic polarization- (a)
Fig. 33.12. The electronic polarization sets in Atoms are not polarized in the absence of
the electric field, (b) Electronic polarization
over a very short period of time, of the order of
results from the distortion of electron cloud
10–14 to 10–15s. It is independent of temperature. by an applied electric field.
Expression for Electronic Polarization
Let us consider a single atom with atomic number Z. The charge on its nucleus is +Ze
and Z electrons move around the nucleus. Let us assume that the nucleus is a point charge and
the total negative charge – Ze is homogeneously distributed throughout a sphere of radius,
R. When this atom is subjected to an electric field E, the nucleus and the electron cloud
will move in opposite

directions. The coulomb
attractive force opposes
+Ze
the movement, which acts R
x
3 R
x
–Ze 3
as the restoring force here. R +Ze
Equilibrium condition
will be attained in which –Ze
the nucleus is displaced E=0 E
relative to the center of
the electron cloud by the Fig. 33.13
amount, x. The force on the nucleus along the field direction is
F = ZeE (33.25)
To determine the coulomb attraction on the nucleus, we divide the electron cloud into two
regions. One region is the one that is inside the sphere of radius x and the other is the annular
region lying between the two spherical surfaces of radii x and R. By applying Gauss theorem,
we find that the force experienced by the nucleus arises due to the negative charge lying
Zex3
within the spherical region of radius x. The charge inside this region is given by − 3 . The
R
force exerted by this charge on the nucleus is given by
1 ( Ze)( Zex3 / R3 )
F= ⋅ (33.26)
4πε0 x2
The equilibrium condition is that the above two forces balance each other. Thus,
1 ( Ze)( Zex3 / R3 )
ZeE = ⋅
4πε0 x2
Therefore, the displacement of the nucleus is
4πε0 R3
x= E (33.27)
Ze
Now the dipole moment induced in the atom due to the displacement is
mind = (Ze)x
4πε0 R3
= ( Ze) E
Ze
or mind = 4pe0R3E (33.28)
\ mind = aeE
where ae = 4pe0R3 (33.29)
It follows that the electronic polarization in a unit volume of the dielectric is given by
Pe = NaeE (33.30)
where ae is the electronic polarizability. The contribution of Pe to the dielectric constant
may be obtained as follows
P N αE
e = 1 + c = 1+ e =1+
ε0 E ε0 E
N αe
er = 1 + (33.31)
ε0
Dielectrics 963
The above expression indicates the contribution to dielectric constant due to electronic
polarization alone and thus gives the dielectric constant of a nonpolar gas. Note that it
depends on the polarizability of a molecule and the number of molecules in a unit volume of
the dielectric. In case of monoatomic gas ae = 4pe0R3.
\ er = 1 + 4p N R3 (33.32)
Example 33.2. Calculate the electronic polarizability of argon atom. Given er = 1.0024 at
NTP and N = 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3.
N αe
Solution. er = 1 +
ε0
ε0 (ε r − 1) (8.85 × 10−12 F/m)(1.0024 − 1)
\ ae = = = 7.9 × 10–40 F.m2.
N 2.7 × 1025 / m3
Example 33.3. The number of atoms in hydrogen gas is 9.8 × 1020 atoms/cc. The radius of
hydrogen atom is 0.053 nm. Calculate its electronic polarizability and relative permittivity.
Solution. ae = 4pe0R3 = 4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10–12F.m × (0.053 nm)3 = 1.657 × 10–41F.m2.
er = 1 + 4pNR3 = 1 + 4 × 3.14 × 9.8 × 1026/m3 × (0.053 nm)3 = 1.0018.
33.14.2 Ionic Polarization Applied Field, E
Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals. No field
It occurs due to the elastic displacement of – + – + – – + – + –
positive and negative ions from their equilibrium + – + – + + – + – +
positions. Let us take the example of sodium – + – + – – + – + –
chloride crystal. A sodium chloride molecule
+ – + – + + – + – +
consists of Na+ ions bound to Cl– ions through
ionic bond. If the interatomic distance is d, the (a) (b)
molecule exhibits an intrinsic dipole moment Fig. 33.14. Ionic Polarization - (a)
equal to ‘ed’. When a dc electric field is applied unpolarized dielectric. (b) Ionic polarization
to the molecule, the sodium and chlorine ions are results from the relative displacement of
electrically charged ions in response to an
displaced in opposite directions (Fig. 33.14) until
applied electric field.
ionic bonding forces stop the process. The dipole
moment of the molecule increases consequently. When the field direction is reversed the ions
move closer and again the dipole moment undergoes a change. Thus, dipoles are induced. The
induced dipole moment is proportional to the applied field and is expressed as
mi = aiE (33.33)
where ai is known as ionic polarizability.
Expression for ionic Polarization
Let us consider the sodium crystal being subjected to an external electric field E. Due to
the action of electric field, the positive ions (Na+) displace in the direction of electric field
through a distance of, say, x1 units and the negative ions (Cl–) by units in a direction opposite
to that of the field.
The net displacement of the ions x = x1 + x2 (33.34)
The force on the Na+ ion due to electric field = +eE
The force on the Cl– ion due to electric field = – eE
The restoring force acting on the Na+ ion = – k1x1
The restoring force acting on the Cl– ion = +k2x2

where k1 and k2 are the force constants. They are given by
k1 = Mw02 and k2 = mw02.
In the above expressions, M is the mass of the positive ion (Na+) and m the mass of the
negative ion (Cl–) and w0 is the natural angular frequency of the molecule.
The shifting of ions halts and equilibrium is attained when the electric force and restoring
force are equal and opposite to each other. Thus, the equilibrium condition requires that
eE = k1x1 and eE = k2x2
eE eE eE eE
x1 = = 2
and x2 = =
k1 M ω0 k2 mω02
Using the above expressions into equ. (33.34), we obtain the net displacement of ions as
eE eE
x= +
M ω0 mω02
2
eE  1 1
or x= 2 M
+  (33.35)
ω0  m 
The induced dipole moment m = e x.
e2 E  1 1
m= 2 M
+  (33.36)
ω0  m 
e2  1 1
\ The electronic polarizability ai = 2 M
+  (33.37)
ω0  m 
It is seen from the above expression for ionic polarizability that
● It is inversely proportional to the square of the natural frequency of the molecule.
1 1
● It is directly proportional to the reduced mass of the molecule,  +  .
M m
● It does not depend on temperature.
The ions experience electronic polarization in addition. For most materials, the ionic
polarizability is less than the electronic polarizability. Typically
1
ai = αe
10
The ionic polarization is given by
Pi = N ai E
Ne2  1 1
or Pi = 2 M
+ E (33.38)
ω0  m
Ionic polarization takes 10–11 to 10–14 s to build up, and is not influenced by temperature.
33.14.3 Orientation Polarization
The orientation polarization is characteristic of polar dielectrics, which consist of molecules
having permanent dipole moment. In the absence of external electric field, the orientation
Dielectrics 965
Applied field
of dipoles is random resulting in No Applied E
a complete cancellation of each + – + – + – +
–
–
other’s effect, as illustrated in –
+
+
+ – + – +
Fig. 33.15 (a). – + – – +
–
+
When the electric field
+
–
+ + – + – + + – +
–
–
is impressed the molecular –
–
– –
dipoles rotate about their axis + + + +
+
– – + –
+
of symmetry to align with the
applied field. In case of electronic (a) (b)
and ionic polarizations, the Fig. 33.15. Orientation polarization - (a) molecular dipoles
force due to the external field is are randomly oriented when E = 0 (b) When the field is
applied the dipoles are partially aligned.
balanced by a restoring force due
to coulomb attraction, but for orientation polarization, restoring forces do not exist. However,
the dipole alignment is counteracted by thermal agitation. The higher the temperature, the
greater is the thermal agitation. The dipoles can turn only through a small angle, as illustrated
in Fig. 33.15 (b). Even in case of liquids or gases, where molecules are free to rotate, a
complete alignment cannot be achieved due to the randomizing effect of the temperature.
However, it is estimated that it is enough if one molecular dipole in 105 completely aligns
with the field to produce orientation polarization of the order of electronic polarization.
Thus, orientation polarization is strongly temperature dependent. This type of polarization
occurs in gases, liquids and amorphous viscous substances. In case of solids, the molecules
are fixed in their positions and their rotation is highly restricted by the lattice forces, leading
to a great reduction in their contribution to orientation polarization. Because of this reason,
while the dielectric constant of water is about 80, that of solid ice is about only 10.
As the process of orientation polarization involves rotation of molecules, it takes relatively
longer time than the electronic and ionic polarizations. The build up time is of the order of
10–10 s or more.
Expression for Orientation Polarizability - Langevin-Debye theory
Let us consider a polar gas dielectric. If it is subjected to an electric field, E (of appropriate
low frequency), the individual dipoles experience torque and tend to align themselves with
the electric field. If the electric field is sufficiently strong, all the dipoles in the gas would be
completely aligned into the field direction and the orientation polarization would reach the
saturation value
P0 = Nm
where N is the number of molecular dipoles per unit volume of the gas. However, at the
modest electric field strengths usually employed, the dipole alignment is not complete and
is much less than the saturation value, given above. This is due to the effect of temperature,
which counteracts the ordering effect of the electric field. The thermal agitation of molecules
tends to randomize the orientation of dipoles. A modest orientation of dipoles is achieved in
thermal equilibrium. In the equilibrium state, the molecular dipoles are distributed over all
directions making angles varying from 0 to p radians with the field direction.
The potential energy of a dipole is given by
U = – m E cos q (33.39)
According to statistical mechanics, the number of dipoles, dN, having orientation between
q and q + dq is proportional to
e(–U/kT)dW
where dW is the solid angle. Referring to Fig. 33.16, it is given by

