ITE101 | Class #13655

LIVING IN THE IT ERA

MARK LEONARD B. AGGABAO
MON, 1:00 PM - 4:00 PM

participate in simulations and all other academic

OUTLINE activities.
I. INTRODUCTION IX. COMPUTER ○ Accessible telecommunications and office
A. What is IT? APPLICATIONS equipment make communication and educational
B. Impacts of IT in daily X. COMPUTER SOFTWARE administrative functions accessible to everyone,
lives A. Software including those with mobility, visual, and hearing
C. Insights B. Operating System impairments.
II. OVERVIEW OF a. Basic Principle of ● IImproved communication
INFORMATION an OS ● Decreased privacy
TECHNOLOGY b. What does an OS ● Flexible working
A. Ethics of IT do? ● Accessible buying
a. Differences c. When do I directly
B. Ethics in IT interact with the C. Insights
a. Supporting Ethical OS? ● IT is the use of technology to create, process, store, retrieve
Practices of IT d. Where is the OS? and exchange all kinds of data and
Users e. Basic Function of ● information.
III. INFORMATION an OS ● IT can be many things and cover many facets of life.
TECHNOLOGY f. OS as an Interface ● IT have different impacts in our daily lives - good or bad
PROFESSIONALS g. Operating System
A. IT Professional Services II. OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Malpractice h. Structure of an OS
IV. THE COMPUTER i. Types of OS Nature of Information Technology
A. Four Major C. Application Software
● It includes a wide range of fundamental skills such as
Components D. Nature of Execution of
agricultural advancement and chemical development,
B. Features Software
industries, medical technology, and software development, to
V. EVOLUTION OF THE E. Software Copyright
name a few.
COMPUTER a. Types of Software
● Understanding the attributes or elements necessitates
A. Mechanical Computing License
knowledge and comprehension of worker intelligence.
Devices XI. COMPUTER NETWORKS
B. Electrical Computing A. Types of
About Culture and Technology
Machines Communication
VI. COMPUTER CATEGORIES Transmission 8 Elements of Culture
VII. COMPONENTS OF B. Network Topologies ● Language
COMPUTER SYSTEM C. Distributed System ● Religion
VIII. COMPUTER D. Types of Network ● Daily Life
TECHNOLOGIES ● Economy
● Government
● Arts
● History
I. INTRODUCTION ● Social Groups

