4 Vocational/4AA

Revised April, 2021 by Minor Lopez, Mr.

 Nazarene High School
4-Vocational
Electrical and Electronics Technology Semester 1
Contents:

Chapter Unit Page Number

Direct Current & Cells Batteries
Series and Parallel Connection of Batteries
Construction of Batteries
Charging and Discharging of Lead-Acid cells

Classwork #1 11

Basic Electron Theory Introduction to Alternating Current

Generation of Alternating Current
Advantages & Disadvantages of AC
Classwork #2 19

Transformers Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

Construction & Operation of transformers
Turns Ration formula
Energy losses and Efficiency
Cooling of Transformers 29
Classwork #3

Capacitors & Inductors Capacitance & Capacitive reactance

Capacitors in series and parallel circuits
Classwork #4 34
Inductors construction and operation
Inductance & Inductive Reactance
Classwork #5 38

Resistivity & Temperature Resistivity of a material

Coefficient Temperature and its effects on resistivity
Classwork #6 41
References 139

2
 Chapter 1: Direct Current and Cells

Objectives:
 Recall the definition, sources and application of direct current power supply.
 Distinguish between primary and secondary cells and name their uses.
 Describe the effects of connecting cells in series and parallel configurations.
 Describe what occurs during the charging and discharging of secondary cells such as lead-acid cells.
 Preform calculations to determine the battery capacity of lead-acid cells.
Introduction:
 Direct Current is characterized by current flow in a uniform direction. From positive to negative or negative
to positive.
 Recall that positive to negative flow of current is the conventional flow. From negative to positve is the electron
flow of current.

 Direct Current is abbreviated as DC.

 Long ago, static electricity was the only type of electricity known, but when batteries were invented, DC
current came about.
 Common sources of DC current include: Batteries, Solar cells and DC generators and full bridge rectifier
circuit (like those inside your phone and lap top chargers).
 All electronic gadgets require to DC current to function properly.

Batteries:

 Batteries are made from two or more cells connected together. The term battery is incorrect to describe
“one battery” it should be referred to as a cell.
 Cells are polarized- they consist of a negative terminal and a positive terminal as shown in the symbol below.
 When connected in series, the positive polarity is connected to the negative polarity.

3
  Cells may be connected in series to increase the overall voltage (voltage add up) or they may be connected in
parallel to increase the overall current (current add up) as shown below:

 Batteries or cells have their own internal resistance which affect the ideal voltage they were made to supply.
 When designing a circuit with a battery, we often assume that the battery is an ideal voltage source. This means
that no matter how much or little load we attach to the battery, the voltage at the source's terminals will
always stay the same.
 In reality, several factors can limit a battery's ability to act as an ideal voltage source. For example:

 Battery size
 chemical properties
 age
 operating temperature

 The greater the number of cells that are connected

in Series, the greater the overall internal resistance.
This affects the overall amount of current the battery
can supply.

Construction of Voltaic Cells:

 Batteries consist of two or more voltaic cells that are connected in series to provide a steady dc voltage at the
battery’s output terminals.
 The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell. Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte, which
forces the electric charge to separate in the form of ions and free electrons.
 A voltaic cell consists of two different metal electrodes that are immersed in an electrolyte (an acid or a base).
 The chemical reaction resulting from the immersion produces a separation of charges.
 The current capacity increases with large electrode sizes.
 The negative terminal is considered the anode of the cell because it forms positive ions in the electrolyte.
The opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode.

4
  Motion of electrons in ionic bonding can be used to generate an electric current
 A device constructed to do just this is called a voltaic cell, or cell for short.

 A battery’s voltage output and current rating are determined by

 The elements used for the electrodes
 The size of the electrodes.
 The type of electrolyte used.

Types of cells/batteries:

 Cells are generally classified on whether a battery may be recharged or not. Recharging depends on the cells
make up, like the chemicals used (metal electrodes and the electrolytes).
 Primary cells cannot be recharged because the internal chemical reaction cannot be restored.
 Secondary cells, or storage cells, can be recharged because their chemical reactions are reversible.
 Dry cells have a moist electrolyte that cannot be spilled, made from a paste like substance.
 Sealed rechargeable cells are secondary cells that contain a sealed electrolyte that cannot be refilled.

Primary cells:

 There are several different types of primary cells in use today:

 Carbon-zinc dry cells- This is one of the most popular primary cells (often used for type AAA, AA, C, D).
The negative electrode is made of zinc, the positive electrode is made of carbon. The output voltage of
a single cell is about 1.5 V. Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.

5
 Alkaline cells are another popular type also used for type AA, C, D, etc. It has the same 1.5V output
as carbon-zinc cells, but they are longer-lasting. It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide
cathode in an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). It works with high efficiency even with
continuous use, due to low internal resistance.

 Zinc chloride cells

This cell is also referred to as a “heavy-duty” type battery. It is a modified zinc-carbon cell. It has little
chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes water along with the chemically active
materials. The cell is usually dry at the end of its useful life.