dW = 2p sin q dq
A dipole making an angle q with the field direction contributes a component of dipole
moment m cos q parallel to the field. Hence the contribution of the dN dipoles to the orientation
polarization is
dPo = mdΩ dN cos q
\ dPo = 2 p m emE cos q/kT cos q sin q dq (33.40)
Therefore, the average contribution to polarization is given by
Total polarization due to all dipoles
Pave = (33.41)
Total number of dipoles
π
 µ E cos θ 
µ ∫ exp  cos θ sin θ d θ
0  kT 
= π
(33.42)
 µ E cos θ 
∫ exp  kT  sin θ d θ
0 d
Putting mE/kT = b, and cos q = y into the above equation,
we rewrite it as follows.
−1
µ ∫ yeβy dy 1 sin x
+1
Pave = −1
E
βy
∫e dy
+1 Fig. 33.16
β −β
Pave (e + e ) 1 1
or = β −β
− = coth β − ≡ L(β) (33.43)
µ (e − e ) β β
where L(b) is called the Langevin function. For electric fields that are not too high and for
temperatures not too low, L(b) is given by
1 µE
L(b) ≅ β = (33.44)
3 3kT
µ2 E
\ Pave = (33.45)
3kT
The total orientation polarization of the dielectric is
N µ2 E
P0 = NPave = (33.46)
3 kT
which states that the orientation polarization is directly proportional to the square of the
permanent dipole moment and inversely proportional to the temperature.
N µ2E
As Po = = N α0 E,
3kT
The orientation polarizability a0 is given by
µ2
a0 = (33.47)
3kT
We have from equ. (33.17) that P = e0 (er – 1)E.
Dielectrics 967
Considering the contribution only from orientational polarization, we write the above
expression as
P0 = e0 (er – 1)E (33.48)
Equating the expressions (33.46) and (33.48), we obtain
N µ2
e0(er – 1) = (33.49)
3kT
33.14.4 Space Charge Polarization

Space charge polarization occurs in heterogeneous dielectric materials in which there is a
change of electrical properties between different phases and in the homogeneous dielectrics
that contain impurities, pores filled with air, inclusions of hygroscopic water etc. In particular,
the properties of plastics, ceramics etc materials in their outer layers are likely to differ
from those in depth because of the environmental effects and as a result they may behave as
heterogeneous materials. When an electric field is applied, the electric charges those migrate
within the impurity regions store up at the interfaces. The accumulation of charges takes place
with opposite polarity on the interfaces, as shown in Fig. 33.17. The space charge polarization
takes generally a longer time and this polarization therefore occurs at low frequencies. Space
charge polarization is also known as interfacial polarization or migrational polarization.
E
Dielectric
– + + –
+ – +
– + – +
+ + –
+ –+ Fixed Charge + – – +
– + –
– + Mobile Charge – +
+ + –
Electrode Electrode
Accumulated Charge
(a)
E=0 Applied field, E

+ – + – +
– – + + – +
– + – – + – +
– – + +
– – –
+
(i) (ii) Grain Boundary or Interface

(b) (c)
Fig. 33.17. Space charge polarization.
Interfacial polarization occurs whenever there is an accumulation of charge at an interface

between two materials or between two regions within a material (Fig. 33.17 a). One of the
typical examples of interfacial polarization is the grain boundaries that frequently lead to
interfacial polarization as they can trap charges migrating under the influence of an applied
field (Fig. 33.17 c). Interfaces also arise in heterogeneous dielectric materials for example,
when there is a dispersed phase within a continuous phase (Fig. 33.17 b).
Normally, interfacial polarization exists in materials, however perfect they may be, as
they contain crystal defects, impurities, and various mobile charge carriers such as electrons,
holes, or ionized impurity ions. H+, Li+ ions cause this type of polarization in ceramics and
glasses.
While the other mechanisms are amenable to calculations, interfacial polarization defies
any basic treatment. There is no general way to calculate the charges on either interfaces or
their contribution to the total polarization of a dielectric.
Interfacial polarization is therefore often omitted from the discussion of dielectric
properties. However, interfacial polarization is important because on the one hand many
dielectrics in real capacitors rely on interface polarization while, it may harm electronic
devices such as MOS transistors.
33.14.5 Total Polarization
In a material, which can experience all forms of polarization, the total polarization is equal
to the sum of the electronic, ionic, orientation and migrational polarizations. The total
polarization is given by
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + P0 + Pm
In general, the migrational polarization is very small and negligible. Therefore, total
polarization in a material may be taken as due to the other three contributions only. Thus,
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + P0 (33.50)
The total polarization of a polar dielectric is therefore given by
P = N[ae + ai + a0]E
 3 e2  1 1  µ2 
or = N  4πε0 R + 2  + + E (33.51)
 ω0  M m  3 kT 
The total polarizability is given by

a = ae + ai + a0
3 e2  1 1  µ2
or a = 4πε0 R +  + + (33.52)
ω02  M m  3kT
It is possible for one or more of the contributions to the polarization to be either absent
or negligible in magnitude relative to the others. For instance, orientation polarization does
not exist in non polar dielectrics. Similarly, ionic polarization will not be found in covalently
bonded materials. Electronic polarization will be negligible compared to orientation
polarization in polar dielectrics.
0(r – 1) or P
33.15 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF 2

N /3k
POLARIZATION
It is seen from equ. (33.51) that the electronic and ionic
polarization do not depend on temperature and remain
constant at all temperatures. However, the orientation N(e + i)
polarization is inversely proportional to the temperature
and decreases as the temperature increases. If 1/T
polarization P is plotted as function of 1/T, a straight line
Fig. 33.18. The variation of total
will be obtained, as shown in Fig. 33.18. The intercept of polarization as a function of 1/T.
the line with y-axis at 1/T = 0 gives the value of N(ae +
ai) from which ( ae + ai) can be evaluated. The dipole moment m can be computed from the
slope of the straight line, knowing the value of N, and the number of molecules per m3.
Dielectrics 969
33.16 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF TOTAL POLARIZATION

In many practical situations, a dielectric is subjected to an alternating electric field. An ac
field changes its direction with time. With each UHF
direction reversal, the polarization components to IR UV
micro
are required to follow the field reversals in order waves
to contribute to the total polarization of the 0
dielectric. It follows that the total polarization
Total polarizability
depends on the ability of dipoles to orient
i
themselves in the direction of the field during
each alternation of the field. The dependence of
P on frequency of the electric field is sketched, in e
Fig. 33.19, for a polar dielectric.
In audio frequency region, all types of Frequency
polarization are possible and the dielectric is
characterized by a polarizability a = ae + ai +
Fig. 33.19
ao and the polarization P = Pe + Pi + Po. At low
frequencies, the dipoles will get sufficient time to orient themselves completely along the
instantaneous direction of the field. This orientation occurs first in one direction and then in
the other, following the changes in the direction of the field (Fig. 33.20). The average time
taken by the dipoles to reorient in the field direction is known as the relaxation time t. The
reciprocal of the relaxation time is called the relaxation frequency n. If the frequency of the
applied electric field is much higher than the relaxation frequency of the dipoles, the dipoles
cannot reverse fast enough. If the dipole relaxation time t is less than half the period of the
electric field T (<< T/2), the dipole can easily follow electric field alternations and contribute
to orientation polarization. Consequently, the orientation polarization, which is effective at
low frequencies, is damped out for higher frequencies, (ffield > frelax). Usually in the radio
frequency or microwave band region, the permanent dipoles fail to follow the field reversals
and the polarization falls to a value corresponding to (Pi + Pe). As a result, er decreases
considerably.
E E
+
E E
– +
E
– +
+ E
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 33.20: The behaviour of (a) permanent and (b) and (c) induced dipoles in an alternating
electric field.
Again, typically in the infrared region the ionic polarization fails to follow the field
reversals due to the inertia of the system and the contribution of ionic polarizability ceases. In
this region, only electronic polarization contributes to the total polarization. Therefore P = Pe.
In the optical region, the electron cloud follows the field variations and the material exhibits
an electronic polarizability ae. The relative permittivity in the optical region will be equal to
the square of the refractive index ‘n’ of the dielectric. Thus,
[er]optical region = n2 (33.53)
In the ultraviolet region, the electron cloud too fails to follow the field alternations
and electronic contribution to the polarization ceases. Consequently, the total polarization
becomes zero. It follows from equation (33.52) that the relative permittivity approaches unity
at frequencies above the ultraviolet range. Thus,
[er]X-ray = 1
To cite the example of water, the low frequency dielectric constant, generally referred
to as static dielectric constant, at room temperature is about 80. It falls to about 1.9 in the
optical region.
33.17 THE INTERNAL FIELD IN SOLIDS
In gases the atoms are in constant random motion and are separated by sufficiently large
distances. As such the interaction between the atoms can be neglected. When an external
field E is applied, the intensity of the electric field felt by a given atom in the gas will be
equal to the applied field E. In case of solids and liquids subjected to external electric field,
the atoms are surrounded on all sides by other polarized atoms, and the internal intensity of
the electric field at a given point of the material is, in general, not equal to the intensity of
the applied field E. The internal field Ei, which is defined as the electric field acting at the
location of a given atom, is given by the sum of the electric fields created by the neighbouring
atoms and the applied field. In evaluation of the bulk polarization, the additional effects of the
surrounding polarized atoms are to be taken into account. The effective field intensity Ei in
the dielectric is given by
Ei = E + E′
where E′ is the field due to neighbouring atoms. The value of E′ can be evaluated by the
summation of all the effects of the surrounding atoms. To illustrate the method of evaluation,
let us consider a one-dimensional solid consisting of a string of equidistant identical atoms,
each of polarizability ae as depicted in Fig. 33.21.
d
E Ei Ei
–e+Ze
i i i i i i i
na a
Fig. 33.21. The electric field Ei seen by the atoms is different from the external field E which is,
say given by E = V/L. A one-dimensional solid is considered for computation of local field.
Let us consider an external field E applied in a direction parallel to the string. We shall
determine the net internal field Ei experienced by one of the atoms, say A. The field seen
by all other atoms will also be the same, and from the consideration of symmetry Ei will be
parallel to E. The dipole moment induced in each of the atoms of the string is therefore
mind = ae Ei
Dielectrics 971
The field at A due to the dipole induced in an atom located at a distance ‘na’ from it is
given
Ze  1 1  Ze  (na + d ) 2 − (na )2 
En =  −  =  
4πε0  (na) 2 (na + d )2  4πε0  (na )2 (na + d ) 2 
Ze  2nad + d 2  2 Zed
=  2 2
≅ 3
(since d << na)
4πε0  (na) (na + d )  4πε0 (na)
µi
= (since mi = Zed )
2πε0 (na)3
The total field Ei at A is given by
µi  ∞ 1 
Ei = E + 2 ∑  (33.54)
2πε0  n =1 (na)3 
The factor 2 in the parenthesis takes into account the atoms to the left and to the right of
atom A.
µi ∞ 1
Ei = E + ∑
πε0 a3 n =1 n3
1.2µi
or Ei = E + (33.55)
πε0 a3
Thus, the combined effect of induced dipoles of
neighbouring atoms is to produce a net field at the location
of a given atom, which is larger than the applied field. It is
seen from the equation (33.55) that the greater the polariz-
ability ae or the smaller the intermolecular spacing ‘a’, the
larger is the internal field.
33.18 LORENTZ FIELD