A. What is Information Technology? Technology Shapes Culture

● Technology, as defined, is an art, skill, or ability used to Five ways that technology has altered the way we work:
create and develop products as well as to acquire knowledge. ● Mobility
● It is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other ● The Cloud
physical devices, infrastructure and processes to create, ● AR/VR Innovation
process, store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic ● Customer Data
data. ● Social Impact
● It is the use of technology to create, process, store, retrieve
and exchange all kinds of data and information A. Ethics of Information Technology
● Information technology can be many things and cover Ethics in society - is a set of beliefs about what is right and
many facets of life. wrong. Many widely accepted norms govern ethical behavior.
● Morality refers to social conventions about what is right and
B. Impacts of IT in daily lives wrong that are so widely shared that they form the foundation
● Better information access of an established consensus.
○ Students with disabilities can access information, ● A virtue is a habit that encourages people to do what is
share their work, engage with peers, teachers, and acceptable, whereas a vice is a habit that encourages people
mentors, and take advantage of distant learning to do what is unacceptable.
opportunities thanks to accessible web pages. ● A person who acts with integrity follows a personal set of
○ Accessible instructional courseware allows principles.
students with disabilities to participate side by side
with their peers in computer labs, classrooms, and What are the differences?
online as they complete assignments; collaborate
with peers; create and view presentations, MORALS ETHICS LAW
documents, and spreadsheets; and actively
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These are one's personal These are the It is a set of rules that
beliefs about what is standards or codes of govern what we are
right and wrong. behavior that a group and are not allowed to
As a set of conduct, it is to which one belongs do.
determined by society as expects of an Defined as a rule,
the acceptable behavior individual. usually made by a
that satisfies intellect, It is a branch of government, that is
volitional conditions, and philosophy that used to order the way
rationality. Although, it is studies the nature of in which a society
arguable that not all morality and good and behaves (Cambridge,
codes put forward by bad conduct. It is 2023), law is often
societies can be focused on what described as a science
considered as moral defines a right action and as the art of
codes. and how people justice.
should behave.
B. Ethics in Information Technology
Ethics is “a set of beliefs about what is and is not acceptable
behavior.”
● Virtues
○ "Addictions that lead people to do what is
acceptable"
● Vices
○ “Habits of unacceptable behavior “
The significance of ethics and human values has been
understated in recent years. IT breakthroughs have a wide range of
consequences. Here are some examples of public concern about
information technology's ethical application:
● Software Piracy
○ Software piracy in the workplace can sometimes be
traced back to IT professionals, who may either
allow it to happen or actively participate in it.
● Inappropriate Use of Computing Resources
○ Some employees use their computers to visit
popular Web sites unrelated to their jobs, chat in
chat rooms, view pornographic sites, and play
computer games.
● Inappropriate Sharing of Information
○ Every organization stores vast amounts of data that
can be classified as private or confidential
Supporting Ethical Practices of IT Users
● Establishing Guidelines for Use of Company Software
● Defining and Limiting the Appropriate Use of IT Resources
● Structuring Information Systems to Protect Data
● Information Installing and Maintaining a Corporate Firewall
III. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PROFESSIONALS
● Certification
○ According to the certifying organization, certification
indicates that a professional possesses a specific
set of skills, knowledge, or abilities.
● Certification for vendors
○ Workers who complete a program successfully can
represent themselves as certified users of a
manufacturer's product.
● Industry association certifications
○ Set of preventive measures applied to all patients
that are designed to reduce the risk of infection in
the health care setting
● Potentially infectious
○ Their worth varies significantly depending on where
people are in their careers, what other certifications
they have, and the nature of the IT job market.
A. IT Professional Malpractice
Negligence is defined as doing something that a reasonable
person would not do or not doing something that a reasonable person
would do. The obligation to protect people from unreasonable harm or
risk is referred to as the duty of care.
Negligence means two things:
● Someone neglected to do something, and
● That neglect caused a problem.
IT freelancers can be professionally negligent if they fail to do
something in their work and a client suffers financially. If a client thinks
you delivered substandard work or failed to take certain precautions,
you could face a negligence lawsuit.
THE SURPRISING REASON YOU COULD BE SUED FOR
PROFESSIONAL NEGLIGENCE
Professional negligence lawsuits can happen when you fail to
take all the precautions an IT professional should. However, there’s
another reason you could be sued in a professional negligence case: a
client accuses you of shirking your duties.
Often, professional negligence lawsuits occur when a client
thinks you could have done a better job. Disappointed clients can sue
even if there’s no merit to their claim. In particular, disagreements about
