READ100 | Class #13654

SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF READING

MS. CHRISTINE JOY A. TORRENTE
MON, 9:00 AM - 12:00 PM

● Pre-alphabetic phase
OUTLINE ○ Children in this phase do not yet understand letter-
I. INTRODUCTION TO V. COGNITIVE PROCESSES sound relationships or know all of the letters of the
READING AND LITERACY IN READING alphabet. They may, however, begin to understand
AND DEVELOPMENT A. The Importance Of the meaning of some non-letter symbols.
A. What is Reading? Decoding And Word
B. Importance of Reading Recognition In Long- B. Initial Reading phase
II. STAGES OF READING Term Reading Success ● Partial Alphabetic phase
DEVELOPMENT B. How Can Students ○ During this stage, children know most letter names
A. Pre-Reading Benefit From Word but just are beginning to learn the relationship
B. Initial Recognition And between letters and their sounds. They may be able
C. Rapid Progress Decoding? to guess at how to read a word by its first letter but
D. Extended Reading C. Role of Working are not able to systematically decode or sound out
Experience and Memory words.
Increasing Reading VI. EARLY LITERACY
Efficiency phase EXPERIENCES C. Rapid Progress phase
E. Phase of Enhancement A. Emergent Literacy ● Full Alphabetic phase
in Reading Abilities, B. Oral Language ○ Students in this phase know the relationships
Attitudes, and Taste Development between letters and their sounds (e.g., the letter “m”
III. THE SCIENCE OF C. The Role of Storytelling corresponds to the sound /mmm/), and they begin to
READING and Vocabulary use this knowledge to decode words. This decoding
A. How reading works in Development ability starts off slowly, but becomes more automatic
the brain D. Supporting Reading with practice.
B. What to teach Readiness
C. How to teach D. Extended Reading Experience and Increasing Reading
D. Structures to Efficiency phase
implement
● Automatic phase
E. Conclusions
○ At this point, children have become fluent readers
IV. FOUNDATIONS OF
and do not need to decode familiar words sound by
PHONEMIC AWARENESS
sound.
A. Phonemic Awareness
B. Phonological
E. Phase of Enhancement in Reading Abilities, Attitudes,
Awareness
and Taste
● Consolidated Alphabetic phase
○ In this phase children are gaining automaticity.
I. INTRODUCTION TO READING AND LITERACY AND Rather than sound out each letter in a word
DEVELOPMENT individually, students begin to recognize letter
patterns and combinations. They rapidly become
A. What is Reading? more fluent and automatic at reading and
● Lapp and Flopp (1978) recognizing words.
○ (1) there are those who view reading primarily as a
decoding process III. THE SCIENCE OF READING
○ (2) reading for meaning is emphasized from the ● Definition
earliest stage of instruction: in this view reading as a
comprehension process is stressed. “The body of work referred to as the “science of reading” is
not an ideology, a philosophy, a political agenda, a one-
Reading is an activity with a printed word and may be size-fits-all approach, a program of instruction, nor a
undertaken by some techniques like skimming, scanning, specific component of instruction. It is the emerging
comprehensive or receptive reading, and critical reading depending on consensus from many related disciplines, based on literally
your goal or your purpose for doing it and material you are going to thousands of studies, supported by hundreds of millions of
research dollars, conducted across the world in many
read.
languages. These studies have revealed a great deal about
how we learn to read, what goes wrong when students don’t
B. Importance of Reading learn, and what kind of instruction is most likely to work the
1. Reading makes us well-informed. best for the most students.”
2. Reading can be a worthwhile form of recreation.
3. Books we read can be a form of inspiration. – Dr. Louisa Moats
4. Reading can be a form of therapy.
5. Identifying yourself with the characters whether good or bad ● Children who start low, stay low
and realize that what the character is, is what you are. ○ Children who start and stay with low level reading
are hindered development into higher levels of
II. STAGES OF READING DEVELOPMENT reading.
● Trouble with early word reading skills leads to:
A. Pre-Reading phase ○ less time spent reading
○ slow vocabulary growth
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 ○ missed opportunities to practice comprehension
strategies
○ negative attitudes toward reading
“The best solution to the problem of reading failure is to
allocate resources for early identification and prevention.”
— Torgesen, 1998
A. How reading works in the brain
The occipital-temporal region is critical for reading fluency
and automaticity. The frontal lobe controls the processing of speech
sounds. While all of these areas are engaged during reading, their
exact levels of engagement vary, depending on a person's reading
ability.
Your occipital lobe recognizes writing, and then it works with a
part of your brain's temporal lobe to recognize the written shapes and
symbols. The temporal lobe then understands them as written language
and processes the content.
Reading can improve brain and memory function and keep
your brain operating more effectively as you age. Reading also
enhances connectivity in the brain, reduces stress, promotes relaxation,
improves sleep, and has the potential to decrease the likelihood of
developing Alzheimer's.
The Simple View of Reading
Gough and Tunmer (1986) proposed the Simple View of
Reading to clarify the role of decoding in reading. Many educators did
and still do believe that strong decoding skills are not necessary to