The local field in a three dimensional solid is determined
by the structure of the solid. An accurate calculation of
the internal field in solids and liquids is in general very
complicated. Fig. 33.22. Computation of
Lorentz field.
Let us consider a dielectric slab kept in a uniform
electric field, E (Fig. 33.22). Let a molecule be at the point O and be surrounded by a spherical
cavity of radius r. Let r be arbitrary but sufficiently large compared to molecular dimensions
and sufficiently small compared to the dimensions of the dielectric slab. The spherical cavity
contains many molecules within it. The molecule at O experiences three electric fields acting
on it.
1. The external electric field E
2. The field E1 due to induced charges on the surface of the spherical cavity
3. The field E2 due to the molecular dipoles present in the spherical cavity.
Therefore, the total internal field intensity, Ei is given by
Ei = E + E1 + E2 (33.56)
To calculate E1, let us imagine that the dielectric is removed from the sphere. For the
actual pattern of the electric field not to be distorted, a surface electric charge should be placed
on the spherical surface. At each point of the sphere, the surface charge density is given by
s = P cos q
where q is the angle between radius vector r and the direction of E. The charge on element dS
of the surface of the sphere will be
dq = s dS = P cos q dS (33.57)
This charge will produce electric field intensity dE1 at the center of the sphere.
dq P
dE1 = 2
= cos θ dS (33.58)
4π ε 0 r 4πε0 r 2
This electric field can be resolved into two components: one component dE1 cos q parallel
to the direction of E and the other dE1 sin q perpendicular to the direction of E.
P
dE1cos q = cos 2 θ dS (33.59)
4πε0 r 2
P
and dE1 sin q = cos θ sin θ dS (33.60)
4πε0 r 2
It is obvious that the perpendicular components of the upper and lower half of the sphere
cancel each other and only the parallel components contribute to the total intensity E1. E1 is
obtained by integrating dE1 over the whole surface area of the sphere. Thus,
π π
P 2
E1 = ∫ dE1 cos θ dS =
4πε0 r 2 ∫ cos θ dS
0 0
But dS = 2p r2 sin q dq. Therefore,
π
P
E1 = ∫ cos 2 θ sin θ d θ
2ε 0 0
Let cos q = x and therefore, – sin q dq = dx.
−1 −1
P 2 P  x3  2P
\ E1 = −
2ε 0 ∫ x dx = −   =
2ε0  3  6ε 0
1 1
P
or E1 = (33.61)
3ε0
It may be deduced from Fig. 33.22 that the direction of E1 coincides with the direction
of E. As there exists symmetrical distribution of molecular dipoles around the molecule at O
within the cavity, their contributions cancel each other.
\ E2 = 0.
Hence the total internal field is given by
Ei = E + E1
P
\ Ei = E + (33.62)
3ε0
The field given by the above equation (33.62) is called Lorentz field or local field.
Dielectrics 973
33.19 CLAUSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION

Let us consider now the simple case of an elemental solid dielectric, which exhibits only
electronic polarizability. Solids such as diamond, silicon and germanium crystals are made up
of single type of atoms. If ae is the electronic polarizability per atom, it is related to the bulk
polarization P through the relation
P
ae = (33.62)
NEi
where N is the number of atoms per m3 and Ei is the local field. Following the equation
(33.61) for Ei, we write
P
ae = (33.63)
 γP 
N E + 
 ε0 
where g is known as the internal field constant.
According to equation (33.17)
P
E=
ε0 (ε r − 1)
If the internal field is assumed to be Lorentz field, g = 1/3 (see eqn. 33.62), and equation
(33.63) becomes
P
ae =
 P 
N E + 
 3 ε0 
Using the relation (33.17) into the above equation, we obtain
P
ae =
 P P 
N + 
ε (
 0 r ε − 1) 3ε0 
N αe 1 1
or = =
ε0  1 1  ε + 2 
 +   r 
ε
 r − 1 3   3(ε r − 1) 
3(ε r − 1) N αe
or =
εr + 2 ε0
εr − 1 N αe
\ = (33.64)
εr + 2 3ε0
The above equation is known as Clausius-Mosotti equation which is valid for nonpolar
solids having cubic crystal structure.
The measured values of er for the three elements of IV group of the periodic table are as
follows:
Diamond Silicon Germanium
er 5.68 → 12 → 16 →
Example 33.4: The atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and 2.08 gm/cm3 respectively.
The electronic polarizability of the atom is 3.28 × 10–40F.m2. If sulphur solid has cubic
symmetry, what will be its relative permittivity?
εr − 1 N αe N ρα
Solution. = = A e
εr + 2 3ε0 3M ε0
εr − 1 (6.023 × 1026 )(2.08 × 103 kg/m3 )(3.28 × 10−40 F.m 2 )
=
εr + 2 3 × 32 × 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
= 0.483
1.966
\ er = = 3.8
0.517
Example 33.5. A dielectric material has er = 4.94 and n2 = 2.69. Calculate the ratio between
electronic and ionic polarizability of this material.
εr − 1 Nα N (α e + α i )
Solution. = =  a0 is negligibly small.
εr + 2 3ε0 3ε0
N (α e + α i ) 4.94 − 1
\ = = 0.568 (i)
3ε0 4.94 + 2
At optical frequencies, er = n2
n2 − 1 Nα
\ 2
=
n +2 3ε0
Nα 2.69 − 1
or = = 0.360 (ii)
3ε0 2.69 + 2
Dividing equ. (i) by (ii), we get
N (α e + α i ) 0.568
= = 1.578
N αe 0.360
α
or 1+ i = 1.578
αe
αi
or = 0.578
αe
αe
\ = 1.73
αi
33.20 DIELECTRIC LOSS

When a conductor is subjected to an a.c. or d.c. electric field, it dissipates part of the electrical
energy, which gets converted to heat energy. That part of energy is lost or wasted, as no useful
work is done by it. The term ‘power loss’ denotes the average electrical power dissipated in a
material during a certain interval of time. The power loss in conductors is also called I2R loss
or Joules heat.
As distinct from conductors, the power (I2R) loss in dielectrics subjected to dc voltages
will be very small due to the high resistance of the dielectric materials, whereas the power loss
in ac fields will be quite large. The absorption of electrical energy by a dielectric subjected
to an alternating electric field is known as the dielectric loss. The dielectric loss caused by an
ac field also results in dissipation of the electrical energy as heat in the materials. An ideal
dielectric does not absorb electrical energy. However, a real dielectric always causes some
loss of electrical energy.
Dielectrics 975
The origin of dielectric loss may be understood as follows. An ac field changes its
direction with time. With each direction reversal, the molecules are required to follow the
field reversals in order to contribute to the polarization of the dielectric. When a capacitor is
charged in one half-cycle, the molecules of the dielectric medium are polarized. When the
capacitor is discharged in the second half-cycle, the molecules should revert to their initial
condition. When it happens, the energy spent in charging the capacitor is completely returned.
However, in the process of returning to their initial state, the molecules jostle with each other
and lose energy due to friction. The energy lost due to friction takes the form of heat. This
energy loss will increase with increase in frequency.
33.20.1 Loss Angle and Loss Tangent
Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor C, constituted by plates of area A and separated by
a distance d. Let a dielectric having permittivity er fill the space between the plates. Let a
sinusoidal voltage V of angular frequency w be applied to the capacitor. The current through
the capacitor is given by
V
I = jw CV + (33.65)
R
or I = j Ir + Ia (33.66)
The above relations indicate that two kinds of current flow through the dielectric the
conduction current Ia = V/R and the displacement current Ir, given by
Ir = w CV
The resultant current I = I r2 + I a2 lags behind the displacement current by an angle d.
I
In case of an ideal dielectric, Ir
R ≈ ∞ and Ia = 0; and it would not
absorb electric energy. In such a
case, the resultant current I would C
be ahead of the voltage V precisely
by a phase angle f = 90° and the
current would have been purely
reactive current Ir. Ia

Fig. 33.23. A dielectric in an alternating field. The current
ωε0 ε r AV through the capacitor is sum of reactive and absorption
I = Ir = current components.
d
However, for a lossy dielectric, the total current is
I = Ia + j | Ir |
The phase angle f between V and I is now slightly less than 90°. The angle d = (90 – f )
is called the loss angle. It is given by
I
tan d = a (33.67)
Ir
V /R 1
or tan d = = (33.68)
ωCV ωCR
tan d is known as the loss tangent. It represents the electrical power lost which is often in the
form of heat. Hence it is also called dissipation factor.
The real power loss in the dielectric is given by