functionality, scope, and data security could lead to a major lawsuit.
IV. THE COMPUTER
A computer is a device or set of devices that work under the
control of a stored program, automatically accepts and processes data
to provide information.
The computer...
● First, accepts data such as raw facts, figures, and
symbol
● Then, processes data into information (data that is
organized, meaningful, and useful)
● Finally, it produces and stores results
A computer is defined as an electronic device designed to
manipulate data and to gather, store, connect, or process meaningful
and useful information.
A. Four Major Components
1. Hardware refers to any tangible or physical part of the
computer, which can be perceived by the human senses. It is
classified as input, process, output, and storage devices.
2. Software is any intangible, or commonly known as a program
installed in the computer, which can also be categorized as
application, operating system, or utility software.
3. Data is the distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in
a special way. All software is divided into two general
categories: data and programs.
4. Peopleware refers to the people who use the computer or
develop the computer software and hardware system.
B. Features of a Computer
1. Speed
a. Unlike other machines, a computer is able to
multitask and can accomplish a task in just a
second.
2. Accurate
a. It can provide an exact, correct, and concise output
if the command is properly executed.
3. Endurance
a. Unlike humans, a computer never gets tired and
exhausted unless the hardware malfunctions. It can
last 24/7 or more with no definite time to shut down.
4. Self-operating
a. It does not need to be monitored, supervised, or
intervened. If it is commanded properly, the
computer can do and accomplish anything on its
own.
5. Store and recall information
a. There are internal and external devices that can be
used to store data. These devices can store data
based on their storage sizes and capabilities.
V. EVOLUTION OF THE COMPUTER
A. Mechanical Computing Devices
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Devices Definitions
Abacus
● Wooden frame with beads sliding on wires;
● Addition, subtraction and multiplication;
● 17387;
● ‘abakos’
● Greek, ‘abax’ or calculating table
Napier’s Bones
● 1614
● John Napier
● Multiplication and division of large numbers
through the use of foldable tube
● . The method was based on lattice multiplication,
Devices
and also called rabdology, a word invented by
Napier
Pascaline
● 1642
● Blaise Pascal
● Add and subtract large numbers
● Eight rotating gear with a wheel representing
places in the
● decimal system
● The first calculator or adding machine to be
produced in any quantity and actually used
● Also called Arithmetic Machine
Step Reckoner
● 1671
● Built (1673) by the German mathematician-
philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
● An improved Pascaline machine, made of copper
and steel
● Expanded on the French mathematician-
philosopher Blaise Pascal's ideas and did
multiplication by repeated addition and shifting
● Can multiply, divide, add and subtract numbers
Jacquard’s Loom
● Also called Jacquard attachment or Jacquard
mechanism
● 1801
● Joseph Marie Jacquard
● Uses punch cards to program designs on fabrics
and carpets, making it easier to be woven.
● Enabled looms to produce fabrics having
intricate woven patterns such as tapestry,
brocade, and damask
Difference Engine
● 1822
● Charles Babbage
● First attempt to make an automatic, mechanical
calculator to tabulate polynomial functions
● It can compute many useful sets of numbers, like
both logarithmic and trigonometric functions that
can be approximated by polynomials
Analytical Engine
● Charles Babbage
● 1837 but never completed
● In its logical design, the machine was essentially
modern, anticipating the first completed general-
purpose computer
● First described in 1837 as the successor to
Babbage's difference engine
● Construction of this machine was never
completed; Babbage had conflicts with his chief
engineer, Joseph Clement, and ultimately the
British government withdrew its funding for the
project.
Tabulating Machine
● 1890
● Herman Hollerith
● Designed to have a coding sche
mechanical tabulating machine.
● Uses a punched card that can b
read to process high volumes o
● Helped in counting censuses in
● It was first described in his doc
which he presented at Columbia
1889
B. Electrical Computing Machines
Definitions
Atanasoff-Berry Computer
● between the year 1939 and 194
● Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford B
● first electronic-digital computer
● binary system of arithmetic, par
processing, regenerative memo
separation of memory and com
functions
● Conventionally, the ABC would
considered the first electronic A
(arithmetic logic unit)
Colossus
● 1943
● Alan Turing
● first electronic digital machine w
programmability and is capable
running a stored program
● A set of computers developed
codebreakers in the years 1943
to help in the cryptanalysis of th
cipher
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer)
● 1944
● John William Mauchly and John
Eckert
● One of the earliest binary serial
computers with automatic addit
subtraction, multiplication, prog
division and automatic checking
● EDVAC's average addition time
microseconds and its average
multiplication time was 2,900
microseconds
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrato
Computer)
● 1946
● John William Mauchly and John
Eckert
● First electronic digital computer
big and noisy
● Operated by thousands of vacu
● Can perform long calculations in
● The first programmable, electro
general-purpose digital compute
completed in 1945
● First put to work for practical pu
on December 10, 1945
Manchester Mark 1
● Began in August 1948 and the