achieve reading comprehension if language abilities are strong.
Beginning and struggling readers are often taught to compensate for
weak decoding by guessing an unfamiliar word based on the first letter
or the picture, then asking themselves if the word makes sense after
reading the sentence. In contrast, when decoding is the focus of
instruction students are taught to sound out unfamiliar words using all
the letters and to practice reading accurately until an adequate reading
rate is achieved, along with accurate decoding.
The Simple View formula presented by Gough and Tunmer in
1986 is:
Decoding (D) x Language Comprehension (LC) = Reading
Comprehension (RC)
DECODING:
● Efficient word recognition (Hoover and Gough, 1990)
● The ability to sound out words based on phonics rules
● Refers to the fast and accurate reading of familiar and
unfamiliar words in both lists and connected texts
LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
● called by several other names in various studies, including
linguistic comprehension, listening comprehension, and
comprehension
● The ability to derive meaning from spoken words when they
are part of sentences or other discourse.
● Encompass “receptive vocabulary, grammatical
understanding, and discourse comprehension” (Catts, Adlof,
& Weismer, 2006)
READING COMPREHENSION
● Differs from language comprehension because of the reliance
on print, as opposed to oral language, to perceive the words
and derive meaning (Hoover & Gough, 1990).
● It is possible to have strong language comprehension and
still be a poor reader if there is difficulty with decoding.
❖ If a student has a decoding process but does not have a
grade level comprehension, no understanding of the text
will be achieved.
❖ If a student can comprehend a text yet does not have the
ability to decode, there is still no comprehension. This
characteristic can be observed in dyslexic individuals.
❖ On the other hand, if a student can decode and can
comprehend the language of the text, he will understand the
meaning of it.
The Simple View formula and supporting studies show that
a student’s reading comprehension (RC) score can be predicted if
decoding (D) skills and language comprehension (LC) abilities are
known. Notice that D and LC are not added together to predict RC.
They are multiplied. In the Simple View formula, the values of D and LC
must be between 0 and 1 (or 0% and 100%). A score of 0 means no
skill or ability at all and 1 indicates perfection.
B. What to teach
The Essential Components of Early Literacy
SKILL DEFINITION
Phonemic Awareness Noticing, thinking about and working with
phonemes (the smallest units of spoken
language)
Phonics Knowing relationships between sounds
(phonemes) and letters (graphemes)
Oral Reading Fluency Reading connected text accurately, fluently,
and for meaning
Vocabulary and Oral Understanding the meaning of words we
Language speak, hear, read, and write
Reading Gaining meaning from text
Comprehension
PHONEMIC AWARENESS
● Phonemes, the smallest units making up spoken language,
combine to form syllables and words.
● Phonemic awareness refers to the student’s ability to focus
on and manipulate these phonemes in spoken syllables and
words.
● According to the National Reading Panel, teaching phonemic
awareness to children significantly improves their reading
more than instruction that lacks any attention to phonemic
awareness.
● It is defined by reading experts as the ability to “focus on and
manipulate phonemes in spoken words” (NICHD, 2000).
● For example, hearing and saying that the word cat has three
sounds, or phonemes /k/ /a/ /t/ is an example of phonemic
awareness skill.
PHONICS
● Phonics is the relationship between the letters (or letter
combinations) in written language and the individual sounds in
spoken language.
● Phonics instruction teaches students how to use these
relationships to read and spell words. Effective phonics
instruction enables children to use these relationships to read
and spell words accurately and rapidly. Phonics instruction
also serves as a memory aid that helps students remember
and apply rules and generalizations for matching sounds and
letters.
● The National Reading Panel indicated that systematic phonics
instruction enhances children’s success in learning to read,
and it is significantly more effective than instruction that
teaches little or no phonics
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FLUENCY
● Fluency is recognizing the words in a text rapidly and
accurately and using phrasing and emphasis in a way that
makes what is read sound like spoken language. It is the
ability to read as well as we speak and to make sense of the
text without having to stop and decode each word.
● The National Reading Panel’s research findings concluded
that guided oral reading and repeated oral reading had a
significant and positive impact on word recognition, reading
fluency, and comprehension in students of all ages.
VOCABULARY
● The term vocabulary refers to words we need to know to
communicate with others.
● There are four types of vocabulary:
○ Listening: words we understand when others talk to
us
○ Speaking: words we use when we talk to others
■ Listening and speaking vocabularies are
sometimes referred to collectively as oral
vocabulary
○ Reading: words we know when we see them in print
(sight words and words we can decode)
○ Writing: words we use when we write
● Vocabulary development is closely connected to
comprehension.
● The larger the reader’s vocabulary (either oral or print), the
easier it is to make sense of the text.