PL = V Ia = V Ir tan d = w CV2 tan d
ωε0 ε r A V 2 2πf ε0 ε r ( Ad )V 2
= tan δ = tan δ
d d2
or PL = 2p u e0 E2f er tan d (33.69)
Substituting the values of 2p and e0 into the above equation, we obtain
PL = 5.565 × 10–11υ E2 f er tan d
where υ = Ad is the volume of the dielectric and E = V/d.
It follows from equ. (33.69) that the power loss PL in a dielectric is related to (i) the
dissipation factor (ii) the dielectric constant, (iii) the frequency of the electric field, (iv) the
electric field and (v) the volume of the dielectric.
33.20.2 Complex Relative Permittivity
In most of the materials, the dielectric behaviour is more complex indicating the presence
of other sources of dielectric loss. To include losses from all sources, we rewrite the equation
(33.66) as
 I  jωAV ε0 ε r
I = Ia + j | Ir | = j | I r | 1 − j a  = (1 − j tan δ) (33.70)
 | I |
r  d
Equation (33.70) suggest that the lossy

dielectric can be described with the aid of a εr′ εr∗
complex relative permittivity e*r given by
e*r = ε′r (1 − j tan δ)
C R
or e*r = ε′r − j ε′′r (33.71) δ
ε′′r φ
where tan d = (33.72) εr″
ε′r
Fig. 33.24. Representaion of a lossy
Therefore the product (e′r tan d) is dielectric. The complex dielectric constant
known as the loss factor. A lossy dielectric is at angle to the real part of dielectric
is represented by a resistance parallel to the constant.
capacitor, as shown in Fig. 33.24.
Using (33.72) into (33.69), we can write
P 2
Power dissipation per unit volume L = ωε0 ε′′r E (33.73)
V
At any given frequency, e″r produces the same type of macroscopic effect as the
conductivity s and for all practical purposes the two are indistinguishable.
33.20.3 Dielectric Loss Spectrum
The typical variation of e′r and e″r of a polar dielectric with frequency are shown in
Fig. 33.25.
At audio frequencies, the electric field reverses slowly so that the molecular dipoles can
keep shifting their orientation directions in step with the field alternations (Fig. 33.26). There
is no power loss in this region. In the r. f. region, the rotation of the dipoles in order to
align with the electric field direction is opposed by the internal friction of the material and
Dielectrics 977
the thermal agitation of the molecules. ε′

ε–
Consequently, the dipoles lag behind
∆εmig
the forces that cause the motion. A
phase difference develops between εst
polarization and the electric field ∆εd
resulting in a fall of e′r as the frequency ε ∞
2 ∆εe ∆εion
increases. It is accompanied by heating n
1 ω
of the dielectric and therefore by a loss 0
of energy. Energy supplied to maintain ε ″
the rotation of the dipoles accounts for

power loss.
At frequencies of the field near
the relaxation frequency of dipoles, the ωr d ω01 ω02 ω03 ω
0 ωr mig
rotation becomes more rapid and the . .
energy loss approaches a maximum at Fig. 33.25. Schematic representation of the

the relaxation frequency. At frequencies frequency dependence of the real and imaginary
above the relaxation frequency, parts of relative permittivity of a dielectric.
the electric field reverses so rapidly that the dipoles cannot follow the field reversals due
to inertia. By the time the dipole attempts to align along the particular direction, the field
direction changes. Therefore, the dipoles fail to respond and maintain a random orientation
and no more become aligned with the field. Consequently, the dielectric constant is reduced
and the power loss decreases after going through a maximum. At much higher frequencies,
the losses become negligible. As a result the e″r vs frequency variation exhibits a bell shaped
profile with a maximum at the molecular dipole relaxation frequency and reaching zero
on either side. It is seen thus
that the greatest loss occurs at + + + +
–– – – –
frequencies at which the dipoles
can almost but not completely be
reoriented. At lower frequencies,
losses are low because the E E
dipoles have time to rotate. At
higher frequencies losses are
low because the dipoles do not + + + + –– – – –
rotate at all. The losses in this T >τ
2
process are known as relaxation
Fig. 33.26
losses.
Up to the infrared region, ionic dipoles follow electric field variations. When one
constituent of the dipole is displaced relative to the other, it again experiences a restoring
force proportional to the displacement and executes simple harmonic motion. The natural
frequencies of the simple harmonic motion lie in the range of 1013 to 1014 Hz. When the
frequencies of the applied field approaches this region, resonance of ionic dipoles occurs
and power is absorbed from the field. When the frequency of the field exceeds their natural
frequency, the ionic dipoles do not respond and cannot absorb power. The losses encountered
in this process are known as resonance losses.
Till the optical frequencies, the electron clouds in the molecule respond to the electric
field variation of the applied voltage. The electron cloud executes simple harmonic motion,
the natural frequency of this motion lying in the range of 1017 and 1018 Hz. When the
frequency of the driving field reaches this value, resonance absorption takes place because of
which electrons get excited to higher energy levels. Subsequently, they reemit this energy in a
random fashion, in the form of optical photons. For frequencies greater than these, electrons
fail to follow the excursions of the field and cannot absorb power any more. The losses
encountered in this process are also known as resonance losses.
33.21 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

When a dielectric is subjected to very high electric fields, a considerable number of covalent
bonds may be torn away and electrons may get excited to energies within the conduction
band. These electrons acquire a large kinetic energy and cause localized melting, burning
and vapourization of material leading to irreversible degradation and failure of the material.
Conducting channels running from electrode to electrode form. It results in high electrical
conductivity and total loss of the charge storage property of the dielectric. The formation of
such conducting paths in a dielectric under the action of an applied electric field is termed
dielectric breakdown.
33.21.1 Dielectric Strength
The dielectric strength of a material is a measure of the ability of that material to withstand
high electric fields. It is defined as the maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand
without suffering electrical breakdown. Thus,
V 
Dielectric strength, Emax =  max  (33.74)
 d 
In other words, the dielectric strength is the limiting electric field intensity above,
which a breakdown occurs and the charge storage property of the dielectric disappears. The
dielectric strength depends on the thickness of the insulating material and on the length of
time for which the dielectric is subjected to electric field. Moisture, contamination, elevated
temperature, ageing and mechanical stress usually tend to decrease the dielectric strength of
the material.
33.21.2 Breakdown Mechanisms in Solid Dielectrics
The physical pattern of breakdown of solid dielectrics may differ in various cases. However,
the fundamental breakdown mechanisms are as follows.
1. Intrinsic breakdown 2. Thermal breakdown
3. Discharge breakdown 4. Electrochemical breakdown and
5. Defect breakdown
1. Intrinsic breakdown:
When a dielectric is subjected to very high electric fields, a considerable number
of covalent bonds may be torn away and electrons may get excited to energies within the
conduction bond. Since the electric field is very high, the electrons acquire a large kinetic
energy. They collide with other atoms and molecules and release more electrons, which in
turn collide with more atoms there by liberating more electrons. The number of electrons
increases very rapidly with time. Conducting channels form running from electrode to
electrode and it results in high electrical conductivity. Ultimately, dielectric breakdown
occurs. Localized melting, burning and vaporization of material take place at this stage
causing irreversible degradation and failure of the material. This type of breakdown is called
avalanche breakdown.
The characteristics of intrinsic breakdown are as follows:
● It occurs at larger electric fields.
Dielectrics 979
● It occurs at ordinary temperatures.