 Mercury cells
This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide
electrolyte. It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with proper disposal of mercury.

 Silver oxide cells

This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte. It
is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form. Applications include hearing aids, cameras,
calculators, watches, vehicle remote keys. They look like buttons.

6
Secondary Cells:
 Secondary cells are rechargeable. The chemical reaction inside the cells can be reversed when the cell
is discharged.
 Lithium cells
This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low weight, and small volume. It comes in two forms
of 3V output in widespread use: Lithium-sulfur dioxide (LiSO2), Lithium-thionyl chloride. LiSO2-type
batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid solvent; if its container is punctured or cracked, it can release
toxic vapors. Safe disposal of these cells is critical. Most mobile phones, laptop batteries, drill batteries
power banks etc. are powered by lithium cells.
The diagram below explains how the charging and discharging of lithium cells occur.

 Lead-Acid Cells
This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used extensively in vehicles and other applications
requiring high values of load current. The positive electrode is made of lead peroxide. The negative
electrode is made of spongy lead metal. The electrolyte is sulfuric acid. The output is about 2.1 volts per
cell. Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6-V battery) or 6 (12-V battery).

o The secondary batteries (Lead-acid cells) used in vehicles have a reversible chemical process.

Discharge: The battery reacts by producing current flow in an external load circuit and produces
lead sulfate and water.

Charge: The battery reacts to a reverse current from an external energy source and produces
lead, lead peroxide, and sulfuric acid.

7
 o Current ratings of Lead-Acid cells (Battery Capacity)
Lead-acid batteries are rated in terms Battery capacity, that is, how much discharge current they
can supply for a specified amount of time . The A•h unit is amperes-hours represents such
capacity. Generally, this rating is proportional to the physical size.

Example: An automobile battery might have a 200 A•h rating. How long can this battery supply
20 amperes?

The actual ampere-hours delivered varies with battery age and condition, temperature and
discharge rate.

Charging and discharging of a lead-acid battery:

 Discharging occurs when the battery delivers current to a load. A fully discharged 6-cell, 12 volt car
battery should read a voltage of about 11.4 Volts across the positive and negative terminal. This can be
measure using a voltmeter. Each of the cell would measure about 11.4V/6cells = 1.9V when fully
discharged.

 Charging involves applying about 2.45 V per cell of a lead-acid battery or a total of about 14.7 volts.
To charge, attach the terminal of a battery charger directly to the corresponding terminals of the battery
(positive terminal to positive terminal and negative terminal to negative terminal. This process restores
the battery’s ability to deliver current and voltage to a load.
A fully charged 6 cell battery should measure 12.6 Volts across its terminal or 2.1 volts across each cell.

8
Methods of Charging:

 There are three common methods of charging a battery; constant voltage (float system), constant
current and a combination of constant voltage/constant current with or without a smart charging
circuit.

Constant current

 Constant is a simple form of charging batteries, with the current level set at approximately 10% of
the maximum battery rating.
 Charge times are relatively long with the disadvantage that the battery may overheat if it is over-
charged, leading to premature battery replacement. The battery must be disconnected, or a timer
function used once charged.

Float method (constant voltage)

 In this method, the battery and the load are permanently connected in parallel across the DC charging
source (alternator) and held at a constant voltage below the battery's upper voltage limit. Mainly
used with lead acid batteries in vehicles.

 The upper limit charging voltage should not surpass 14.7V. Above this voltage, the water inside the
battery begins to form become electrolyzed forming hydrogen and oxygen gas. This in turn affects the
chemical composition of the battery leading to shorter life span of the battery.

 The constant voltage method of charging includes three (3) stages:

i. Stage1: Bulk Charge (constant current)
o Assuming the battery is starting in a discharged state, the charger is operating in
constant current mode, where the charger current is maintained at a constant value
and the battery voltage is allowed to rise as it is being recharged. Approximately 80% of
battery capacity is returned in the constant current region.
ii. Stage 2: Absorption charge mode
o When the battery voltage reaches approximately 2.4 volts per cell, or 14.6 volts for a
12V battery, the charger voltage is held constant at this level and the battery current is
allowed to reduce. It is this region where the last 20% of battery capacity is returned.

9
iii. Stage 3: Float charge mode
o Float mode is where the voltage on the battery is maintained at approximately 2.25
volts per cell, or 13.5 volts for a 12V battery. This voltage will maintain the full
charge condition in the battery without boiling our electrolyte or overcharging the
battery.

1
Classwork #1

Instructions: answer all questions. Elaborate on your answers where necessary.

1. The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a lead-acid secondary cell.

a) State the terminal volts and electrolyte condition when the cell is:
i. Fully charged
_ _
_ _
_ _
ii. Discharged
_ _
_ _
_ _
b) State the name of TWO instruments used to determine the state of charge of a lead acid cell.
_ _
_ _

c) The figure below shows a floating lead-acid battery charging system.