operational by April 1949
● One of the earliest stored-progr
computers, developed at the Vi
University of Manchester, Engla
● Developed at the Victoria Unive
Manchester from the Small-Sca
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 Experimental Machine (SSEM) or ‘Baby’
● Also called the Manchester Automatic
Digital Machine
● (MADM)
● The machine's successful operation was
widely reported in the British press,
which used the phrase "electronic brain"
in describing it to their readers
UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I)
● In the years before successor models of
the UNIVAC I appeared, the machine
was simply known as "the UNIVAC"
● 1951
● Eckert and Mauchly Computer
Corporation
● Was completed after the company had
been acquired by
● Remington Rand
● First commercial computer that can
perform 10,000 calculations per second
● The fifth machine was used by CBS to
predict the result of the 1952 presidential
election. With a sample of a mere 5.5%
of the voter turnout, it famously predicted
an Eisenhower landslide
VI. COMPUTER CATEGORIES
Devices Definitions
Supercomputers
● 1960’s
● considered the most expensive and
fastest type of computer which at the
frontline of current processing capacity,
particularly speeds of calculation
● Supercomputers were introduced in the
1960s, and for several decades the
fastest was made by Seymour Cray at
Control Data Corporation (CDC), Cray
Research and subsequent companies
bearing his name or monogram
● Supercomputers play an important role
in the field of computational science, and
are used for a wide range of
computationally intensive tasks in
various fields, including quantum
mechanics, weather forecasting, and
climate research
Mainframe Computer
● Usually slower, less powerful and less
expensive than supercomputers
● Can support hundreds or thousands of
users, handling massive amounts of
input, output, and storage
● The term mainframe was derived from
the large cabinet, called a main frame,
that housed the central processing unit
and main memory of early computers.
Minicomputers
● 1970’s
● evolved to describe the ‘small’ t
generation computers that beca
possible with the use of integrat
and core memory technologies
● Minis were designed for control
instrumentation, human interact
communication switching as dis
calculation and record keeping.
● The term "minicomputer" is seld
today; the contemporary term fo
class of system is "midrange co
Microcomputers
● After the introduction of minicom
microcomputers came into popu
in the year 1980.
● These are the present compute
use microprocessors.
● It can easily be transferred from
place to another.
● These are now being used in sc
malls, banks, and even at home
● These computers come in smal
work fast and easy to run, and
reasonable in terms of price.
● It is known today as the Person
Computer (PC).
● IBM Company was the first com
extend microcomputers.
Desktop Computer
● PC intended for regular use at a
location
● It is designed to fit comfortably
a desk, typically with the monito
on top of the system unit.
● broad and low
● It was not until the 1970s when
programmable computers appe
could fit entirely on top of a des
● Desktops have an advantage o
laptops in that the spare parts a
extensions tend to be standardi
resulting in lower prices and gre
availability.
Tower computer
● Personal computers with their c
oriented vertically are referred t
towers.
● Computer in which the power su
motherboard, and mass storage
are stacked on top of each othe
cabinet
● The main advantage of tower m
that there are fewer space cons
which makes installation of add
storage devices easier
● Multiple size subclasses of the
form factor have been establish
differentiate their varying height
including full-tower, mid-tower,
tower and mini-tower
Laptop computer
● designed for mobile use and is
light enough to sit on a person’s
● 1981, Adam Osborne, Osborne
● Laptops typically have a clamsh
factor with a flat panel screen (u
11–17 in or 280–430 mm in dia
size) on the inside of the upper
an alphanumeric keyboard and
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 device (such as a trackpad and/or
trackpoint) on the inside of the lower lid
Palmtop computer
● computer with specialized keyboards or
keypads to enter data, or small
QWERTY keyboards
● handheld/pocket computers
● PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
● small, light, draw power from a battery
and are intended
● for general usage
Mobile categories
● small enough to be carried in a pocket
● aside from its telephone capability, it is
also internet enabled which allows the
user to access the web, send and
receive email messages and share
photos and
● videos.
● smartphone and Iphone
Tablet PC
● a special type of notebook computer that
allows you to write or draw on the screen
using a digital pen or also called Stylus
● Has wireless adapter for internet and
local internet connection
● The form of the tablet was
conceptualized in the middle of the 20th
century and prototyped and developed in
the last two decades of that century.
iPad
● With the prompt innovation in
technology, tablet computers are
developed into touch screens as its input
device.
● The Ipad is one of the examples, which
is controlled by a multi-touch display.
● It was a departure from most previous
tablet computers, which used a
pressure-triggered stylus, as well as a
virtual on screen keyboard instead of a
physical keyboard.
● It uses a Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) data
connection to browse the internet, load
and stream media, and install software.
VII. COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
Components Definitions
Motherboard
● A motherboard is a circuit board
through which all the different
components of a computer
communicate and it keeps everything