● According to the National Reading Panel, vocabulary can be
learned incidentally through storybook reading or listening to
others, and vocabulary should be taught both directly and
indirectly.
COMPREHENSION
● Comprehension is the complex cognitive process readers use
to understand what they have read. Vocabulary development
and instruction play a critical role in comprehension.
● It involves constructing meaning that is reasonable and
accurate by connecting what has been read to what the
reader already knows and thinking about all of this information
until it is understood.
● Comprehension is the final goal of reading instruction
● The National Reading Panel determined that young readers
develop text comprehension through a variety of techniques,
including answering questions (quizzes) and summarization
(retelling the story).
Orton-Gillingham Approach
EXPLICIT SYSTEMATIC SEQUENTIAL
New skills are directly Consistent instructional Skills are taught in
modeled routines are used to order from easier to
guide students to harder; Prerequisites
Students are guided to correct responses are taught first
the correct response
Instructional time is Component or
Error response carefully allocated to foundational skills are
includes immediate maximize time on task taught directly to
corrective feedback support higher-order
Cumulative review skills
Skills are practiced to
mastery and Intentional sequence
automaticity within and across
lessons; within and
across grades
The Orton-Gillingham Approach is a direct, explicit,
multisensory, structured, sequential, diagnostic, and prescriptive way to
teach literacy when reading, writing, and spelling does not come easily
to individuals, such as those with dyslexia.
It is most properly understood and practiced as an approach,
not a method, program, or system. In the hands of a well-trained and
experienced instructor, it is a powerful tool of exceptional breadth,
depth, and flexibility.
The Approach is so named because of the foundational and
seminal contributions of Samuel T. Orton and Anna Gillingham.
Samuel Torrey Orton (1879-1948)
● A neuropsychiatrist and pathologist
● He was a pioneer in focusing attention on reading failure and
related language processing difficulties.
● As early as 1925 he had identified the syndrome of dyslexia
as an educational problem.
Anna Gillingham (1878-1963)
● A gifted educator and psychologist with a superb mastery of
the language
● Encouraged by Dr. Orton, she compiled and published
instructional materials as early as the 1930s which provided
the foundation for student instruction and teacher training in
what became known as the Orton-Gillingham Approach.
EXPLICIT TEACHING
● What you are teaching is clearly explained and defined.
● Expectations are clear and stated at the beginning of the
lesson.
● Information is broken into manageable chunks.
● Students may make discoveries through guided activities and
Socratic questioning, or teachers may directly teach and
model.
● Explicit teaching avoids having the child process numerous
directions. This supports students who may struggle with
working memory or attention by helping to manage the
cognitive load.
SYSTEMATIC TEACHING
● The delivery of instruction follows a well-defined scope and
sequence, which provides a logical progression of skills that
move from simple to more complex.
● A system where students know what to expect next and
appropriate opportunities for practice are included.
● Students are building toward increasing independence.
● Includes completing lesson components in a predictable order
and having a set time in the lesson for additional activities
such as vocabulary or sight word practice.
SEQUENTIAL TEACHING
● Skills are taught according to a particular scope and
sequence.
● The teacher follows the established order with adjustments to
meet individual needs. The lessons are taught in an order that
will help your students achieve mastery of the core concepts.
● Skills are taught on the basis of what has been previously
taught, the child’s previous knowledge, repeated structured
spiraling review, and aiming for mastery.
● Review is often integrated into lessons in such a way as to
activate prior knowledge to support the new concept being
introduced.
Structured Literacy
First coined by the International Dyslexia Association,
structured literacy is characterized by the provision of systematic,
explicit instruction that integrates…
○ Listening
○ Speaking
○ Reading, and
○ Writing
…and emphasizes the structure of language across…
○ the speech sound system (phonology)
○ the writing system (orthography)
○ the structure of sentences (syntax)
○ the meaningful parts of words (morphology)
○ the relationships among words (semantics)
○ and the organization of spoken and written
discourse.
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 SKILL AREA STRUCTURED LITERACY TYPICAL LITERACY ● Model with clear explanations.
● Verbalize the thinking process.
● Provide opportunities to practice.
Letters used as the ● Give feedback.
starting point for print;
Emphasis on the sounds in
Reading treated as a SIXTEEN ELEMENTS OF EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION (Anita Archer
spoken language distinct
visual skill; Confusion and Charles Hughes, 2011)
Phonological from and prior to phonics
of phonemic awareness 1. Focus on critical content
awareness instruction;
and phonics; a. Teach skills, strategies, vocabulary terms, concepts,
Phoneme awareness used
Avoidance of and rules that will empower students in the future to
as the starting point for print
segmenting spoken match the students instructional needs.
