NATIONAL TEXTILE UNIVERSTY

Bachelor of Science in Textile Technology

Assignment no:02

Title: Explain in detail the rope making

materials and sequence of rope
production.
Submitted By: Farhan Ali

Registration no: 21-NTU-TT-1063

Semester: 6th – (A)

Course Code: TT-3067

Course title: Specialized engineered yarn

Department Textile Engineering Technology

Submitted to: Mr. Bilal

Table of Contents
Rope............................................................................................................................................................3
Background..................................................................................................................................................3
Natural Rope Materials...............................................................................................................................4
Cotton......................................................................................................................................................4
Flax..........................................................................................................................................................5
Jute..........................................................................................................................................................6
Manila......................................................................................................................................................7
Sisal..........................................................................................................................................................8
Synthetic Rope Materials.............................................................................................................................8
Nylon.......................................................................................................................................................8
Polyester..................................................................................................................................................9
Polypropylene..........................................................................................................................................9
UHMWPE...............................................................................................................................................10
Rope Material Selection Criteria................................................................................................................11
Construction..............................................................................................................................................11
Rope Manufacturing..................................................................................................................................11
Twisting.....................................................................................................................................................11
Twisting of Core and Sheath Yarns............................................................................................................12
Core yarns:.............................................................................................................................................12
Sheath yarns:.........................................................................................................................................13
Braiding.................................................................................................................................................13
Thermo-Dynamic Balancing.......................................................................................................................14
Final hand inspection.................................................................................................................................14
Rope
A rope is a group of yarns, plies, fibres, or strands that are twisted or braided together
into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for
dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, string,
and twine.

Background
A rope is a bundle of flexible fibers twisted or braided together to increase its overall
length and tensile strength. The use of ropes for hunting, carrying, lifting, and climbing
dates back to prehistoric times. Ropes were originally made by hand using natural fibers.
Modern ropes are made by machines and utilize many newer synthetic materials to give
them improved strength, lighter weight, and better resistance to rotting. More than half of
the rope manufactured today is used in the fishing and maritime industries.

Although the origin of rope is unknown, the Egyptians were the first people to develop
special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 B.C. and was
generally made of water reed fibers. Other Egyptian rope was made from the fibers of
date palms, flax, grass, papyrus, leather, or camel hair. The use of such ropes pulled by
thousands of slaves allowed the Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build the
pyramids. By about 2800 B.C. , rope made of hemp fibers was in use in China. Rope and
the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several
thousand years. By the fourth century, rope making in India had become so specialized
that some makers produced rope intended only for use with elephants. Leonardo da
Vinci (1452-1519) drew sketches of a concept for a rope making machine, and by the late
1700s several working machines had been built and patented. Rope continued to be made
from natural fibers until the 1950s when synthetic materials such as nylon became
popular. Despite the changes in materials and technology, rope making today remains
little changed since the time of the ancient Egyptians.

Rope is sometimes generally referred to as cordage and can be divided into four
categories based on its diameter.

 Cordage under 0.1875 inches (0.5 cm) in diameter includes twine, clothesline, sash
cord, and a tar-covered hemp line called marline. These are not considered to be
true rope.
 Cordage with a diameter of 0.1875 to 0.5 inches (0.5-1.3 cm) is a light-duty rope
and is some-times referred to as "small stuff."
 Cordage with a diameter of 0.5 to about 1.5 inches (1.3-3.8 cm) is considered to be
true rope.
 Cordage over about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter is generally called a hawser
and is used for mooring large ships.

Rope construction involves twisting fibers together to form yarn. For twisted rope, the
yarn is then twisted into strands, and the strands twisted into rope. Three-strand twisted
rope is the most common construction. For braided rope, the yarn is braided rather than
being twisted into strands. Double-braided rope has a braided core with a braided cover.
Plaited rope is made by braiding twisted strands. Other rope construction includes
combinations of these three techniques such as a three-strand twisted core with a braided
cover. The concept of forming fibers or filaments into yarn and yarn into strands or braids
is fundamental to the rope-making process.