● It occurs in thin samples.
● The breakdown time is of the order of microseconds.
2. Thermal breakdown:
In dielectric materials, energy due to the dielectric loss appears as heat. This heat must
be dissipated away to the surroundings. If the rate of heat generation is larger than the rate
of heat dissipation, the temperature of the dielectric increases which results in local melting.
Eventually the dielectric breaks down. Thus, dielectric breakdown occurs when the rate of
heat generation is larger than the rate of heat dissipation.
The characteristics of thermal breakdown are as follows:
● It occurs at high temperatures.
● The breakdown time is of the order of milliseconds.
● In ac fields, the breakdown strength is lower.
● The breakdown strength depends on the size and shape of the material sample.
3. Discharge breakdown:
Breakdown of dielectrics by gas discharge is classified as external breakdown or internal
breakdown.
External breakdown is caused by a glow or corona discharge and is observed at sharp
edges of electrodes. The discharge causes gradual deterioration of the solid dielectric held
between the electrodes. Such deterioration is accompanied by the formation of carbon.
Therefore, the damaged areas becoming conducting. Eventually, conducting paths are formed
leading to a powerful arc and total failure of the dielectric. Such breakdown is caused mainly
due to the contamination of the dielectric surface by conducting impurities such as dust,
moisture etc.
Internal breakdown occurs due to the presence of gas or liquid filled cavities within the
solid dielectric. The inherent strength to electric stress of such cavities is low relative to the
solid portion. As a result partial discharges may occur in such cavities and cause gradual
deterioration of the adjacent solid dielectric.
The characteristics of thermal breakdown are as follows:
● It occurs at low electric fields.
● It depends on the frequency of applied voltage.
4. Electrochemical breakdown:
Electrochemical breakdown is very much related to thermal breakdown. Many materials
have free ions which cause leakage current in the presence of electric field. When temperature
increases, mobility of ions increases and also increases leakage current. Electrochemical
reaction takes place in the material. Field induced chemical reactions reduces the resistance of
the dielectric and finally results in breakdown.
The characteristics of electrochemical breakdown are as follows:
● It depends on the concentration of ions and magnitude of leakage current.
● It occurs at ordinary temperatures.
5. Defect breakdown:
If the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks and porosity, impurities
such as dust or moisture may deposit at these defects. These impurities lead to breakdown.
33.22 APPLICATIONS
Two most important applications of dielectric materials are as insulating materials and as
medium in capacitors. For insulating materials application the dielectric is required to have
low dielectric constant, low dielectric loss, high resistance and high dielectric strength.
Further, they should possess adequate chemical stability, high moisture resistance, and
suitable mechanical properties for particular service condition.
A. Solid Insulating Materials
Polymers and ceramics are the widely used solid insulators. A variety of plastics, rubbers,
waxes, paper, synthetic fibres and fabrics are applied in the form of films, sheets, slabs,
tapes, sleeving, tubing, rods and moulding. Plastics such as polyethylene, polytetrafluroeth-
ylene (PTFE) and polysterene have low er and practically no dielectric loss. Porcelain towers
are used in high voltage power lines because of their high dielectric strength. The dielectric
strength of porcelain bodies is enhanced by glazing their surfaces. Porcelain, glass, mica,
alumina and asbestos are widely used ceramics.
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electronic component that stores energy in the form of electric field.
Basically, it consists of two conducting plates separated by a dielectric. Capacitors are widely
used in electrical and electronic equipments.
(i) Paper Capacitors: In this type of capacitors, one or more layers of extremely thin
kraft or linen paper is used as the dielectric medium. The paper is kept between aluminium
foils which act as the metal plates. The whole assembly is rolled into a cylindrical element.
The dielectric is impregnated with mineral oil or waxes to prevent absorption of moisture.
(ii) Plastic Capacitors: Plastics can be formed in thin, uniform and non-porous films.
Such thin plastic films are used as dielectric medium in these capacitors. Some of the materials
used are polyester, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, poly tetrafluoro-
ethylene (PTFE) and polythene Terephthalate films.
(iii) Ceramic Capacitors: These capacitors use ceramic as the dielectric medium. Low
loss low permittivity capacitors are made from steatite which formed in the form of a thin
plate or foil. High permittivity capacitors use barium titanate as the dielectric material.
(iv) Mica Capacitors: Muscovite mica is a naturally occurring material and can be
laminated into very thin sheets. This material has good mechanical strength and can be used
up to high temperatures of the order of 500°C. Impregnants like polystyrene improve the
properties of mica.
(v) Glass Capacitors: Very thin plates of glass are used as dielectric in these capacitors.
The plates are interleaved with aluminium foil and fused together to form a solid block.
(vi) Electrolytic Capacitors: In electrolytic capacitors, a metallic anode has oxide film
grown over it and this oxide layer acts as a dielectric. The anode is surrounded by an electro-
lytic solution of ammonium borate or sodium phosphate which acts as cathode.
In aluminium electrolytic capacitors, etched aluminium foil is used as anode. Aluminium
oxide film is grown over it which acts as a dielectric film. The electrolyte in liquid form is
held in contact with dielectric film. Another etched aluminium foil is used as the cathode. The
assembly is sealed in an aluminium can.
B. Liquid Insulating materials
Liquid insulating materials are mainly mineral oils and synthetic oils, which are used for
the purpose of insulation as well as cooling in transformers.
Transformers
A transformer is a device used for transmitting power from one circuit to another or from
one place to another place. It consists of two windings, primary and secondary windings,
linked by a common magnetic flux. During the construction of transformers, the windings are
impregnated by varnishes. In case of H.V. transformers used in distribution of power where
Dielectrics 981
very high voltages are present, proper provisions are to be provided to distribute away the heat
produced and to provide high dielectric strength. These transformers are usually immersed in
liquid dielectrics.
(i) Mineral insulating oil: Mineral oil has very high dielectric strength and is highly
viscous. It transfers heat from the transformer windings and core to the outer shield and
enables dissipation of the heat generated. The oil should be perfectly free from moisture
to maintain its high dielectric strength. Even small traces of water significantly reduce the
dielectric strength. Therefore, the oil is periodically dehydrated. Secondly, sludge formation
takes place in the oil due to constant heating of the oil during its working and it also should be
removed periodically to maintain its initial quality.
(ii) Synthetic insulating oil: Nowadays, synthetic oils are being used in place of mineral
oils because synthetic oils are much more resistant to oxidation and fire hazards. Sovol,
sovotol etc are some of the synthetic oils widely used in H.V. transformers.
(iii) Miscellaneous insulating oils: Petroleum oils, silicone oils, and vegetable oils
belong to this category. They have high thermal stability. They are mainly used as filling
medium for transformers, circuit breakers etc and as impregnants for high voltage cables.
33.22.1 Dielectric Heating
Insulating materials can be efficiently heated up by subjecting them to a high voltage of
suitable frequency, namely the frequency at which dielectric loss in maximum. The dielectric
loss manifests in the form of heat. Adequate heating may be obtained at high voltages of the
order of 20 kV having a frequency of about 30 MHz. The chief advantage of this method is
that the material is heated up quickly as the heat is produced in the insulating material itself.
Cooking in microwave oven is one of the popular examples of dielectric heating. Water
invariably exists in all articles of food, which exhibits dielectric loss in microwave region. In
an oven, microwaves produced by a source are distributed by reflection from the metal walls.
They pass through the glass-cooking dish and are absorbed by water molecules. The food is
cooked due to the heat produced in the absorption process.
Dielectric heating is widely employed in dehydration of food, tobacco etc. Wooden sheets
are preferred to be glued by this method. The heat produced in the glue due to the dielectric
absorption leads to binding of the wooden sheets. The advantage of this method is that the
moisture content of wooden sheets remains unaltered.
33.23 PIEZOELECTRICITY
Dielectric materials may be divided into the two following categories:
(i) linear dielectrics and
(ii) nonlinear dielectrics.
(i) Linear dielectrics are those materials in which the polarization P and displacement
D are directly proportional to the intensity of the electric field E; and relative permittivity er
and susceptibility c do not depend on the intensity of electric field. They are also known as
passive dielectrics.
(ii) Nonlinear dielectrics are those materials in which relative permittivity er and
susceptibility c depend on the intensity of electric field. These materials are known as active
dielectrics.
Piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics, ferroelectrics and some of the optical media belong to the
category of nonlinear dielectrics. Piezoelectric crystals provide a coupling between electrical
and mechanical forces and hence serve as transducers which produce or detect electrical
or mechanical signals. Hence they are used to detect very small mechanical displacements
and small amounts of electric charge. All commercial piezoelectric materials used today are
ferroelectrics.
33.23.1 Piezoelectric Effect
The French physicists Pierre Curie and Paul-Jean Curie discovered the piezoelectric effect
in 1880. When one pair of opposite faces of certain asymmetric crystals such as quartz is
compressed, opposite electric charges appear on the other pair of opposite faces of the crystal
(Fig. 33.27). If the crystals are subjected to tension, the polarities of the charges are reversed.
The development of charges as a result of the mechanical deformation is known as the direct
piezoelectric effect. Crystals that exhibit piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric crystals.
++++++++++
++++++++++
– – –
++++++++++ ++++++++++
– – – + + +
– – –
+ + + – – –
+ + + d
– – – V
– – – d + + +
d + + +
+ + + –––––––––
––––––––– – – – – – – – – –
–––––––––

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 33.27. (a) Electric dipoles in a piezoelectric crystal. (b) Mechanical forces cause appearance
of polarization charges (c) An external voltage applied across ends of the crystal causes
dimensional changes.
Piezoelectric effect is exhibited by a crystal only if the crystalline symmetry is

non-centrosymmetric. Crystals are classified into 32 point groups according to their crystal-
lographic symmetry. Out of them, there are 21 point groups, which do not have center of
symmetry. Crystals belonging to 20 of these point groups are piezoelectric.
In some ionic crystals the center of positive charge in the unit cell of the crystal does
not coincide with the center of the negative charge. Therefore there is a net dipole moment
associated with the unit cell of such crystals. Ammonium phosphate, quartz, PZT (lead
zirconate titanate) are examples of piezoelectric materials.
The converse effect can also occur. If an electric field is applied across one pair of faces of
a piezoelectric crystal, it gets deformed along the direction of the other opposite pair of faces.
If an alternating voltage is applied between the two opposite faces of the crystal, it vibrates
with the frequency of the field. The mechanical deformation of piezoelectric materials caused
by an external electric field is known as the inverse piezoelectric effect.
In ordinary solids, a stress causes a proportional strain ‘s’ related by an elastic modulus.
Piezoelectricity is the additional creation of the electric charge by an applied stress. The
induced polarization P, in direct piezoelectric effect, is directly proportional to the applied
mechanical stress, s. Thus,
P = ds (33.75)
where d is the proportionality constant and is known as piezoelectric coefficient and is
expressed in Coulombs/Newton. It may be defined as the charge developed per unit force.
A change in sign of s, reverses the sign of polarization. The value of d should be high for
practical applications.
Dielectrics 983
In the inverse piezoelectric effect, an electric field E produces a proportional strain, s.

