Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M2 Lectures Parta
M2 Lectures Parta
M2.a: 1/40
M2.1. Why signal conditioning circuits?
Stimulus
Vref #
Signal conditioning
vin
ADC input must be a voltage signal within a limited amplitude range; for instance from 0 V to
5 V. The task of the signal conditioning circuitry is to adapt sensor’s signal to that voltage
range so that maximum effective resolution can be achieved for a specified stimulus range.
M2.a: 2/40
M2.2. First look at Operational Amplifiers (OAs)
An Operational Amplifier (OPAMP or, simply, OA) is a circuit able to largely amplify an
input differential voltage. It is also characterized by a very large input resistance and a very
small output resistance.
(external appearance of an
OPAMP; PDIP package)
M2.a: 3/40
(source: “Electronic Circuits and Applications”, S. D. Senturia and B. D. Wedlock)
Linear amplification only occurs for a very limited
range of differential voltages at the input. Outside that
range the output saturates (either at ~VCC or at –VCC)
M2.a: 4/40
OPAMP ground is not the external ground
(source: “Electronic Circuits and Applications”, S. D. Senturia and B. D. Wedlock) M2.a: 5/40
An example to illustrate the reference ground concept….
5V
In this case the reference ground of the
OPAMP is not
but
2.5 V
0V
that is, in case v+-v- is zero then the
output voltage will be + 2.5 V with respect
to the external ground.
M2.a: 6/40
iout
Note that the output energy in an OPAMP comes from the power supply and not
from the input.
M2.a: 7/40
Since an OPAMP has a very high differential gain, it can be used as a comparator: a
small voltage difference at input terminals will either saturate the output voltage at the
negative supply voltage or at the positive supply voltage.
A OPAMP used as comparator for detecting zero- A comparator can detect transitions through a
crossings. threshold voltage set with a voltage divider
(source: “Electronic Circuits and Applications”, S. D. Senturia and B. D. Wedlock) M2.a: 8/40
The linear gain factor of an OPAMP, 𝐴 , is always very large (>10000) but it has an
uncertain value. In order to use an OPAMP as a linear amplifier, negative feedback is
employed thus sacrificing potential gain but obtaining accuracy.
𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑣+ − 𝑣− 𝐴
𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑣+ − 𝐵𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝐴
𝑣+
+ 𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 1 + 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣+
𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑣− 𝐴𝑣+ 𝑣+ (implies gain
- 𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 = =ቚ
1 + 𝐵𝐴 𝐴≫1 𝐵 since B ≤1)
and,
B
𝑣+
= 𝑣+ − 𝑣− 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣+ − 𝐴𝑣−
𝐵
𝑖− = 0 → 𝑖𝑆 = 𝑖𝐹
𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣− 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣− 𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑆 = =ቚ =
(infinite input resistance) 𝑅𝑆 𝑣− =𝑣+ =0 𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆
𝑣− − 𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 −𝑣0
𝑖𝐹 = =ቚ =
𝑅𝐹 𝑣− =𝑣+ =0 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑣𝑆 −𝑣0 𝑅𝐹
= → 𝑣0 = − 𝑣
𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝑆 𝑆
M2.a: 10/40
Follower
Input impedance is very high (ideally infinite) and output impedance is very low (ideally
zero). This circuit is useful for “copying” the voltage from a network without disturbing it.
M2.a: 11/40
A follower is, for instance, used in the Arduino UNO board for “driving” a LED (Light
Emitting Diode) without drawing excessive current from the corresponding microcontroller
(μC) output (“SCK” wire=pin 18 of the μC and pin 13 of the Arduino board).
(http://arduino.cc/en/uploads/Main/Arduino_Uno_Rev3-schematic.pdf)
LED
μC
The microcontroller output would be able to drive by itself the LED (current ~ 5 mA). The follower is added here so as to
make the SCK line similar to the other output lines in terms of maximum current capability (~ 20 mA)
M2.a: 12/40
Non-inverting amplifier
(exercise: demonstrate)
M2.a: 13/40
(exercises: demonstrate)
M2.a: 14/40
M2.a: 15/40
M2.4. Common-mode voltage and difference-mode voltage
Some signals – and particularly signals from sensors – do not come as voltages referenced
to ground (“single-ended”) but as differential voltages (two terminals) with an added
common voltage with respect to ground.
+ +
VD/2
VD/2
VC
-
V-
M2.a: 16/40
+
VD/2= VU/2
VU
+
VU ≡
VC=VU/2 VD/2= VU/2
Single-ended voltage 0V
(to ground)
Same voltage signal represented as a differential
signal with a common-mode voltage.
M2.a: 17/40
In addition, as in the case of single-ended signal sources in which an output
impedance can be defined (i.e. Thévenin equivalent), output impedances can also be
defined for differential signal sources.