words 2. Sequence skills logically
a. Consider several curricular variables, such as
Taught whole to part teaching easier skills before harder skills, teaching
Intentional instruction in (analytic) incidentally high-frequency skills before skills that are less
letter-sound combinations; as students make frequent in usage, ensuring mastery of prerequisites
Phonics and Sequenced from easier to mistakes in text or by to a skill before teaching the skill itself, and
Spelling harder for reading and analogy (word families); separating skills and strategies that are similar and
spelling; Application of word Mini lessons thus may be confusing to students.
reading in print responding to student 3. Break down complex skills and strategies into smaller
errors instructional units
Oral language as the a. Teach in small steps.
Modeling reading aloud b. Segmenting complex skills into smaller instructional
reference point for print;
from the leveled books units of new material addresses concerns about
Books used for reading
Vocabulary and students will read; cognitive overloading, processing demands, and the
aloud are more challenging
Oral Language Nondirective capacity of students’ working memory. Once
than those students read
questioning and mastered, units are synthesized. (i.e. practiced as a
independently; Scripted
discussion whole).
teacher dialogue
4. Design organized and focused lessons
Use of leveled or
a. Make sure lessons are organized and focused, in
Young students read text predictable texts that
order to make optimal use of instructional time.
that is controlled to include are not controlled for
b. Organized lessons are on topic, well sequenced,
only those phonics patterns decoding difficulty; Error
and contain no irrelevant digressions.
that have been explicitly response focuses on
Text Reading 5. Begin lessons with a clear statement of the lesson’s
taught; Fluency building only picture cues or the use
Fluency goals and your expectations
after accuracy; High degree of context to determine
a. Tell learners clearly what is to be learned and why it
of teacher-student words; High degree of
is important.
interaction with immediate independent silent
b. Students achieve better if they understand the
corrective feedback reading; Miscue
instructional goals and outcomes expected, as well,
analysis
as how the information or skills presented will help
Emphasis on teacher them.
Background knowledge, text
modeling (think aloud); c. You would explain to students the skills they will be
structure, and strategies
Reading Activities such as choral learning and the reason why they are learning them
overtly modeled and
Comprehension reading, shared reading and what you expect for the lesson you are about to
practiced in a planned
and guided reading; teach.
progression
Student book choice 6. Review prior skills and knowledge before beginning
instruction
C. How to teach a. Provide a review of relevant information.
b. Verify that students have the prerequisite skills and
Explicit Instruction knowledge to learn the skill being taught in the
Explicit instruction is a purposeful way of overtly teaching lesson.
students. Explicit in this case means a clear-cut and finite way of c. This element also provides an opportunity to link the
teaching that includes both instructional and delivery procedures. new skill with other related skills.
Torgesen (2004) described explicit instruction as “instruction 7. Provide step-by-step instruction
that does not leave anything to chance and does not make a. Model the skill and clarify the decision-making
assumptions about skills and knowledge that children will acquire on processes needed to complete a task or procedure
their own.” by thinking aloud as you perform the skill.
Rosenshine (1987) described explicit instruction as “a b. Clearly demonstrate the target skill or strategy, in
systematic method of teaching with emphasis on proceeding in small order to show the students a model of proficient
steps, checking for understanding, and achieving active and successful performance.
participation by all students.” 8. Use clear and concise language
a. Use consistent, unambiguous wording and
“Instruction is explicit when teachers tell students what they terminology.
need to do using direct explanations along with sharing b. The complexity of your speech (e.g. vocabulary,
and modeling new knowledge.” sentence structure) should depend on students’
(Flethcer, Lynn, Fuchs & Barnes 2019) receptive vocabulary to reduce possible confusion.
9. Provide an adequate range of examples and non-
When teachers use explicit instruction, they make lessons examples
crystal clear. They show kids how to start and succeed on a task. a. In order to establish the boundaries of when and
They also give kids plenty of feedback and chances to practice. when not to apply a skill, strategy, concept or rule,
provide a wide range of examples and non-
Explicit instruction follows a sequence of steps: examples.
● Identify a clear, specific objective.
● Break the information into chunks.
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 b. A wide range of examples illustrating situations
when the skill will be used or applied is necessary
so that students do not under use it.
10. Provide guided and supported practice
a. In order to promote initial success and build
confidence, regulate the difficulty of practice
opportunities during the lesson, and provide
students with guidance in skill performance.
b. When students demonstrate success, you can
gradually increase task difficulty as you decrease
the level of guidance.
11. Require frequent responses