Natural Rope Materials

The natural materials most commonly used in rope-making are cotton, flax, jute, manila,
and sisal.

Cotton
Cotton, is one of the first fibers used to make rope, dating back at least 5,000 years to
ancient Egypt. The cotton plant is also native to South America, Central America,
Mexico, and the American Southwest. It has long been a major crop of the American
Southeast.
The greatest advantages of cotton are its flexibility, soft feel, and relative strength for its
lightweight feel. These properties make cotton rope a good choice for comfort. It’s easy
on the hands, and its flexibility makes it a breeze to tie into knots that will hold firmly
under load. Cotton rope is used for a wide variety of purposes, from clotheslines to
gardening and craft projects to tying down lighter loads for transport.

On the downside, cotton swells in high humidity and absorbs liquid, which makes it
susceptible to mold, mildew, and rot. This, of course, limits the utility of cotton rope in
damp environments.

Flax
Flax fibers are extracted from the flax/linseed plant, which is one of the world’s oldest
cultivated crops. Native to Asia and the Mediterranean, most of the flax used in the U.S.
today is grown in and imported from Canada.
Like cotton, flax is surprisingly strong for its weight. It stays cool when temperatures
rise, absorbs moisture, and doesn’t stretch much. While rope made from flax isn’t the
strongest rope on the market, its 285-pound breaking point is impressive, considering
how thin it is.

Because of its flexibility and heat resistance, flax rope is commonly used for tying cables
on film sets, in TV studios, in IT departments, and anywhere else where tangles of cables
can be unsightly or cause trip and fall hazards. Flax rope is also used in the natural
furniture market as a way to strengthen joints without metal fasteners and to create rustic
woven chair seats. Its rustic look and feel makes it a good choice for interior décor
purposes. And if you have “fur babies,” you may find it interesting that flax rope is
commonly used in making pet toys.

Jute
Jute is a natural fiber known for its pliability, durability, and modest cost. It comes from
the bark of the white jute plant that is native to Southeast Asia.
Jute is made into twine as well as ropes of varying thicknesses. Ropes of different
thicknesses have different strength ratings. While jute twine is used where strength is not
a requirement, ½ inch jute rope has a strength rating of 425 pounds. The pliability of jute
rope makes it easy to form secure knots, and its strength makes it a good option for ting
down light loads. Like ropes made of flax, jute ropes are used as cable ties to prevent
accidents and for DIY and crafting projects.

Manila
Manila is extracted from the tropical abaca plant, native to the Philippines. It is the
strongest of all natural fibers used in rope-making. All rope has a breaking point. But
unlike synthetic ropes, manila ropes don’t snap under heavy loads, which can be a safety
hazard. They merely begin to fray.

Manila rope is flexible and easy to tie into knots. Plus, it contracts when wet, which will
tighten up any knots. Manila is also resistant to damage from saltwater, making it a good
choice for many marine tasks. In fact, manila rope is a popular choice for a general utility
rope inside and outdoors.

But, be mindful that long-term exposure to the elements is not a good idea for this rope
because it is highly absorbent and vulnerable to UV damage. Leaving manila rope
outdoors for a long period of time can cause its surface to become hard and begin to rot.
Sisal
Sisal comes from the flowering agave sisalana plant, which originated in southern
Mexico but spread through cultivation to hot and arid regions around the world. It offers
outstanding strength for a natural fiber, with less stretch than most other natural rope
materials. It’s stiff, tough, and UV resistant, but its rough texture can make it
uncomfortable to handle, especially for people with sensitive skin.

Because it has relatively little give, sisal rope will hold firm when knotted or used for
bundling or tie-down purposes. Sisal is not treated with any chemicals and is naturally
antimicrobial, which makes it good for use in agriculture and around animals. Scratching
posts for cats are typically made by winding sisal rope around a wood post or frame.