ZS
+
VD/2
VC = common-mode voltage
VD = difference-mode voltage
VC ZS’
M2.a: 18/40
M2.5. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio can be defined for any circuit that amplifies a
M2.a: 19/40
M2.6. Difference amplifiers
It is possible to build multiple circuits based on OPAMPs that are capable of accurately
amplifying a differential voltage signal rejecting its common-mode voltage (i.e high
(source: “Adquisición y distribución de señales” by R Pallás Areny)
CMRR). Here it is shown one of the simplest configurations containing a single OPAMP:
if then:
+
VC VD/2
Observe that in the previous difference amplifier the ground reference is defined by an
additional terminal; it is not defined from the OPAMP power supply terminals.
M2.a: 21/40
M2.7. Instrumentation amplifiers
An instrumentation amplifier is a difference amplifier characterized by exhibiting very high-
input impedance, very-high CMRR (particularly at low frequencies) and accurate
difference-mode gain.
M2.a: 22/40
M2.8. The Wheatstone bridge
R = R0 (1 + x ) = R0 (1 + s ) R − R0 R
x =s = = −1
where s is the stimulus. R0 R0
In principle, output from these sensors could be read by injecting current and measuring
voltage. However, x is very small and, therefore, the overall resolution of the system
would be poor (i.e. small voltage variations over a large fixed voltage).
A simple voltage divider would not help in terms of resolution and would make things
more difficult to calculate x
V0
RA RA
Vs V0 VS − V0
Vo R = RA x= −1
VS − V0 R0
R = R0 (1 + x )
M2.a: 23/40
In addition, it needs to be taken into account that all resistive sensors will exhibit a
dependence on temperature:
Thermal coefficient
R = R0 T (1 + x + T ) = R0 T (1 + s + T )
0 0
So, there is a need for a technique for magnifying x (over 1) and for cancelling the
impact of the temperature changes. And that’s what the Wheatstone bridge does…
M2.a: 24/40
The Wheatstone bridge provides a differential-mode voltage proportional to x:
Vs R1 R2
- VD +
R4 R3 = R0 (1 + x )
constant
R3 R4 kx k
VD = VS − = VS = VS x
R3 + R2 R4 + R1 k = R1 = R2 (k + 1)(k + 1 + x ) x ( k +1) (k + 1)(k + 1)
R4 R0
If R1,R2,R3 and R4 are made with the same technology and on the same substrate, their
thermal coefficients will be very similar and, therefore, temperature will not have an effect
on the output.
R1 R2 R1 (1 + T ) R2 (1 + T )
k= = = =
R4 R0 R4 (1 + T ) R0 (1 + T )
Vs R1 = R0 (1 + x ) R2 = R0
R1 R2
- VD + facilitates k= =
R4 R0
R4 = R0 R3 = R0 (1 + x )
(and increases sensitivity)
Vs
R1 = R0 (1 + x ) R2 = R0 (1 − x )
Linear output
- VD +
R4 = R0 (1 − x ) R3 = R0 (1 + x ) VD = VS x
M2.a: 26/40
Strain gauges (galgas extensiométricas) are typical examples of the resistive sensors that have
been discussed in previous slides.
R = R0 (1 + x ) = R0 (1 + s )
strain gauge
load cell
strain gauge
M2.a: 27/40
Strain gauges are used in pressure sensors (built within, or attached to, a deformable membrane)
(visit this link for an animated demo on the functioning of strain gauge pressure sensors)
(http://www.rdpe.com/us/hiw-sgpt.htm)
M2.a: 28/40
About the pressure sensor used in the lab in the past:
M2.a: 29/40
Let’s go back and overview more stuff that can be done with OPAMPs…
M2.a: 30/40
M2.9. Current sources and transimpedance amplifiers
Current sources
iL
Exercise:
M2.a: 31/40
Transimpedance amplifier
(aka current-to-voltage (I/V) converter)
(BPW21)
M2.a: 32/40
(positive feedback)
(inverting)
M2.10. The Schmitt trigger (Hysteresis)
M2.a: 33/40
Exercise:
Show that T = (R1/R2)VCC
Some sensors produce a change in its capacitance. That, for instance, would be the case of
most humidity sensors. Therefore, a square oscillator represents a good option to get
measurements from these sensors as the output signal is ready to be acquired by digital
systems, without need for an ADC; the digital system only needs to measure frequency.
M2.a: 35/40
Exercise:
Calculate frequency (assume
this * is exactly 2.5 V)
M2.a: 36/40
M2.12. Active filters
OPAMPs can used to build active filters (i.e. with gain) of high-order (i.e. step frequency
response). We are not covering this topic here because it is quite complex and, besides,
there are automated (and free) software tools that can design those filters for us. For
instance:
ANALOG FILTER WIZARD by Analog Devices:
https://www.analog.com/designtools/en/filterwizard/
M2.a: 37/40
The ANALOG FILTER WIZARD by Analog Devices has been used here to design a low-pass
filter (4th order) in order to remove the high frequency harmonics from a square signal so that
a sinusoidal signal is generated.
M2.a: 38/40
M2.13. Analog integration and differentiation with OPAMPs
M2.a: 40/40