a. Plan for a high level of student-teacher interaction
via the use of questioning.
b. Having the students respond frequently (i.e. oral
responses, written responses or action responses)
helps them focus on the lesson content, provides
opportunities for student elaboration, assists you in
checking understanding and keeps students active
and attentive.
12. Monitor student performance carefully
a. Carefully watch and listen to students’ responses, so
that you can verify student mastery as well as make
timely adjustments in instruction if students are
making errors.
b. Close monitoring also allows you to provide
feedback to students about how well they are doing.
13. Provide immediate affirmative and corrective feedback
a. Follow up on students’ responses as quickly as you
can. Immediate feedback to students about the
accuracy of their responses helps ensure high rates
of success and reduces the likelihood of practicing
errors.
14. Deliver the lesson at a brisk pace
a. Deliver instruction at an appropriate pace to
optimize instructional time, the amount of content
that can be presented and on-task behavior.
b. Use a rate of presentation that is brisk but includes a
reasonable amount of time for students’
thinking/processing, especially when they are
learning new material.
c. The desired pace is neither so slow that students
get bored nor so quick that they can’t keep up.
15. Help students organize knowledge
a. Because many students have difficulty seeing how
some skills and concepts fit together, it is important
to use teaching techniques that make these
connections more apparent or explicit.
b. Well organized and connected information makes it
easier for students to retrieve information and
facilitate its integration with new material.
16. Provide distributed and cumulative practice
a. Distributed (vs. massed) practice refers to multiple
opportunities to practice a skill over time.
b. Cumulative practice is a method for providing
distributed practice by including practice
opportunities that address both previously and newly
acquired skills.
c. Provide students with multiple practice attempts, in
order to address issues of retention as well as
automaticity.
D. Structures to Implement
Multi-Tiered System Of Support
MTSS stands for multi-tiered system of support. As the
name implies, this framework has a tiered infrastructure that uses data
to help match academic and social-emotional behavior assessment and
instructional resources to each student’s needs.
MTSS is designed to help schools identify struggling students
early and intervene quickly. It focuses on the “whole child.” That means
it supports academic growth, but many other areas, too. These include
behavior, social and emotional needs, and absenteeism (not attending
school).
3–TIERED MODEL OF PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION
● Tier 1: The whole class
○ strategies are aimed at encouraging better
attendance for all students and at preventing
absenteeism before it affects achievement.
● Tier 2: Small group interventions
○ Interventions are designed to remove barriers to
attendance for students at greater risk of chronic
absenteeism, such as those who missed 10% of the
school year, the standard definition of chronic
absenteeism.
○ These students and families should receive
personalized attention as part of the engagement
strategy.
○ They get more targeted support through small group
lessons.
● Tier 3: Intensive individualized support
○ Interventions provide intensive support to students
missing the most school, often involving not just
schools but other agencies such as health, housing
and social services, and typically requiring case
management customized to individual students’
challenges.
○ Students missing 20% or more of the school year
benefit from the addition of this intensive level of
support.
Assessment System
● Screening
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 ○ Which students and systems are at risk?
○ Accurate universal screening sets the foundation for
a successful tiered system of support and
understanding student risk levels.
○ In some cases, screening can be used to identify
students who need intensive intervention right away.
● Diagnostic
○ Exactly what should we teach next?
○ Diagnostic assessment tools help teachers identify a
student’s specific skill deficits and/or behavioral
challenges, so that they can make targeted,
individualized, and data-driven changes to the
student's intervention program.
○ Diagnostic tools can be either informal, which are
easy-to-use tools that can be administered with little
training, or standardized, which must be delivered
in a standard way by trained staff.
● Progress Monitoring
○ Is it working?
○ With progress monitoring, assessment is used to
measure growth for students already at risk for poor
learning or behavioral outcomes.
○ Decision rules provided by the progress monitoring
tool tell teachers when they should make an
intervention change.
● Outcome Evaluation
○ Did it work?
○ It provides data about student learning during
instruction and helps teachers determine if
instruction is effective and/or when to adjust
instruction.
○ They support evaluation of instruction for individual
or groups of students.
○ Many teachers are familiar with informal measures
of learning that provide immediate feedback about
student learning, such as observations of behavior,
checklists, or writing samples.
Collaborative Problem Solving
● It is an evidence-based, trauma-informed practice that helps
students meet expectations, reduces concerning behavior,
builds students’ skills, and strengthens their relationships with