Thus,
s = dE (33.76)
Thermodynamics proves that the piezoelectric coefficient d of direct and inverse
piezoelectric effects are equal for the same dielectric.
In practice, electromechanical coupling factor, k is used to describe the piezoelectric
effect in actual piezoelectric elements. Energy can be given to a piezoelectric element either
mechanically by stressing it or electrically by charging it. All the energy given to it is not
converted in producing the effect. Therefore, the piezoelectrics are characterized by strength of
piezoelectric effect. This strength is measured by the electromechanical coupling factor, k. In
case of direct piezoelectric effect, the external force is expended not only on the deformation
of the element but also on its polarization. The square of the piezoelectric coupling factor is
defined as the ratio of the electrical energy generated by the piezoelectric element to the total
energy expended on the deformation. Thus,
Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy
k2 = (33.77)
Total input mechannical energy
In case of inverse piezoelectric effect, the external voltage is expended not only on
charging the element but also on its deformation. The square of the piezoelectric coupling
factor is defined as the ratio of the electrical energy generated by the piezoelectric element to
the total energy expended on the deformation. Thus,
Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
k2 = (33.78)
Total input electrrical energy
The numerical values of k obtained from the direct and inverse piezoelectric effects are
found to coincide.
33.23.2 Quartz Crystal
Z-axis X3 X
Y1 X 1
Y3 Y2
X-cut
X2 X2
Y2 Y3 Si
Y1 X3
Y-cut X1 O
O
X-cut
X3 Y1
X1 Y
Y3 Y2
X2 X2
Si Si
Y2 Y3
X1 Y1 X3 O
Y-cut z
(a) (b)
Fig. 33.28
Among piezoelectric crystals, quartz crystal is the most popular piezoelectric. It is the most
common variety of silica, SiO2. The natural quartz crystal has the shape of a hexagonal prism
with a pyramid attached to each end. The axis along the longest dimension of the natural
crystal is called optic axis or z-axis (see Fig. 33.28 a). The three lines, which pass through
the opposite corners of the crystal, constitute its three x-axes or electrical axes. Similarly, the
three lines, which are perpendicular to the sides of the hexagon, form the three y-axes, which
are known as mechanical axes. The arrangement of atoms in the crystal is shown in Fig.33.28
(b). In the absence of the external stress, all the charges in a unit cell are balanced and the net
polarization is zero. When, an external stress is applied to the crystal the balance is disturbed
and the crystal gets polarized. The charge developed per unit force is the piezoelectric
coefficient d. The d-coefficient for quartz is 2.3 × 1012 C/N at 550°C.
33.24 FERROELECTRICITY
Ferroelectric materials constitute a very important group of dielectrics. They are anisotropic
crystals that exhibit spontaneous polarization. Spontaneous polarization is the dielectric
polarization, which 8000
occurs under the action
of the internal processes
Relative dielectric constant, r
and without the 6000 Barium Titanate
application of an electric
field. In the absence
4000
of an electric field, if
the centers of gravity
of the positive and 2000
negative charges do not Curie temperature, TC
coincide, it results in a
resultant dipole moment, 0
which is the cause of –200 –100 0 100 160
spontaneous polarization. Temperature, °C

The materials, which Fig. 33.29
possess special structure
that permits spontaneous polarization, are called ferroelectrics and the phenomenon of
spontaneous polarization is called ferroelectricity. Ferroelectricity was first discovered in
Rochelle salt (Na KC4 H4 O6 ⋅ 4H2O). It exhibits spontaneous polarization over a range of
temperature –18°C to 22°C. Barium titanate, potassium phosphate, and potassium niobate are
other examples of ferroelectrics.
The main characteristics of ferroelectric substances are as follows:
1. They possess very high values of permittivity er of the order of 1000 to 10,000.
2. The static dielectric constant of ferroelectric materials change with temperature
according to the following relation.
C
e= (T > TC) (33.79)
T − TC
Equ. (33.79) is known as Curie-Weiss law. C is called the Curie constant and TC the
Curie temperature. The variation of er with temperature in barium titanate is shown in
Fig. 33.29.
3. They possess spontaneous electric polarization, that is, polarization without the
help of an external electric field. However, the spontaneous polarization occurs
only within a definite temperature range and up to the Curie temperature TC. The
variation of spontaneous polarization with temperature is shown in Fig. 33.30.
Dielectrics 985
P
B C
5 Ps
100 Ps (coulomb-m )
Pr
–2
3
Ec O E
2
0
100 105 110 115 120 125
T(°K)
Fig. 33.30 Fig. 33.31
4. In a ferroelectric, the dielectric polarization depends nonlinearly on the applied

electric field. In ordinary dielectrics, the polarization varies linearly with the applied
electric field. Because of this, ferroelectrics are known as nonlinear dielectrics.
They exhibit hysteresis under the action of an alternating voltage. The polarization
versus electric field curve is known as a ferroelectric hysteresis loop (Fig. 33.31).
33.24.1 Polarization Catastrophe
We know that
P = e0 (er – 1)E
P
\ E=
ε0 (ε r − 1)
We have earlier obtained expression for the internal field in non-polar dielectrics. Now
let us assume that it could as well be applied to polar dielectrics. If a is the polarizability per
atom, it is related to the bulk polarization P through the following relation
P = NaEi
where N is the number of atoms per m3 and Ei is the local field. The internal field in as solid
is given by
γP
Ei = E +
ε0
Then,  γ P
\ P = N α E + 
 ε0 
 γ
P 1 − N α  = N a E
 ε0 
Nα E
P= (33.80)
I − N α γ / ε0
N α / ε0
and the dielectric susceptibility c= (33.81)
1 − N αγ / ε0
In common solid dielectrics of average permittivity, Na is approximately equal to e0. For
cubic and isotropic materials, the internal field constant g = 1/3. Therefore, Nag / e0 ≈ 1/3.
In these cases, the dipole interaction does not exert a substantial influence on the dielectric
properties. However, in cases of certain crystals Nag / e0 → 1, because of higher polariz-

ability and larger internal field constant. From the expression (33.81), it is seen that c tends
to infinity and polarization occurs even without the action of an external electric field. This is
spontaneous polarization. In ferroelectrics, spontaneous polarization occurs below a certain
temperature, known as Curie point due to an increase in polarizability, a, or density, N.
33.24.2 Dielectric Behaviour of Ferroelectrics
Ferroelectricity is closely related to the ionic polarizability. The ions in ferroelectric crystals
suffer an asymmetrical shift in their positions. The Clausius-Mosotti relation can be applied
to ferroelectrics.
εr − 1 Nα
=
εr + 2 3ε0
where a is the polarizability of an ion and N the number of ions per unit volume. Now, we
assume that a is independent of temperature and the temperature dependence of er is solely
due to the variation in N which changes due to thermal expansion of the crystal. We rewrite
the above equation as
εr − 1
= bN (33.82)
εr + 2
where b is a constant. Differentiating equ. (33.82) w.r.t. T, we get
1  (ε r − 1)  d ε r dN
1 −  = β
(ε r + 2)  (ε r + 2)  dT dT
Dividing the above equation by equ. (33.82), we obtain
1  (ε r − 1)  d ε r 1 dN
1 −  =
(ε r − 1)  (ε r + 2)  dT N dT
 3  d εr 1 dN
or   = = – g′
 (ε r − 1)(ε r + 2)  dT N dT
where g′ is the volume expansion constant of the material.
As er >> 1, we can approximate (er – 1)(er + 2) ≈ er2. Therefore,
3
d ε r = – g′dT
ε 2r
Integrating the above equation,
∞ TC
3
∫ ε2 d εr = − ∫ γ′ dT
εr r T
3 / γ′
we obtain er = (33.83)
T − TC
This relation is similar in form to the Curie-Wiess law. It implies that the temperature
dependence of the dielectric constant of the ferroelectric crystal is associated with the
expansion of the lattice.
33.24.3 Spontaneous Polarization in a Ferroelectric
Let us consider the case of barium titanate crystal. A unit cell of the barium titanate is shown
in Fig. 33.32 (a). It exhibits tetragonal symmetry at temperatures below Curie temperature.
The Ba2+ ions are located at the corners of the unit cell, the O2– ions in the centers of faces
and the Ti4+ ion nearly at the center of the unit cell body. In effect one ion of barium and three
Dielectrics 987
ions of oxygen belong to