together
● The input and output devices are
plugged into the motherboard for
function.
Input unit
● Computers respond to comman
given to them in the form of
numbers, alphabets, images etc
through input units or devices li
keyboard, joystick etc.
● These inputs are then processe
converted to computer languag
then the response is the output
language that we understand or
one we have programmed the
computer with.
Output unit
● The result of the command we
provide the computer with throu
the input device is called the ou
The most used is the monitor si
we give commands using the
keyboard and after the process
the result or outcome is display
the monitor.
Graphics processing unit (GPU)
● The Graphics Processing Unit o
video card helps generate high-
visuals like the ones in video ga
Good graphics like these are al
helpful for people who have to
execute their work through imag
like 3D modellers and others wh
use resource-intensive software
generally communicates directly
the monitor.
Central processing unit (CPU)
● The CPU is called the brain of t
computer since no action can ta
place without its permission and
execution as the main processin
unit. It communicates with all th
other components of the compu
and has 3 components that help
the smooth functioning of the C
● Components:
○ Arithmetic and
○ Logical Unit
○ Memory Unit
○ Control Unit
Arithmetic and Logical Unit
● This unit does mathematical
calculations, arithmetic operatio
comparison of data and decisio
making. It has circuits that are b
for addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and othe
calculations.
Memory unit
● The information entered through
input devices is saved in the me
of the CPU and then passed on
the other parts. Similarly, when
output is ready it is saved in the
memory before the result is give
the user.
Control unit
● This unit controls the functionin
component of the computer. It
collects the data entered, leads
for processing after the process
done, receives the output and
provides it to the user. So gettin
instructions, decoding it, signali
the execution and receiving the
output is done by the control ce
and hence it is called the center
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 processing actions that happen in
the computer.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
● RAM is the most commonly referred
component in a computer.
● The RAM is also known as the
volatile memory since it gets erased
every time the computer restarts.
● It stores the data regarding the
programs which are frequently
accessed programs and processes.
● It helps programs to start up and
close quickly. It being slower has
made it more obsolete these days.
Storage unit
● The computers need to store all their
data and they have either a Hard
Disk Drive (HDD) or a Solid State
Drive (SSD) for this purpose.
● Hard disk drives are disks that store
data and this data is read by a
mechanical arm.
● Solid-State drives are like SIM cards
in mobile phones. They have no
moving parts and are faster than
hard drives.
● There is no need for a mechanical
arm to find data on a physical
location on the drive and therefore
this takes no time at all.
Common PC Ports and Connectors
VIII. COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES
● PC (Personal Computer)
○ a small computer designed for use by a single user
at a time.
● Mac (Macintosh)
○ a type of personal computer made by Apple Inc.
○ It runs a version of the macOS (Apple’s operating
system, pronounced “mack-oh-ess”)
● OS (Operating System)
○ a powerful program that controls and coordinates a
computer’s hardware devices and runs software and
applications.
○ Examples include Windows, Android, OS X, and
Linux.
● Reboot
○ to shut down and restart a computer, allowing its
operating system and programs to be reloaded.
● CPU (Central Processing Unit)
○ the brain or engine of a computer, where most of the
processing and operations take place.
● RAM (Random-Access Memory)
○ a type of data storage (memory element) used in
computers that temporarily stores programs and
data. RAM is a kind of volatile memory, meaning its
contents are lost when the computer is turned off.
● ROM (read-only memory)
○ A type of data storage used in computers that
permanently stores data and programs. ROM is a
kind of non-volatile memory, meaning its contents
are retained even when the computer is turned off.
● Bit (Binary Digit)
○ The smallest, most basic unit of measurement for
computer data storage, represented as either a 0 or
a 1. One byte is equal to 8 bits.
● Byte (Binary Term)
○ a unit of measurement for data storage. One byte is
equal to 8 bits.
IX. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Business
● A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence,
accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made it an
integrated part in all business organizations.
● Computer is used in business organizations for:
○ Payroll calculations
○ Budgeting
○ Sales analysis
○ Financial forecasting
○ Managing employee database
○ Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking
● Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
● Banks provide the following facilities:
○ Online accounting facility, which includes checking
current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and trustee
records.
○ ATMs which are completely automated are making it
even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
● Computer Insurance - Insurance companies are keeping all
records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.
● Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients
with information showing:
○ Procedure to continue with policies
○ Starting date of the policies
○ Next due installment of a policy
○ Maturity date
○ Interests due
○ Survival benefits
○ Bonus
Engineering Design