educators.
● It is the engine that drives the MTSS system.
1. What is the problem?
● Every educator knows that a student can develop school-
related problems at any time of the school year.
● Problem identification is the point in time when a possible
problem first shows up on the “radar” among school staff.
2. Why is the problem happening?
● Problem analysis involves using collected data to identify the
size and effects of the problem. Some problems might be
small enough that they do not justify additional resources to
address.
● The goal is to develop a hypothesis about exactly why an
unexpectedly large number of students did not meet the
winter benchmark.
3. What should we do about it?
● With a hypothesis in hand, the school team then turns to
consider possible plans that can address the problem.
● The planning process needs to cover what steps will be taken
to improve the scores of the underachieving students.
● In addition to developing a short-term solution to the students’
learning gaps, the team should think about and work on plans
to develop a way to prevent the same thing from happening
next year.
4. Did it work?
● The final step of the problem-solving model is to assess the
data collected during and after the changes to see whether
they worked.
E. Conclusions
● All children deserve to learn to read
● What is known about how children learn to read can inform
our work
● What and how we teach really matters
● A focus on prevention will ensure more children learn to read
and reduce the need for intervention
IV. FOUNDATIONS OF PHONEMIC AWARENESS
A. Phonemic Awareness
It is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual
sounds—phonemes—in spoken words.
According to the National Reading Panel, teaching phonemic
awareness to children significantly improves their reading more than
instruction that lacks any attention to phonemic awareness.
It is defined by reading experts as the ability to “focus on and
manipulate phonemes in spoken words” (NICHD, 2000).
For example, hearing and saying that the word cat has three
sounds, or phonemes /k/ /a/ /t/ is an example of phonemic awareness
skill.
What is involved in phonemic awareness?
Phonemic awareness involves the ability to:
● Segment or separate words into sounds
● Blend or put those sounds together to make a word
● Manipulate sounds or change sounds within words to make
new words
Phonemic awareness activities
1. Sing songs and nursery rhymes
2. Encourage listening
3. Speak slowly and use repetition
4. Create word cards
5. Create a print rich environment
6. Play “I Spy the Sound”
7. Word games
8. Write together
9. Play board games
10. Read aloud regularly
B. Phonological Awareness
It begins with listening with no print visual.
It is the understanding that speech can be broken down into
parts, or units of sound, and the ability to manipulate those parts.
It is an auditory or oral skill that does not involve reading
letters or words.
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 19 consonants
Children listen, speak, point, and gesture during phonological /b/ – beg and bag
awareness instruction and practice. /d/ – doe and deal
/f/ – fall and fit
The term phonological awareness refers to a general /g/ – goal and gill
appreciation of the sounds of speech as distinct from their meaning. /h/ – has and him
When that insight includes an understanding that words can be divided /j/ – job and jolt
into a sequence of phonemes, this finer- grained sensitivity is termed /k/ – cap and kite
phonemic awareness. /l/ – lip and load
/m/ – map and moth
Units of Language /n/ – net and nip
Units refer to a sound structure of language that can be /p/ – pin and plot
manipulated in phonological awareness tasks. /r/ – run and rope
/s/ – sat and small
The onset of a word is the first full sound before the vowel. /t/ – toe and tale
The rime is the rest of the word. Example “sat” the /s/ sound is the /v/ – vin and volt
onset and the /at/ sound is the rime. We only use single syllable words /w/ – wait and wind
when teaching onset/rime. /y/ – yam and yet
/z/ – zip and zoo
Children will enter preschool with a large phonological 7 digraphs
awareness. To develop their skills in /ch/ – watch and chime
identifying sounds, phonological /sh/ – shift and short
awareness must be continually taught in /ng/ – ring and sting
schools. /th/ (voiced) – weather and thin
/th/ (unvoiced) – thing and thunder
Children develop phonological awareness skills in a 44 Phonemes /zh/ – genre and division
sequential pattern which is as follows: /wh/ (with breath) – what
The ability to hear rhymes and 5‘r-controlled’ sounds
alliteration. Hearing words in spoken language. Hearing syllables in /a(r)/ – car and far
spoken words and then being able to clap out syllables. /ā(r)/ – fair and chair
/i(r)/ – here and steer
/o(r)/ – core and door
/u(r)/ – fern and burn
ENGLISH PHONEMES 5 long vowels
/ā/ – day and eight
/ē/ – beet and sleep
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, /ī/ – pie and sky
S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z /ō/ – boat and row
26 Letters /ū/ – hue and chew
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, 5 short vowels
v, w, x, y, z /a/ – bat and laugh
/e/ – medical and bread
/i/ – sit and lip
/o/ – hot and orange
/u/ – shut and cut
2 ‘oo’ sounds
/oo/ – took and could
/ōō/ – moon and
2 diphthongs
/ow/ – mouse and cow
/oy/ – coin and toy
The individual speech sounds that make up
98 Phoneme- words are called phonemes. The individual
grapheme
associations
letters or groups of letters that represent the
individual speech sounds are called graphemes.

