Electronegativity
 is the relative ability of atoms to attract Solids and liquids are referred to as the
shared electrons
 is higher for nonmetals; fluorine has the
highest with a value of 4.0
 is lower for metals; cesium and
francium have the lowest value of 0.7
Variations in bonding are continuous.
 Bonds with an electronegativity
difference of 0.0 – 0.4 are considered
nonpolar.
 Bonds with an electronegativity
difference of 0.5 – 1.7 are considered
polar covalent.
 Bonds with an electronegativity
difference greater than 1.8 are
considered ionic.
Bonds can be described by the difference in the
electronegativity of the bonding atoms.
Two types of covalent bonds occur in molecules:
 nonpolar covalent bonds; bonding
electrons are shared equally
 polar covalent bonds; bonding electrons
are shared unequally
A nonpolar covalent bond between nonmetal
atoms consists of
 an equal (or almost equal) sharing of
electrons
 has a zero (or close to zero)
electronegativity difference (0.0 to 0.4)
A polar covalent bond between nonmetal atoms
consists of an uneq
ual sharing of electrons
has an electronegativity difference of 0.5 to 1.7
Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
The fundamental difference between states of
matter is the strength of the intermolecular
forces of attraction.
Stronger forces bring molecules closer together.
condensed phases.
Differences in the States of Matter
Solid:
 In a solid, particles are closely packed
together in a fixed arrangement.
 Particles in a solid have strong attractive
forces between them, which keep them
in a relatively fixed position, resulting in
a rigid structure.
 Solids have a definite shape and
volume.
 Examples include metals, ice, and wood.
Liquid:
 In a liquid, particles are still close
together but are free to move past each
other.
 Particles in a liquid have weaker
attractive forces compared to solids,
allowing them to flow and take the
shape of their container.
 Liquids have a definite volume but take
the shape of their container.
 Examples include water, oil, and
ethanol.
Gas:
 In a gas, particles are widely spaced
apart and move freely.
 Particles in a gas have weak attractive
forces between them, allowing them to
move independently of each other.
 Gases have neither a definite shape nor
volume and expand to fill the entire
volume of their container.
 Examples include air, helium, and
carbon dioxide.

Liquid Properties Affected by Intermolecular
Forces
boiling point (previously discussed) and melting
point
viscosity
 The resistance of a liquid to flow is
called viscosity.
 It is related to the ease with which
molecules can move past each other.
 Viscosity increases with stronger
intermolecular forces and decreases
with higher temperature.
surface tension
 Water acts as if it has a “skin” on it due
to extra inward forces on its surface.
Those forces are called the surface
tension.
capillary action
 The rise of liquids up narrow tubes is
called capillary action.
 Adhesive forces attract the liquid to the
wall of the tube.
 Cohesive forces attract the liquid to
itself.
 Water has stronger adhesive forces with
glass; mercury has stronger cohesive
forces with itself.
Condensation – Gas to liquid
Freezing – liquid to solid
Melting – solid to liquid
Evaporation – liquid to gas
Deposition – solid to gas
Sublimation – gas to solid
Intermolecular Forces
The attractions between molecules are not
nearly as strong as the intramolecular
attractions (bonds) that hold compounds
together.
Many physical properties reflect intermolecular
forces, like boiling points, melting points,
viscosity, surface tension, and capillary action.
Types of Intermolecular Force
Weakest to strongest forces:
dispersion forces (or London dispersion forces)
dipole–dipole forces
hydrogen bonding (a special dipole–dipole
force)
ion–dipole forces
Note: The first two types are also referred to
collectively as van der Waals forces.
Title: A Comparative Analysis of Dipole-Dipole
Interactions and Dispersion Forces
Which Have a Greater Effect:
Dipole–Dipole Interactions or Dispersion
Forces?
Characteristics of Dipole-Dipole Interactions:
Dipole-dipole interactions arise between polar
molecules characterized by a permanent
separation of positive and negative charges.
These interactions occur due to the attraction
between the oppositely charged regions of
neighboring molecules. The strength of dipole-
dipole interactions correlates with the
magnitude of the molecular dipole moment,
with larger dipole moments leading to stronger
interactions. Consequently, polar substances
such as water, ammonia, and hydrogen fluoride
exhibit significant dipole-dipole interactions,
contributing to their unique physical properties.
Characteristics of Dispersion Forces:
Dispersion forces, also known as London
dispersion forces, exist in all molecules,
irrespective of their polarity, due to temporary
fluctuations in electron distribution. These
forces result from the instantaneous formation
of temporary dipoles within molecules, leading
to attractive interactions between neighboring
molecules. While dispersion forces are generally
weaker than dipole-dipole interactions, they
become increasingly significant in larger
molecules or nonpolar molecules with high
polarizability. Noble gases and hydrocarbons
exemplify substances where dispersion forces
play a crucial role in determining their cohesion
and physical properties.

Comparative Analysis:
In comparing dipole-dipole interactions and
dispersion forces, several key factors emerge.
Dipole-dipole interactions are typically stronger
than dispersion forces in polar molecules due to
the permanent separation of charges.
Conversely, dispersion forces can become
comparable to dipole-dipole interactions in
larger molecules or nonpolar molecules with
high polarizability. Moreover, the magnitude of
dispersion forces increases with molecular size
and the ease with which electrons can be
distorted, making them significant in various
molecular contexts.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, dipole-dipole interactions and
dispersion forces are essential components of
intermolecular interactions that influence the
physical properties and behavior of substances.
While dipole-dipole interactions dominate in
polar molecules, dispersion forces become
increasingly important in larger or nonpolar
molecules. Understanding the characteristics
and relative significance of these forces provides
valuable insights into the behavior of substances
in diverse chemical and physical environments,
contributing to the advancement of scientific
knowledge and applications in fields ranging
from chemistry to materials science.