● Computers are widely used for Engineering purposes.
● One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that
provides creation and modification of images. Some of the
fields are:
○ Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain
analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes,
etc.
○ Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design,
implementation, and improvement of integrated systems
of people,materials, and equipment.
○ Architectural Engineering − Computers help in
planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range
of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
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● Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks,
missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized
control systems.
● Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
○ Missile Control
○ Military Communication
○ Military Operation and Planning
○ Smart Weapons
Government
● Computers play an important role in government services.
● Some major fields in this category are:
○ Budgets
○ Sales tax department
○ Income tax department
○ Computation of male/female ratio
○ Computerization of voters lists
○ Computerization of PAN card
○ Weather forecasting
Education
● The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the
education system.
● The computer provides a tool in the education system known
as CBE (Computer Based Education).
● CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
● Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of the
number of computer students.
● There are a number of methods in which educational
institutions can use a computer to educate the students.
● It is used to prepare a database about performance of a
student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
● In marketing, uses of the computer are following:
○ Advertising – With computers, advertising
professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the
goal of selling more products.
○ Home Shopping – Home shopping has been made
possible through the use of computerized catalogs
that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.
Health Care
● Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs,
and dispensaries.
● They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of
patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases.
● ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
● Following are some major fields of health care in which
computers are used:
○ Diagnostic System – Computers are used to collect
data and identify the cause of illness.
○ Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the
reports are prepared by computer.
○ Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check
the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG, etc.
○ Pharma Information System − Computer is used to
check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
○ Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in
performing surgery.
Communication
● Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a
picture, or speech that is received and understood clearly and
correctly by the person for whom it is meant.
● Some main areas in this category are:
○ E-mail
○ Chatting
○ Usenet
○ FTP
○ Telnet
○ Video-conferencing
X. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
A. Software
● Software
○ comprises of computer programs, support modules,
and data modules
○ provides a computer with the instructions and data
to carry out a specific type of task.
● Program
○ a set of instructions that solves a problem or carries
out a task
● Support Module
○ provides an auxiliary set of instructions used in
conjunction with the main software program
○ not designed to be run by the computer user
Types of Software
1. Systems software or System programs
2. Application software or Application programs
B. Operating System
Basic Principle of an Operating System
● An operating system is a collection of software that
coordinates the working of the different components of the
system and gets the user’s job done.
● The operating system provides the user with all the basic
things necessary to do his job.
What does an Operating System do?
● A computer’s software acts similarly with the chain of
command in an army
○ Using application software, you issue a command –
Application software tells the operating system what
to do
○ The Operating System instructs the device drivers,
device drivers instruct the hardware and the
hardware actually does the work
● The Operating System interacts with the application software ,
device drivers, and hardware to manage a computer’s
resources.
● While interacting with application software, operating system
is busy behind the scenes with other tasks
When do I directly interact with the operating system?
● Launch programs
● Customize the user interface
● Manage files
● Configure equipment
● Get help
Where is the operating system?
● The entire operating system is small enough to be stored in
ROM for typically handheld computers and video game
consoles
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● For nearly all personal computers, servers, workstations,
mainframes, and supercomputers, the operating system
program is quite large, so most of it is stored on a hard disk
● The bootstrap program provides the instructions needed to
load the core parts (kernel) into memory when the system
boots.
● Customization utilities and other parts of the operating system
are loaded into memory as they are needed.
Basic Function of an Operating System
● Process Management
○ handles multi-programs that are simultaneously
running.
● Memory Management
○ manage memory between processes and data
according to priority.
● Storage Management
○ Managing the permanent Storage of data on disks
or other media