Important “P Words”
● Phonological awareness
● Phonemic awareness
● Print knowledge
● Phonics
● Alphabetic principle

Why is Phonological Awareness important?

● It is directly related to reading ability.
● It builds children’s capacity to learn phonics, once phonics is
introduced in later grades.
● It is a foundational skill for reading.
● It is associated with achievement in decoding in later grades.
● It is included in state standards.

V. COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN READING

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A. The Importance Of Decoding And Word Recognition In
Long-Term Reading Success
What is Decoding?
● Decoding comprises the ability to get words off the page
● It is a hallmark of skilled reading.
● It is considered one of the most critical reading skills because
of its connection to reading comprehension
● According to Gough and Turner (1986), decoding is
dependent on knowledge of letter-sound correspondence
rules that lead to reading isolated words quickly and
accurately.
● It is the process of translating print into speech by rapidly
matching a letter or combination of letters (graphemes) to
their sounds (phonemes) and recognizing the patterns that
make syllables and words.
What is Word Recognition?
● Word recognition refers to the presumed mental storage,
retrieval, and use of a person’s sight words.
● Without word recognition, every word would have to be
decoded through phonics every time it was read.
● It is the ability to read words quickly without decoding.
● It is built through practice and a lot of reading.
● Automatic word recognition is crucial in the long process as
it builds comprehension, focus, and attention to word reading.
Assessing Decoding and Word Recognition skills
Decoding Threshold
● Students below the threshold are unlikely to improve their
reading comprehension
● Lower than expected decoding and word recognition skills are
often an indicator of dyslexia (Shaywitz and Shaywitz, 2005).
● Students below this decoding threshold are unlikely to
improve their reading comprehension in subsequent years.
Planning for instruction
Using the backward design process outlined by Wiggins and
McTighe (2005):
1. Identify desired results
a. In this stage, educators determine which knowledge
and skills students should gain.
b. Required skills:
i. Building phonological awareness
ii. Establishing the letter-sound
correspondence
iii. Analyzing mono- and multi-syllabic words
based on syllable types and letter
combinations
iv. Developing automatic word recognition of
sight words
2. Determine acceptable evidence
a. The next stage determines how educators will know
when students have achieved the desired results. At
this point, it is imperative to select the type of
assessment that will be used.
3. Plan learning experience and instruction
a. In the final stage, educators create learning
experiences that will equip students with the desired
knowledge and skills.
b. The amount of instructional intervention required for
students varies; however, researchers suggest that
elementary-aged students require at least 8-16
weeks with 30-120 minutes per day and that
secondary students require more time in intensive
intervention to make progress (Vaughn et al., 2012).
B. How Can Students Benefit From Word Recognition And
Decoding?
Reading Comprehension
It is the ability to process written, understand its meaning, and
to integrate with what the reader already knows.
Reading comprehension relies on two abilities that are
connected to each other: word reading and language
comprehension.
Comprehension specifically is a “creative, multifaceted
process” dependent upon four language skills: phonology, syntax,
semantics, and pragmatics.
Reading Comprehension Strategies
1. Predicting
a. This strategy involves asking children to make
informed predictions based on what they obtain from
the story or text.
2. Making connections to prior knowledge
a. Making connections to prior knowledge involves
connecting a new idea to knowledge and
experiences already known.
b. It requires getting children to relay their own
experience to their own stories.
c. Prior knowledge can include their experience,
knowledge of words, places, or events.
d. Children start by making connections from text to
self: as they grow older, connections are made
through books by identifying the similarities between
the texts.
e. When reading, they can activate their knowledge
from prior words and to new words.
3. Visualizing
a. It is also a strategy used to increase reading
comprehension.
b. It requires getting children to create in their minds a