Synthetic Rope Materials

In this section, we’ll look at popular synthetic materials used in rope-making: nylon,
polyester, polypropylene, and UHMWPE.

Nylon
Created in the 1930s, nylon (polyamide) was the first synthetic material used in rope-
making, specifically in manufacturing nylon cords for parachutes and tow lines for small
planes during World War II. Nylon is very strong and resistant to abrasion, mold,
mildew, and UV damage.
Nylon rope holds up well in outdoor applications such as towing and pulling, winching,
tie-down tasks, and flagpole rope. It has a little give and is flexible enough to form knots
with ease. It’s ideally suited for uses that require high shock absorption.

Be aware that when nylon rope is exposed to damp or wet conditions for extended
periods, it tends to stiffen and become more difficult to handle.

Polyester
Polyester was initially used for fabric, but didn’t become a common rope material until
the 1950s. To a greater or lesser degree, polyester has many of the same characteristics as
nylon. It has roughly the same strength, too, but lacks nylon’s stretch and dynamic shock
absorption. Polyester and nylon are about equal in moisture and chemical resistance, but
polyester has better UV and abrasion resistance.

Polyester rope is a natural choice for sailing and boating, lifting, and even towing,
rigging, and general tie-down applications. The limited stretch of polyester rope means it
is more secure than nylon to work with when managing heavy loads.

Polypropylene
Polypropylene was invented in the mid-1950s and was in commercial production by
1957. When polypropylene rope was introduced, it quickly became known as a reliable,
versatile general-purpose rope because of its strength, buoyancy, imperviousness to rot,
high melting point, and smooth hand feel. For example, it’s commonly used to create
swimming lanes and in outdoor activities such as camping and boating.
Polypropylene rope is manufactured in a number of different colors, so it’s easy to find
the color that provides the visibility needed for a particular task. For example, bright
yellow rope stands out in outdoor settings that are dominated by browns and greens,
making it a good choice for crowd control, boating, and use on construction sites.

Polypropylene rope does have some drawbacks, though. Its stiffness and slipperiness
make it difficult to tie most kinds of knots. And despite its high melting point, extended
exposure to UV light and extreme heat can cause discoloration and fraying of
polypropylene rope.

UHMWPE
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) rope has been a commercially
viable product since the early 1990s. UHMWPE is a family of synthetic fibers sold under
brand names such as Dyneema and Spectra.

UHMWPE is widely regarded as a good alternative to wire cables in applications such as

automotive and marine towing. It’s safer than wire because its lower mass and lack of
dynamic shock absorption mean there’s no snap-back upon breaking. It’s considerably
lighter than wire cable, with a high strength-to-weight ratio. And unlike wire, UHMWPE
rope does not kink, which prevents weak spots from developing. Because UHMWPE is
not as dense as water, marine cables made from it are easy to spot and recover.

However, UHMWPE rope is vulnerable to damage from UV exposure and high heat. It
does not hold knots well, and once it has stretched, it doesn’t return to its original length.
Not being dynamic, it should not be used in applications that require a rope with good
shock load absorption.
Rope Material Selection Criteria
Understanding the physical properties and performance characteristics of various rope
materials is a big part of choosing the right rope for a particular use. Consider the relative
merits of different rope materials in terms of their:

 Strength
 Weight
 Shock load ability
 Elongation at break
 Flexibility
 Water resistance
 UV resistance
 Abrasion resistance
 Chemical resistance
 Electrical conductivity resistance

Construction
Rope construction is a balancing act among many considerations; elongation, impact
absorbtion, great handling, strength, and durability must all be considered. Rope
performance cannot be quantified in test numbers. Ropes prove themselves in the field
and on the rock. There are several important phases of construction.