● I/O Management
○ Manage and schedule the input and output
operations
● Device / Resource Management
○ Managing devices and resources and allowing the
users to share the resources
● Security and Protection
○ Securing the system against possible unauthorized
access to data or any other entity. Protecting the
parts of the system against damage.
● Booting the System and getting it ready to work
● Data communications
○ Providing an interface to connect to other computers
or allowing others to connect.
Operating System as an Interface
Operating System Services
● Program Development
○ variety of services and utilities such as Editors and
debuggers. They are usually referred to as
application program development tools.
● Program Execution
○ Involves a number of steps, such as loading
Instruction and data in the main memory,
initialization of I/O devices and files, and other
resources to be allocated. OS handles the
scheduling.
● Access to I/O devices
○ Each I/O device has its own set of Instructions and
control signals. O.S. hides these details to provide a
common interface to the user/programmer.
● Controlled access to files
○ nature of I/O device (disk drive, tape drive) and
structure of the data stored in the files in the storage
medium. In the case of multiple users accessing the
processor concurrently, proper protection
mechanisms have to be used.
● System access
○ For shared or public systems, the O.S. controls
access to the system as a whole and to specific
system resources. Access system provides
protection of resources, and data from unauthorized
users, and resolves resource conflicts
● Error detection and response
○ Variety of errors may occur in computer systems.
Responses may range from program termination,
retrial of the same operation, or reporting error to the
application.
● Accounting
○ collecting usage statistics, CPU usages, monitor
performance, etc.
Structure of an Operating System
● User – The system representation of the human operator who
requests for services.
● Application Software – Special software to help the user do
his task (E.g.. MS Word)
● Shell – The program that interprets the commands or
requests given by the user and gets the job done by the
kernel.
● Kernel – The core of the operating system. It uses the
hardware to do the jobs required by the user or the system. It
coordinates among the hardware and interfaces it with the
above layers.
● System Software – Software that can access the hardware
directly and generally provides various system services. (E.g..
The kernel itself, device drivers etc.).
● Hardware – The set of electronic devices that work together
to ultimately do the job required by all the upper levels
Types of Operating System
● Single-user Operating System
○ Deals with one set of input devices, those that can
be manipulated by one user at a time.
● Multi-user Operating System
○ Deals with input, output, and processing requests
from many users, all at the same time
● Network Operating System
○ Provides communications and routing services that
allow computers to share data, programs and
peripheral devices
● Multitasking Operating System
○ Provides process and memory management
services that permit two or more programs to run
simultaneously
● Desktop Operating System
○ Designed for a personal computer, either a desktop
or notebook computer
○ Designed to accommodate a single user, but may
also provide networking and multitasking capabilities
C. Application Software
● also known as an application or an "app",
● a computer software designed to help the user to perform
specific tasks.
● e.g., office suites, enterprise software, accounting software,
graphics software, media players
● Many application programs deal principally with documents.
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 ● may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or ○ Examples: Linux, FreeBSD
may be published separately
XI. COMPUTER NETWORKS
D. Nature of Execution of Software Networking is the process of delivering a message from a
● Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft source to a destination.
Office, as well as smartphone and tablet applications (called Communication is the process of giving meaning to these
"apps"). messages received.
● JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally
embedded in web pages that are run directly inside the web Computer Network
browser when a web page is loaded without the need for a ● It is a bunch of computers linked together.
web browser plugin. ● It is cost efficient and reliable.
● Server software, including web applications, usually runs on ● It serves as a good communication medium.
the web server and outputs dynamically generated web pages
to web browsers. Uses of Network for People
● Plugins and extensions are software that extends or ● Access to remote information
modifies the functionality of another piece of software, and ● Person-to-person communication
require that software be used in order to function. ● Interactive entertainment
● Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded
systems, devices dedicated to a single use or a few uses Communication Channels
such as cars and televisions (although some embedded ● a pathway over which information can be transferred
devices such as wireless chipsets can themselves be part of ● information sent over a channel has a source (transmitter),
an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC from which the information originates, and destination
or smartphone).
● Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded A. Types of Communication Transmission
software which tells the processor itself how to execute 1. Simplex Channel
machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine a. a channel whose direction of transmission is
code. unchanging