mental image from what they read. The mental
image helps them remember and form conclusions
from what the words are describing
4. Summarizing
a. This strategy involves getting children, when
reading, to identify the main idea in the text and
putting the idea into their own words.
b. Children should be taught to summarize
THROUGHOUT the story, not just at the end.
C. Role of Working Memory
Working memory—the ability to store information while
simultaneously carrying out processing operations—is a well-
established predictor of individual variation in reading comprehension
performance in both adults (Daneman & Merikle, 1996) and children
(Cain, Oakhill, & Bryant, 2004a).
Why does it matter?
It is like a temporary sticky note in our brain. It holds new
information in place so the brain can work with itt briefly and perhaps
connect it with other information.
When children read long unfamiliar words, they rely on their
working memory: from the discrete, distinguishable sounds to the other
remaining sounds.
Example:
Cytoplasmic → cy - to - plas - mic
Moreover, working memory helps students juggle a number of
lessons that they need in order to grasp topics.
VI. EARLY LITERACY EXPERIENCES
A. Emergent Literacy
Emergent Literacy is a gradual process from birth until a
child can read and write in a conventional sense. The key terms that
refer to early literacy are speaking, listening, reading, writing and
viewing.
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 a. The ability to recognize and manipulate individual
Reading Readiness is the moment at which children are sounds in spoken words
ready to learn to read. During this time, children transition from being 2. Letter Recognition
non-readers to readers. a. The ability to identify and name the letters of the
alphabet
Key Predictive Skills and Abilities in Emergent Literacy 3. Print Awareness
● Oral Language a. Understanding the basic concepts of prints, such as
○ Listening comprehension, oral language, vocabulary reading from left to right.
● Alphabetic Code 4. Vocabulary
○ Alphabet knowledge, phonological/phonemic a. Building a rich vocabulary through exposure to
awareness (the ability to discriminate sounds in language and unfamiliar words.
words), invented spelling 5. Listening Comprehension
● Print Knowledge / Concepts a. The ability to understand and interpret spoken
○ Environmental print, concepts about print language.

Concepts of Emergent Literacy

● An interest and enjoyment in print
● Print awareness
● An interest in telling and listening to stories
● They make marks and use them to represent objects or
actions
● Child comprehends meaning from pictures and stories

B. Oral Language Development

Oral Language is the foundation for literacy development.
Oral language provides children with a sense of words and
sentences and builds sensitivity to the sound system so that children
can acquire phonological awareness and phonics. Through their own
speech, children demonstrate their understanding of the meanings of
words and written materials.

Supporting evidences:
● Parents who provide rich language and literacy support to
their child perform better in school.
● Exposure to rare words at homes relates directly to children’s
vocabulary acquisition.
● There is a strong relationship between vocabulary
development and reading achievement.

Importance Of Oral Communication

When children communicate using spoken words, they can
more easily convey their thoughts, demonstrate their ideas, and share
information. When youngsters learn more words, they can effectively
communicate with family, friends, classmates, teachers, and other
people.

C. The Role of Storytelling and Vocabulary Development

When students are learning via stories, they develop their oral
language and literacy skills. Furthermore, storytelling is considered a
feasible technique for enhancing imagination and thinking and
creative skills.

7 Benefits of Reading to Children

1. Supported cognitive development
2. Improved language skills
3. Preparation for academic success
4. Developing a special bond with your child
5. Increased concentration and discipline
6. Improved imagination and creativity
7. Cultivating a lifelong love of reading

D. Supporting Reading Readiness

Defining readiness in reading describes the capacity to
comprehend and use the necessary skills for reading successfully.
Early literacy skills include identifying and understanding letters, words,
and sounds. Besides, reading skills must consist of understanding the
meaning of words and sentences and the ability to make
assumptions and decisions.

Top 5 Skills for Reading Readiness

1. Phonemic Awareness