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1) When do we have to construct bridges in a highway or railway project? How do you

decide to use a bridge, a culvert or a low-level water crossing at a given site?
Answer: a bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river,
road or railway. Depending on the depth, size and type of obstacle we got, economy and
aesthetic we need we can decide what kind of crossing we have to use.
2) What are the economic and social benefits of bridge construction?
Answer: Socially, bridges enable people to interact, trade with one another, live and work
together.
Generally, bridges aid the social and economic improvements of the locations around cities and
towns, which are established near river.
3) What are the objectives in bridge design? How do we attain each of the objectives?
Answer: the objective of bridge design are-
 Safety
 Serviceability
 Constructability
 Economy
 Aesthetics
Therefore, we attain the objective of bridge design by design the bridge for a specific limit state
at which the bridge can be fit to the site.
4) Why should a bridge engineer worry about safety and aesthetics in his design? Give
general guidelines that if followed would be result in a bridge of improved appearances?
Answer: Since much life is on his/her hand, safety must get more attention during the design.
Because if the bridge is not safe they will lost too much life besides money that we lose due to
failure.
Because bridge is a credit for one designer and, since many structural components of the bridge
are the largest parts and seen first they have to worry about aesthetics.
Therefore, the designer should give attention for the following points when he/she design to have
good aesthetics:
 Proportion and lines: means all members should bear in a closed
relationship to each other.

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 Pleasing shapes
 Compatibility
5) Give the design philosophy of AASHTO 2005 used in a bridge design. What is each limit
state concerned with?
Answer: Bridges shall be designed for specified limit state to achieve the objective of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics.
 Strength limit state:-ensuring the strength and stability both local and
global.
 Service limit state:-is a restriction on stress, deformation and crack
width under regular service condition.
 Fatigue and fracture limit state:-fatigue is restriction on stress range
as a result of a single design truck and fracture taken as a material
toughness and requirement.
 Extreme event limit state: to ensure structural survival of bridge
during major earthquake or flood.
6) What is the significant of investigation for bridges in design? What data are gathered
during investigation? List the criteria used to select the best bridge site. Does the
alignment of the road affect bridge site selection in any way?
Answer: To select a suitable site from possible alternative at which bridge can be built
economically, safety and aesthetics.
Best bridge site criteria:-
 If the river is meandering river the best crossing site would be at the nodal point
 Where the flow is steady flow
 Has well defined and stable high bank above flood level
 Has uniform flow
 Have reasonably straight approaches
 Has good foundation condition
 Narrow channel
 Dees not require excessive river training works

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N.B: Yes! if the span length of the bridge is below 60m the road alignment affects the
bridge site selection.
7) After site selection, give the factor affecting span selection? How do these factors affect
span selection?
Answer: After site selection, there are some factors, which can affect span selection:
 Economic span:-costs of super structure increases the number of span increases but the
cost of sub structure decreases as the number of span decreases.
 Hydraulic requirement: the bridge should be capable of to pass the flood during design
flood.
 Location of pier: piers should be located in such manner that they can provide the
required linear water way and piers should be placed parallel to the flow and at minimum
velocity of flow in order to have minimum obstruction and scour respectively.
 Free board: to allow transportation of debris.
 Grade requirement: is governed by capacity of heaviest vehicle to climb, vertical curve
and sight distance.
8) How do we estimate design flood level for design? When do we use HWM? How do u
determine HWM?
Answer: As we now our country have no recorded data of flood retune period b/c of this we
determine design flood by two methods those are: By asking old peoples which are found in that
area and by using empirical formulas. We use high water mark to determine the height of the
piers, the location of the abutment, and depth of the foundation. HWM can be determine by
doing river survey.
9) What are the factors to be considered in bridge type selection?
Answer: factors to be considered during bridge type selection are:-
 Geometric condition of the site
 Subsurface condition of the site
 Functional requirement
 Aesthetics
 Economics and ease of maintenance
 Legal consideration

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10) What are the advantages and disadvantages of concrete and steel superstructure
construction? What the advantages of steel-concrete composite super structure
construction?
Answer: Concrete
Advantage:
 We can shape it as we need
 Material are available locally
 Low maintenance cost
 Long life
 Better resistance to earth quack due to dumping effects
Dis advantage:
 High own weight
 Requires form work
 Long time of construction
 Difficult to expand width
Steel
Advantage
 Small own weight
 Shorter construction period
 Light superstructure
 High tensile strength
Disadvantage:
 Corrosion
 High maintenance cost
 Fatigue problem
Steel-concrete composite
Advantage:
 High tensile strength
 Corrosion resistant