the unit cell and correspond
to the empirical formula 0.009 nm
BaTiO3. The titanium ion 0.006 nm
does not occupy the exact 0.403 nm
body center of the unit cell. 0.006 nm
The relative displacement
of the O2– ions from their
0.398 nm
symmetrical positions is 0.398
shown in the side view of 4+ 2+ 2–
Ti
the unit cell (Fig. 33.32 Ba O
b). It is seen that the Ti4+ (a) ( b)
ion is displaced upward Fig. 33.32. (a) The structure of BaTiO below its Curie temperature
3
from the center of the unit 120° C which is slightly tetragonal (b) Due to a slight shift of the
cell while the O2– ions are central ion Ti4+ with respect to the surrounding O2– ions of the unit
located slightly below the cell, an electric dipole moment arises in the unit cell.
centers of each of the six
faces. Consequently, a permanent ionic dipole moment arises in each unit ell. Strong interac-
tions between the adjacent permanent dipoles cause all the dipoles to mutually align in the
same direction within some volume of the solid. Such regions of spontaneous polarization are
known as ferroelectric domains. In an unpolarized ferroelectric solid, the polarization vectors
of different domains orient in different directions, so that the net polarization of the solid is
zero. Above the Curie temperature, the thermal energy causes transformation of tetragonal
unit cell into a cubic unit cell. It leads to a change in the relative positions of Ti4+ and O2–
ions so that the center of action of negative charges is coincident with of positive charges.
Therefore, the net dipole moment becomes zero and the spontaneous polarization vanishes.
33.24.4 Ferroelectric Hysteresis Loop
When a virgin ferroelectric crystal is subjected to an alternating electric field, the polarization
P versus electric field E describes a closed loop called a ferroelectric hysteresis loop (Fig.
33.31). The polarization increases nonlinearly and reaches saturation at a certain value, Ps.
The polarization will not increase further even if the electric field is increased. When the
electric field is switched off, the value of the polarization does not return to zero and the
crystal retains a residual polarization Pr. In order to bring back the polarization to zero,
an electric field Ec must be applied in the opposite direction. Ec is known as the coercive
field. There is a close similarity between the electric properties of nonlinear dielectrics and
the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials. It is for this reason that the nonlinear
dielectrics are called ferroelectrics.
The hysteresis in ferroelectrics is explained on the basis of ferroelectric domains. In
the absence of an external electric field, the domains are oriented randomly and the net
polarization is zero. When electric field is applied, domains oriented in a favorable direction
start growing in size at the expense of unfavorably oriented domains. The growth occurs
initially slowly, and then more rapidly. Finally, the unfavourable domains are rotated into the
favourable direction till all the domains are lined up in the direction of the applied field. if the
electric field is switched off, the domains cannot rotate back to their original orientation and
the sample retains remanent polarization, Pr. An electric field (–EC) in the opposite direction
is to be applied to disorient the domains.
33.24.5 Poling
Normally, the piezoelectric or ferroelectric materials are used in ceramic form i.e. polycrys-
talline form. They are shaped in the form of discs, rectangular blocks or rings. A polycrystalline
disc consists of small crystallites or grains. Each crystallite has a polarization (Ps) oriented in
a particular direction. The polarization vectors are randomly oriented in the sample as shown
in the Fig. 33.33. The summation of the polarization in the entire sample comes out to be
a small value or zero compared to that of a single crystal. Such a sample doe not exhibit
piezoelectric effect. To impart piezoelectric properties to a ceramic, it is necessary to subject
the material to polarization. For this purpose, the sample is held in a strong electric field of
the order of 2 to 4 MV/m at temperature of 100° to 150°C for about an hour.
After such a treatment, the polarization vectors in the grains become oriented in a
direction close to the field direction and such a sample is called electrically poled ceramic
sample. After field removal, the sample stays polarized owing to stable remnant polarization.
The ceramic sample
thus transforms into
an anisotropic body
and has a preferred
axis of polarization E Ps
in the direction
of the remnant
polarization.
Hence, poled
Unpoled ceramic Poled ceramic
ceramics exhibit
the piezoelectric or Fig. 33.33
ferroelectrics effects nearly as single crystals even though they cannot replace a single crystal.
Their physical properties related to piezoelectricity and ferroelectricity depend on the amount
of poling. The electrical poling of a ceramic is analogous to the magnetizing of a permanent
magnet.
33.25 PYROELECTRICITY
Polarization of a dielectric subjected to uniform heating or cooling is known as pyroelec-
tricity or the pyroelectric effect. A Pyroelectric crystal develops an electric polarization
with temperature changes. This effect can occur only in substances that display spontaneous
polarization. Pyroelectric effect is the change in spontaneous polarization when the
temperature of the material is changed. The Pyroelectric properties of a material are described
by a Pyroelectric coefficient, p. It is defined as the change in polarization per unit temperature
change of the material. Thus,
dP
p= (33.84)
dT
Change in polarization results in change in charge on the surface. With a suitable electrometer,
it is now possible to detect a charge of 10–16 coulombs. Therefore, temperature changes as
small as 10–6 can be measured using Pyroelectric effect.
33.26 MATERIALS
Ammonium phosphate, quartz, PZT (lead zirconate titanate) are examples of piezoelectric
materials. Quartz crystals are widely used in filter and resonator applications. Rochelle salt
Dielectrics 989
is used as transducer in ear phones, microphones and hearing aids. Barium titanate, lead
zirconate and lead titanate are ceramic piezoelectric materials used in gas lighters, acceler-
ometers and transducers. GaS, ZnO, CdS etc are piezoelectric semiconductors which are used
in making ultrasonic wave amplifiers. Ferroelectric materials such as quartz, lithium niobate,
barium titanate, calcium barium titanate and lead barium niobate are used in making pressure
transducers, ultrasonic transducers etc. Pyroelectric materials such as barium titanate, lithium
niobate are used in making infrared detectors. TGS, NaNO2 and PZT ceramics are used in
fabrication of pyroelectric image tubes.
33.27 APPLICATIONS
All ferroelectric materials are pyroelectric. Since all pyroelectric materials are piezoelectric,
ferroelectric materials are inherently piezoelectric. Therefore, ferroelectric materials exhibit
pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties. Pyroelectric effect is the change in spontaneous
polarization when the temperature of the specimen is changed. The magnitude of the
spontaneous polarization is greatest at temperatures well below the Curie temperature and
approaches zero as the Curie temperature is neared. If in response to an applied mechanical
load, the material produces an electric charge proportional to the load, then the material is said
to be piezoelectric. Similarly, the material produces a mechanical deformation in response
to an applied voltage. Application of the ferroelectric materials utilizes the pyroelectric,
piezoelectric or ferroelectric properties of the materials.
1. Capacitors: A capacitor consists of a dielectric material sandwiched between two
electrodes. The total capacitance for this device is given by
ε ε A
C= 0 r (33.85)
d
where ‘C’ is the capacitance, e0 is the permittivity of free space, er is the relative dielectric
permittivity, ‘d’ is the distance between the electrodes, and ‘A’ is the area of the electrodes.
To get a high volumetric efficiency (capacitance per unit volume) the dielectric material
between the electrodes should have a large dielectric constant, a large area and a small
thickness. BaTiO3 based ceramics show dielectric constant values as high as 15,000 as
compared to 5 or 10 for common ceramic and polymer materials. The use of a high dielectric
constant ceramic like BaTiO3, allows large capacitance values to be achieved in relatively
small volume capacitor devices.
2. Generation of ultrasonic waves: Piezoelectric crystals provide a coupling between
electrical and mechanical forces and hence serve as transducers which produce or detect
electrical or mechanical signals. Hence they are used to detect very small mechanical
displacements and small amounts of electric charge. All commercial piezoelectric materials
used today are ferroelectrics.
High frequency oscillations are transformed into mechanical oscillations in the production
of ultrasonic waves. Inverse piezoelectric effect is used in this. Specially cut quartz crystal
discs are generally used in this application. Frequencies as high as 50 MHz can be achieved.
3. Vibrators: Another important application is their use as vibrators. When an alternating
voltage is applied across a piezoelectric element, it vibrates and at a particular frequency
of the field, it resonates. The resonant frequency of the element depends on the thickness.
The mechanical vibrations can be transferred into solids or liquids as ultrasonic waves. This
frequency range lies from 1000 Hz to 10 MHz. Hard type piezoelectric ceramics are used in
this application. The speakers and buzzers utilize the piezoelectric vibrations.
4. Detectors: Piezoelectric ceramics are used in the generation and reception of sound
waves in water. They are used in ultrasonic cleaners, and under water detectors of sounds.
The ultrasound is also useful for fault detection F
i.e. for finding internal cracks and other hidden
defects in solid bodies like bars, rods, plates etc. Spark –
5. Pyroelectric Detectors: Pyroelectricity is Gap P
the polarization produced due to a small change +
Electrodes
in temperature. Single crystals of triglycine
+
sulfate (TGS), LiTaO3, and (Sr,Ba)Nb2O6 are P
widely used for heat sensing applications. In –
these applications ferroelectric thin films for F
pyroelectric devices is advantageous because of Fig. 33.34
the high cost of growing single crystals and also
the thin film geometry is convenient for device design. PbTiO3, (Pb,La)TiO3 and PZT are
widely used for thin film pyroelectric sensing applications.
6. Gas Ignitors: In the gas igniter, a very high voltage is generated spontaneously across
a piezoelectric ceramic element when a strong mechanical stress pulse is given to the element.
This voltage gives rise to a spark. A typical design for a voltage generator for gas ignitors is
shown in Fig. 33.34. Ceramic
Mass
It consists of two oppositely
poled ceramic cylinders attached
end to end in order to double
the charge available for the
spark. The compressive force
has to be applied quickly to
avoid the leakage of charge
across the surfaces of the
V
piezoelectric ceramic. Usually Acceleration
PZT ceramic disks are used for
Fixed Post
this application.
7. Accelerometers: An Fig. 33.35. An accelerometer.
accelerometer is a device which gives an electrical output proportional to the acceleration. A
typical accelerometer is shown in Fig. 33.35. The transducer is a piezoelectric cylinder which
is poled along its axis but has its poling electrodes removed and the sensing electrodes applied
to its inner and outer surfaces. The
cylinder is joined to the fixed central
pole on the inside and a cylindrical
mass on the outside. When an axial
acceleration takes place the cylinder is Low
subjected to a shear force between the Voltage
outer mass and inner pole. Any motion High
in the radial direction does not give Voltage
any output. So the device is highly
directional.
Fig. 33.36. A piezoelectric transformer with the
8. Piezoelectric Transformers: arrows indicating the poling directions
Low voltage to high voltage
transformation can be done by using a piezoelectric plate. Fig. 33.36 shows a flat plate
having electrodes on half of it larger face and on an edge. The region between the larger face
Dielectrics 991
electrodes and the edge electrode are poled separately. A length mode resonance is excited
by applying a low AC voltage source between the larger face electrodes. The step up voltage
ratio would be proportional to the ratio of the input to output capacitance and the efficiency of
the device. This principle has been used for making EHT transformers for miniature television
receivers.
9. Impact Printer Head: Dot matrix impact printer heads have piezoelectric displacement
sensors. The advantages of the dot matrix printer over the conventional electromagnetic drive
printers are high printing speeds, low energy consumption and noiseless printing. Inkjet
printer heads are also based on displacement piezoelectric elements.
10. Ferroelectric Memories: Ferroelectric materials spontaneously polarize on cooling
below the TC. The magnitude and direction of polarization can be reversed by the application
of an external electric field. The ferroelectric RAMs (FRAMs) made from ferroelectric thin
films make use of this phenomenon to store data. Data is stored by localized polarization
switching in the microscopic regions of ferroelectric thin films. The ferroelectrics, which
exhibit a square loop in polarization versus electric field characteristics, are more useful in
memory technology. Barium-strontium titanate, strontium bismuth titanates are used in this
application.
Semiconductor memories such as dynamic random access memories (DRAMs) and
static random access memories (SRAM’s) currently dominate the market. However, the
disadvantage of these memories is that they are volatile, i.e. the stored information is lost
when the power fails. The non-volatile memories available include complementary metal
oxide semiconductors (CMOS) with battery backup and electrically erasable read only
memories (EEPROMs). These non-volatile memories are very expensive. The FRAM’s are
non-volatile because the polarization remains in the same state after the voltage is removed.
Further advantage is that FRAMs are little affected by radiation and allow for the use of
devices containing these memories in harsh environments such as outer space.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the behaviour of dielectrics under static electric fields. Derive a relation between
polarization P, the external electric field E and displacement vector D. (C.S.V.T.U., 2008)
2. What do you understand by dielectric constant? Define dielectric susceptibility. Derive a relation
between dielectric constant and dielectric susceptibility. (C.S.V.T.U., 2009)
3. With usual notations show that P = e0(er – 1)E.
4. Explain dielectric polarization.
5. What is meant by dipole moment?
6. What are non-polar dielectrics?
7. What are polar dielectrics?
8. Distinguish between electronic, ionic and orientation polarization and discuss the effect of
temperature on each of them.
9. Explain the behaviour of dielectrics under static electric fields. Derive the relation between the
polarization P and the external field E.
10. Explain Gauss’s law for dielectrics and derive relationship between D, E and P vectors.
(RGPV, 2007)
11. Define dielectric susceptibility and polarizability of a dielectric. Derive the relation connecting
the two.
12. (a) Explain ‘polarizability’.
(b) Discuss the dependence of electronic polarizability on the frequency of the applied field.
(c) Explain the frequency dependence of relative permittivity. (Andhra Univ.)
13. Explain electronic polarizability and show that electronic polarizability for a monoatomic gas
increases as the size of the atoms becomes larger.
14. Explain ionic polarizability and derive an expression for ionic polarizability.
15. Define dipole moment and classify dielectric materials on its basis.
16. What are different mechanisms of polarization in a dielectric?
17. Explain briefly the various types of polarization in dielectrics. (VTU, 2007)
18. Explain what is meant by a permanent dipole moment. Obtain an expression for orientation
polarization.
19. Write one difference between polar and non-polar dielectrics. (C.S.V.T.U., 2009)
20. Discuss the frequency dependence of various polarization processes in dielectric materials.
21. Obtain an expression for the internal field seen by an atom in an infinite array of atoms subjected
to an external field.
22. Explain the meaning of internal field in solids. Incorporating internal field in the expression for
polarization, derive Clausius-Mosotti relation for elemental solid dielectrics.
23. What is meant by local field in a dielectric and how it is calculated for a cubic structure. Deduce
the Clausius-Mosotti relation. (Anna Univ., 2005, 2007)
24. What are polar and non-polar dielectrics? Derive Clausius-Mosotti equation for a solid dielectric
exhibiting electronic polarizability. (C.S.V.T.U., 2005)
25. Derive Clausius-Mosotti relation in dielectrics. (RGPV, 2007)
26. Explain the concept of internal field in solids and hence obtain an expression for the static
dielectric constant of elemental solid dielectric.
27. Derive an expression for internal field in case of liquids and solids. (VTU, 2007)
28. Explain the term internal field. Derive an expression for internal field in the case of one
dimensional array of atoms in dielectric solids. (VTU, 2008)
29. Derive Clausius-Mosotti equation for non-polar solids having cubic crystal structure.
(C.S.V.T.U., 2008)
30. What do you mean by internal field? Derive Clausius-Mosotti relationship for cubic solids.
(C.S.V.T.U., 2006)
31. Write short notes on dielectric loss. Show that dielectric loss is given by tan d = e″r / e′r.
32. Explain loss tangent and loss factor.
33. What are the causes behind the dielectric losses occurring in r.f., infrared and visible regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
34. Discuss in detail the various dielectric breakdown mechanisms. (Anna Univ., 2003)
35. (a) Obtain the relevant mathematical expressions for :
(i) Electronic polarizability and
(ii) Ionic polarizability
(b) Distinguish between ferroelectrics and piezoelectrics. (JNTU, 2010)
36. What are linear dielectrics? Why are they called passive dielectrics?
37. What are nonlinear dielectrics? Why are they called active dielectrics?
38. Explain the origin of direct piezoelectric effect and inverse piezoelectric effect.
39. Define piezoelectric effect. Discuss some of the important applications of the piezoelectrics.
40. What is meant by spontaneous polarization?
41. Explain the phenomenon of ferroelectricity with particular reference to barium titanate.
42. What are the important characteristics of ferroelectric materials?
43. How does the dielectric constant of a ferroelectric vary with temperature? Mention some of the
uses of ferroelectric materials.
Dielectrics 993
44. Describe the ionic displacement theory and show how it explains the ferroelectric nature of
barium titanate.
45. Explain the important requirements of insulators.
46. Explain the characteristics and function of transformer oil in transformers.
47. What is electrical poling? Why is it done?
48. Discuss the applications of piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials.
PROBLEMS
1. A parallel plate capacitor, has an area 6.45 × 10–4m2 and plate separation of 2 × 10–3m, and
across the plates a potential of 12 V is applied. If a material having a dielectric constant 5 is
placed within the region between the plates, calculate the polarization. [Ans: 5.8 × 10–11 F.m2]
2. Carbon tetra chloride contains 74 electrons in its molecule. Its relative permittivity is 2.26
when its density is 1.68 × 103kg/m3. If the field acting on the liquid is 5 × 106V/m, what is its
electronic polarizability and average electron displacement.
[Ans: 8.57 × 10–33C.m; 0.72 × 10–15m]
3. A monoatomic gas contains 3 × 1025 atoms/m3 at a certain temperature at one atmosphere
pressure. The radius of the atom is 0.19 nm. What is the relative permittivity of the gas at the
given pressure and temperature? What is the polarizability of the atom?
[Ans: 1.0026; 7.66 × 10–40F.m]
–30
4. A water molecule has a dipole moment of 6.2 × 10 C.m. What is the polarization of a water
drop of 0.1 cm radius polarized in the same direction? [Ans: 26.4 × 10–10C/m2]
5. The centers of two identical atoms of polarizability a = 2 × 10–40 F.m2 are separated by a
distance of 5 × 10–10 m. A uniform electric field is applied in a direction parallel to the line
joining the centres of the two atoms. Calculate the ratio between the internal field, and E.
6. An elemental dielectric material has er = 12 and it contains 5 × 1028 atoms/m3. Calculate its
electronic polarizability assuming Lorentz field.
7. Find the total polarizability of CO2, if its susceptibility is 0.985 × 10–3 and density is 1.977 kg/
m3. [Ans: 3.24 × 10–40 F.m2]
8. A solid elemental dielectric having density of 3 × 1028 atoms/m3 shows an electronic polariz-
ability of 10–40 F.m2. Assuming the internal electric field to be a Lorentz field, find the dielectric
constant of the material. [Ans: 1.339]
9. A parallel plate capacitor of area 650 mm2 and a plate separation of 4 mm has a charge of 2 ×
10–10C on it. When a material of dielectric constant 3.5 is introduced between the plates, what is
the resultant voltage across the capacitor? [Ans: 13.9V]
10. The relative permittivity of sulphur is 4. Calculate its atomic polarizability. Given that sulphur is
in cubic form and has a density of 2.08 × 103 kg/m3 and atomic weight of 32.
[Ans: 3.39 × 10–40 F.m2]
11. Three identical atoms in a string are subjected to a uniform electric field E V/m along the line
joining their centers. If the polarizability is 2.5 × 10–40 F.m2 and the center to center spacing is
0.3 nm, find (Ei/E) at the position of the center of the atom.
12. Carbon tetrachloride contains 74 electrons in its molecule. Its relative permittivity is 2.26 when its
density is 1.68 × 103 kg/m3. If the field acting on the liquid is 5 × 106 V/m, what is its electronic
polarizability and average electronic displacement? [Ans: 8.57 × 10–33 F.m2, 7.2 × 10–16m]
–30
13. A water molecule has a dipole moment of 6.2 × 10 C.m. What is the polarization of a water
drop of 0.1 cm radius polarized in the same direction? [Ans: 2.64 × 10–9 C/m2]