Rope Manufacturing
Rope making is divided into four phases:

 The fibers or filaments are prepared for spinning (twisting) into yarns.
 The fibers or filaments are spun or bunched into yarns and yarns into cords for the
manufacture of man-made filament ropes.
 A number of yarns are twisted into strands (forming).
 Three or more strands are twisted into rope (laying)

Twisting
Twisting begins by balancing the fiber. Twisting creates the strands that make up the core
and sheath. We twist the fiber in the core to add mechanical elongation and determine
strength. We twist our sheath yarns to aid abrasion resistance, obtain uniformity and
enhance the handling performance of the rope. There are two directions of twist, “S”
twist or counterclockwise and “Z” twist or clockwise.

Incorporating two directions of twist gives the rope balance. This balance translates into a
rope that won’t cause a climber or rescuer to spin when they load the rope by climbing or
falling on it.

Twisting of Core and Sheath Yarns

Core yarns:
Receive two levels of twist. The first twist dictates the rope’s level of elongation. It also
affects the overall strength of the rope. The second twist combines several yarn bundles
producing a finished core. The level of second twist greatly affects the overall hand and
knotability of the finished rope. It is important to remember that the core of a kernmantle
rope is upwards of 80% of the total strength of the rope and also handles the majority of
impact absorbtion in static and dynamic ropes. Dynamic ropes have high levels of twist
in the cores, acting like a spring when shock loaded, increasing the elongation and impact
absorption. Conversely static ropes have much lower twist in the cores creating a rope
with much less elongation.
Sheath yarns:
Sterling’s innovative Better Twist Technology is incorporated all our sheath yarns.
Better Twist Technology utilizes the most advanced twisting machinery, leading to
awesome abrasion resistance and a rope that runs smoothly through gear. What is crucial
to sheath twisting is aligning the load bearing direction of the yarn with the longitudinal
axis of the rope. This takes advantage of the fiber’s tensile strength as well as reducing
the abrasion of the sheath as it runs over obstacles. In other words, sheath yarns are S-
and Z-twisted, then braided into the sheath so the fibers of the sheath are aligned in the
direction of load and abrasion for maximum strength and minimum snagging.

Braiding
The process of incorporating all of the twisted raw material, core and sheath, into the
final rope product happens at the braiders. A rope-braiding machine will braid a sheath
around a core bundle. The sheath and core in a kernmantle rope are not connected. There
are several common types of braiding constructions. Sterling mostly uses a two-over-two
construction (two yarns braided over two yarns) for its ropes from 9mm up. We believe
this construction, combined with our twist levels, create the most desirable and durable
sheath. This construction also helps to lower sheath slippage and add firmness to the
rope. Pick angle, which is the angle of the sheath yarn, is adjusted to provide the right
stiffness and feel of the rope.
Thermo-Dynamic Balancing
Heat stabilization is important because it controls yarn shrinkage, helps the rope remain
supple over time, limits sheath slippage, and helps maintain elongation properties.
Because of fibers natural tendency to shrink at some point during manufacturing nylon
and polyester yarn must be heat stabilized. At Sterling, we have developed a proprietary
process called Thermo-Dynamic Balancing to achieve equilibrium in all of our rope
constructions. Heat applied to yarns affects the inherent modulus of the yarn. In practical
terms when referring to fibers, modulus is the ease at which a fiber is deformed and
regains it shape. Fibers with high modulus resist deformity, but once deformed do not
regain their shape. Lower modulus fibers are easily deformed, but come back to their
original shape.

Final hand inspection

Every single inch of Sterling rope and cord is hand inspected to back up individual
inspections at each stage of the manufacturing process. At this stage, ropes are inspected,
cut to length, bagged, labeled and prepared for shipment. Every Sterling rope or cord has
a very important quality control number attached to it. This number is called the “lot
number” and can be found on the hangtag of the rope. The lot number allows us to track
the rope all the way through construction and to the raw material source. The hangtag
gives you important information on how to care for your rope. All retailers and customers
should endeavor to keep this hangtag and lot number until the rope is retired.