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 Easy to construct
Dis advantage:
 High maintenance cost
 High initial investment
11) What are the advantages of continuous reinforced concrete bridge construction over
multiple simple span concrete bridges?
Answer: advantages of continuous reinforced concrete bridge over multiple simple span
concrete bridge are:
 Less number of bearings than simply supported
 Reduce weight on the structures
 High stiffness
 Small deflection
 Reduced width of pier
 Requires less number of expansion
 Lesser depth of girder
 Better architectural appearance
12) What types of bridges best suit a curved alignment?
Answer: Box girder and Slab Bridge are best types of bridge for curved because of:
 The higher resistance for torsion shear stress
 Pleasant appearance
 Can readily built on curve
13) Describe the bridge types for which analysis method based on small deformation theory
is used? When should large deformation theory be used? How are the dynamic effects
accounted for in each of these two methods of analysis?
Answer: For Bridge which are small to medium span bridges we use analysis method because
the effect of dynamic vehicular load and other dynamic loads is very small when we compare
with the effect on long span bridges.
For bridges which are sensitive to the dynamic effects of vehicular load those are long span
bridges such as cable stayed suspension bridge. In small deformation theory dynamic

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magnification factor be used in order to account the dynamic load effects because its results
small deformation and it was analyzed by static analysis. In addition, in large deformation theory
dynamic analysis should be carried out because the resulting large deformation does not account
by the dynamic magnification factors.
14) What factors affect load distribution in Reinforced Concrete Girder Bridge?
Answer: Factors affect load distribution in reinforced concrete girder are
 The stiffness of the deck
 The stiffness of the girder
 The stiffness of the diaphragm
 The position and method of connectivity of the diaphragm
15) What function do abutments and piers serve? What factor affects abutments and pier
type selection? Give the different types of abutments and piers and situations for which
each is used. Show each type with a sketch.
Answer: Function of abutment:-
 supporting the one end of the first or last span
 supporting the approach slab if necessary which is used to avoid settlements of the
approach embankment.
 retaining earth under the approach road way.
Selection of type is depends on:-
 The magnitude of load which is carried by the abutment
 Height of abutment
 Scour depth
 Ease and cost of construction.
Types:-
i. Gravity abutment
Used for abutment of small heights and the stability is achieved by its own weight

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Fig. 1 Gravity abutment

ii. Cantilever abutment :-is resisted by the depth of embedment For larger heights
iii. Counter fort
- For larger heights for which cantilever abutment is uneconomical.

Fig. counter fort abutment

iv. Stub
- used at the top of an embankment or slop.
v. Spill
vi. Reinforced earth
Piers are structure with function of:-
- Support superstructure at intermediate points between abutments for bridges with two or more
spans.
- carry their own weight and
- transmit all loads to foundation soil
Selection of type is depends on:-
- The form and size of super structure

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- Aesthetics and
- Economy
Types:-
i. Solid wall pier
- Used at water crossings
ii. Hammer head pier used
- Used for high piers
iii. Column bent pier
iv. Pile bent pier

16) What are the causes of scour? Why do we need to estimate scour depth of bridge sites?
Why do we need to protect scour in our bridge design and construction?
Answer: scour means the erosive effect of water flow on river bed or bank.
The causes are
 Changes to the river channel upstream or downstream.
 due to high flow of the river
 Reduction in channel width at bridge site
 Turbulence

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Protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of design flood at bridge. Since,
half of bridge failure is due to scour and bridge works may alter the scour pattern by restricting
the free flow of water this is why we need to protect
17) What are the two most commonly used methods to determine depth of general scour at
bridges? How is scour depth determined in each of these methods? How are depth of
local scour determined at piers and abutment?
Answer: there are two commonly used methods to determine depth of general scour:
i. The area velocity method
By assuming flow through the structure is to be equal to
unrestricted flow calculated on the basis of velocity measurement.
ii. The competent velocity method
By draw a probable scour line
18) What functions bearings serve? What factor affects bearing type selection? What are
the problems we usually encounter in bearing? How do we maintain them to avoid these
problems? Why are electrometric bearing favored compared to other types? What do u
check for elastomeric bearing during inspection? What factors are considered in
determining types and sizes of railing?
Answer: functions of bearing are:-
 Transmit superstructure load to sub structure
 Selection depends on type of super structure and span length
 During earthquake the roller and rocker may be displaced off abutment and piers To
avoid this suitable guide should be provided
 Because it is very strong in compression and weak in shear thus allowing horizontal
displacement.
Factors considered in determining types and sizes of railing are:-
 type of the railing ( traffic, pedestrian, or combination)
 design truck load
 design speed
 location or site of the bridge

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19) In what circumstances are fords and bed level causeways the best solution for river
crossing? When is it best to use culverts? What are the points to be considered in culvert
location and alignment? How do you protect erosion from occurring at culverts?
Answer: For sites where traffic volumes are low and in area where the depth of flow is not
exceeding 150mm in most of the year or where a reasonable short detour provides access to an
all-weather bridge. Culverts are suitable for openings less than 2m2.
Points to be considered are
 Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent
 Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing
alignment
 The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream
 Measurement may be necessary to ensure that the water course doesn’t move.
We can protect erosion on culvert by reducing the gradient, installing check-drains, building a
drop inlet and by providing culverts on straight reach of rivers.
20) Why do we have to continuously inspect bridges and maintain them? What should the
contents of bridge file (bridge book) be? What are the different types of inspections and
the bridge types these are carried out? What are the different trouble spots to be checked
for deficiencies? How do you decide between maintenance and rehabilitation to carry out
for a bridge?
Answer: There are three types of inspection
 Routine:- for short span bridges
 In-depth:- for all super and substructure. Specially for old bridges and
 Special:- for all types of bridge in which after special events occurred such as
earthquake, wind and flood
Deterioration and crack in concrete, evidence of foundation settlement and movement,
metalwork cracks, loose connections, damaged members, poorly framed structural details,
excessive vibration and the like
21) Mention any four types of arch bridges.
Answer:
a.steel arch bridges