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952 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

33.3 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

33.4 DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION

(electrons) are displaced in a direction opposite to Fig. 33.2

33.5.1 Gauss Law Applied to a Dielectric

Gaussian surface E0 Gaussian surface E –q

33.6 DIELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

33.7 THE THREE FIELD VECTORS

33.9 RELATION BETWEEN P AND E

33.10 INDUCED DIPOLES

strength, E. The larger the field, the greater is the –

33.11 PERMANENT DIPOLES

to have intrinsic dipole moment and

33.12 NONPOLAR AND POLAR DIELECTRICS

33.13 POLARIZATION-AN ATOMIC VIEW

The polarization is given by

(iii) Orientation polarization, and Fig. 33.11. Polarization of a dielectric

will move in opposite

The restoring force acting on the Cl– ion = +k2x2

where dW is the solid angle. Referring to Fig. 33.16, it is given by

33.14.4 Space Charge Polarization

E=0 Applied field, E

(i) (ii) Grain Boundary or Interface

Interfacial polarization occurs whenever there is an accumulation of charge at an interface

The total polarizability is given by

33.15 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF 2

33.16 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF TOTAL POLARIZATION

(a) (b) (c)

33.18 LORENTZ FIELD

33.19 CLAUSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION

33.20 DIELECTRIC LOSS

reactive current Ir. Ia

The real power loss in the dielectric is given by

Equation (33.70) suggest that the lossy

the thermal agitation of the molecules. ε′

the rotation of the dipoles accounts for

energy loss approaches a maximum at Fig. 33.25. Schematic representation of the

33.21 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

● It occurs at ordinary temperatures.

Piezoelectric effect is exhibited by a crystal only if the crystalline symmetry is

In the inverse piezoelectric effect, an electric field E produces a proportional strain, s.

and without the 6000 Barium Titanate

spontaneous polarization. Temperature, °C

4. In a ferroelectric, the dielectric polarization depends nonlinearly on the applied

properties. However, in cases of certain crystals Nag / e0 → 1, because of higher polariz-

ions of oxygen belong to

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Gaussian surface E0 Gaussian surface E –q