E. Software Copyright
● a form of legal protection that grants the author of an original
”work”
● an exclusive right to copy, distribute, sell, and edit that work,
except under special circumstances described by copyright 2. Half–Duplex Channel
laws a. a channel in which the direction may be reversed,
but the transmission does not occur at the same
Exceptions: time
● Purchaser
○ can make a backup or extra copy of the software for
erased or damaged original copy
○ allowed to copy and distribute parts of a software 3. Full–Duplex Channel
program for reviews and teaching a. a channel that allows simultaneous exchange in
○ has the right to copy software from a distribution both directions
disk or Web site for installation

License Agreement is a legal contract that defines the way in

which a computer program may be used.

Techniques Validating Software License: Types of Transmission Technologies

● shrink-wrap licenses ● Point-to-point Networks
● installation agreements ○ composed of many connections in individual pairs of
machines
Types of Software License ● Broadcast Networks
○ all the machines on the network share a single
● Public Domain Software
channel
○ may be freely copied, distributed, and resold
○ not protected by copyright
● Commercial Software B. Network Topologies
○ sold in computer stores or at Web sites
○ adheres closely to the limitations provided by
copyright law
● Freeware
○ a copyrighted software that is available for free
○ allows you to use, copy, and distribute the software
● Shareware
○ a copyrighted software marketed under a “try before
you buy” policy
○ allows you to copy and distribute the software
○ provide a low-cost marketing and distribution 1. Bus topology
channel a. each machine is connected to a single cable
● Open Source Software b. a terminator is required at each end of the bus cable
○ may be sold or distributed free of charge to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth
○ uncompiled program instructions are available to on the bus cable
programmers who want to alter and improve the 2. Star topology
software

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 a. each network host (PC) is connected to a central
hub with a point-to-point connection
b. all traffic on the network passes through the central
hub
3. Ring topology
a. a network topology that is set up in a circular fashion
b. data travels around the ring in one direction
c. each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming
signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the
next device in the ring
4. Tree topology
a. (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a
collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy
b. has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which
are required to transmit to and receive from one
other node only
c. unlike the star network, the functionality of the
central node may be distributed
5. Mesh topology
a. the fully connected mesh topology is generally too
costly and complex for practical networks
b. it has been used on networks with only a small
number of nodes.
6. Hybrid networks
a. a combination of any two or more topologies in such
a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one
of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.)
b. are always produced when two different basic
network topologies are connected

Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more

computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each
computer in series to the next.
If a message is intended for a computer partway down the
line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the
destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear
and ring.

C. Distributed System
● Centralized Data Processing (CDP)
○ The conventional way of doing all the processing
and control on centralized computers.
● Distributed Data Processing (DDP)
○ refers to the manipulation of data using distributed
systems
● Client/Server
○ an extension of distributed data processing wherein
it provides the best of both centralized and
distributed data processing

D. Types of Network
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
a. connects network devices over relatively short
distances
b. usually owned by an individual or corporation, 10-
100Mbps
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
a. connects computers that are in specific geographical
area like cable television
b. 5-10 Mbps, slower than LAN and smaller than WAN.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
a. spans a large physical distance (geographically-
dispersed collections of LANs)
b. not owned by any one organization but rather exist
under collective or distributed ownership and
management
c. 256Kbps-2Mbps
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
a. a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
b. personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.

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