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b. Stone masonry arch bridges

c. spandrel filled arch
d. open spandrel arch
22) Classify the bridges based on the method of clearance for navigation.
Answer:
 High level
 Movable bascule
 Movable swing or vertical lift
23) What are the objectives in bridge design? How do we attain each of the objectives?
Answer:
 SAFTEY -- it can be attained when the following relation holds true.

 SERVICEABILIT – includes
 Deformation
 Durability
 Inspect ability
 Maintainability
 Ride ability
 DEFORMATION---can be attained by fulfilling limit on
deflection or minimum depth given on AASHTO 2010,
Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3 respectively.
 DURABILITY --- attained by contract management which
specify quality of materials to be used and standards of
fabrication and erection of elements. And also self protecting
measures of the structure from the effect of the weather will be
taken during design and construction.
 INSPECT ABILITY --- attained by ladders, walkways,
catwalks and covered access holes. If structures such as

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abutments are not higher than 2m then inspection can be done

without fore mentioned tools.
 MAINTAINABILITY --- attained by avoiding structural
systems which are difficult to maintain.
 RIDE ABILITY --- attained by keeping the number of deck
joints to a practicable minimum.
 Constructability:-
 attained by designing the bridge with available materials of construction
and the equipment the construction should n’t go beyond the capacity of the
contractor.
 Aesthetics:- attained by the following points
 Compatibility: make the bridge fit its surrounding
 Pleasing shapes: Appearance can be enhanced by avoiding round and
square piers and flat soffits, Add enough size to make proportions seem
right, make sure that all columns are the same size.
 Proportions and lines: All members should bear a pleasing relationship to
each other. Columns should not be spindly nor superstructure too heavy.
Span length should be chosen carefully. Lines should be mainly horizontal
so that the structure seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate supports
should be subdued they do not break the dominant horizontal flow. The
bridge should look like it was designed as a whole.
24) Bridge Engineer is said to be a planner, architect, designer, constructor, and facility manager.
What is the significance of each of this aspects of role of a bridge engineer?
Answer:
 Planner: prepare rough preliminary sketches or a master plan of the proposed
bridge project.
 Architect: Employed to design a wide variety of facilities in the project
 Designer: The engineer is charged with preparing a design before the contract is
awarded for construction.
 Contractor: Provide a large market for consulting engineering firms and provide
means and methods of construction for the designed bridge.

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 Facility manager: Managing and coordinating the project as an agents of owner.

25) What information should be gathered during field visit that will help the bridge engineer to
identify the preferred location for the bridge and decide on the type, size and capacity of the bridge?
Answer: - High water marks or profiles and related frequencies
 Selection of roughness coefficient
 Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions
 Flow concentrations
 Observation of land use and related flood hazards and
 Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions

26) After site selection, give factors affecting span selection. How do these factors affect
span selection?
Answer: Factors affecting span selection are
Economical span: For given water way the total cost of construction of the superstructure
increases and the total cost of substructure decreases as span increases. The most economical
span is that for which the cost of the superstructure is equals the cost of substructure, the point
at which the total cost is minimum.
Hydraulic requirement: Bridges are designed to accumulate a design discharge at design
flood. When a bridge structure and its associated embankments encroach up on the flow of the
river in the flood, there is the risk to the structure, the embankment and surrounding land. It is
not economical to build bridge on a wide flood plain, so linear water way that design discharge
pass should be provided(plus free board ) and the bridge be stress designed for high flood plain,
the economical solution may be short span bridge with proper scour and erosion protection for
embankments abutment and piers.
Location of piers: The location of the pier should be directed by the following points
 They have to provide linear water way and navigational clearance.
 They have to cause minimum obstruction to the flow
 They should not be placed in the river if there is boulder transport during flood
 The most economical span should be adopted as far as possible
 They have to be located to make the best use of the foundation condition as far as
possible
 The alignment should be set parallel to direction of flow during maximum flow even
for skewed or curved bridges.

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Free board:
 The water way below the superstructure should be designed to pass the design flood
and the floating debris carried on it.
Grade requirement: Often in mountain regions the road way grade governed by the capacity of the
heaviest vehicle to climb, vertical curves and sight distance. The grade requirements may increase
the bridge span more than required by hydraulic design.
27) What are the factors affecting selection of the size of free board?
Answer:
 Amount of discharge to pass
 Size of the bridge
 Type of bridge
 Weight of the superstructures
28) What are the contents of investigation report for a major bridge? What will the team
carrying out the investigation composed of?
Answer: Contents of investigation report for major bridge
 technical feasibility
 Economic importance
 Environmental importance and other point of view
Team carrying out investigation
 Highway engineer
 Bridge engineers
 Geologist
 Hydraulic engineer

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