Briefly describe the operation of the charging system.

_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _

1
 d) The figure below shows a constant current charging system:

i. A car battery has sox cells to be charged at a constant current of 10A from a 20 V d.c. supply.
The emf of cell is 1.8V. Neglecting the internal resistance of the cell, calculate the value of
the variable resistor (Rv) require tot give a charging current of 10A.

ii. Briefly describe the capacity of a lead-acid cell.

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _

iii. Calculate the charging current required to charge a 200A.h battery at an eight (8) hour rate.

2. Distinguish between primary and secondary cells giving two examples of each.
_ _ _
_ _ _
3. A single cell has a rating of 1.5V and internal resistance of 2 ohms. Determine the total internal resistance of
four (4) batteries that are connected in series and four connected in parallel. Draw two separate diagrams to
represent how they are connected in both series and parallel using appropriate symbols.

4. A 12-volt battery of internal resistance 15 ohms is being recharged by a 14-Volt power supply with 5 ohms
internal resistance. Determine the current passing through the battery.

1
 Chapter 2: Alternating Current

Objectives:
 Recall the definition and method used to generate of an alternating current.
 Describe an AC sine wave in terms of its frequency and periodic time.
 Apply formulas of periodic time and frequency and use prefixes to represent multiples of their units.
 Plot graphs of AC sinusoidal waveforms.
 Preform calculations to determine RMS, Average, peak value and form factor of an AC wave

Alternating current (AC) voltage:

 AC voltage is a type voltage which alternates or swings between positive and negative half cycles.
 If the voltage changes then the current flow will also change; In fact, in purely resistive circuits two separate sine
waves represent voltage and current but they appear as one sine wave since they are “in phase,” that is, they
overlap 100% perfectly.

 All AC voltages have a frequency of alternation. This is known as the supply frequency or signal frequency.

Frequency
 Is the number of cycles that an alternating current has in one (1) second. It is measure in the unit Hertz
(Hz) which is cycles per second (s-1)

Periodic time (T)

 Is the time it takes for one AC sine wave to complete a complete cycle.

1
Unit of measurement

 The periodic time and frequency can be very small values or very large values. Prefixes are used
to represent multiples or submultiples of the quantity, see table below:

Example 1:
The power use at home has a frequency of 60Hz. Determine the period of the sine wave.

Solution:
 Use the appropriate formula and substitute.

 Since the 0.0016second is a small value, the submultiple 10-3 is used which stands for “m” milli.

Example 2:
The period of a signal is 100ms, what is the frequency?

Solution:
 The 100ms needs to be converted to seconds before it can be inserted into the formula.

Example 3:
The frequency of a signal is 10KHz, what is the time it takes to complete one cycle?

Solution:
 The 10KHz ms needs to be converted to Hz before it can be inserted into the formula.

1
How is AC generated?
 Three things must be present in order to produce an electrical current:
 A Magnetic field
 Conductor
 Relative motion between magnetic field and conductor
 When the armature (conductor coil) is rotated, it cuts lines of magnetic field, a voltage is induced into
the conductor in the opposite direction according to Lenz’s law.
 For one complete rotation by the armature (360 degrees), one complete AC sine wave is produced.

 Single phase AC generator consists of ONE set of armature coil rotating through a magnetic field.
 Maximum Voltage gets induced when the rotating armature is moving perpendicular (90 degrees)
to magnetic field (PEAK VOLTAGE)

 Voltage induced is 0.707 of the maximum when the armature and magnetic field are at 45 degrees
to each other (RMS VOLTAGE)

1
  Voltage induced is 0 when the armature and magnetic field are parallel (0 degrees) to each other.

 The diagram below illustrates the corresponding angles of the AC sine wave being generated as for as
the armature revolves in the magnetic field. ¼ revolution=90o, ½ rev= 180o, rev= 270o and 1 rev 360o.
Where π= 180o

Describing an AC wave:
 In addition to frequency and periodic time, AC sine wave are described in terms of their:
 Peak value: this is the maximum voltage or current of an AC wave.
 RMS value: this is sort of like an “estimated middle value” between the average to the peak
value. RMS stands for root mean square. When we measure the voltage of any AC power
supply using a voltmeter, it is the RMS that we are measuring. RMS is also known as the
effective value or DC equivalent value.
Most appliances at home are made to work on 110 volts RMS value.
 Average value: This is a value half-way between the peak value and zero horizontal axis.
 Form factor: describes the shape of the wave in terms of its “peakiness”. AC sine waves always
have a form factor of 1.11.

The formulas to compute each of the values are shown below.

 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 0.637 ∗ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 0.707 ∗ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 1.414 ∗ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝐴𝑉𝐸 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

1
  The diagram below illustrates where on the AC waveform the values correspond.

Example:
 An alternating sinusoidal wave has a maximum peak voltage of 169.7V. It completes a ½ cycle in
0.007 seconds. Sketch 1½ cycles of this wave indicating:
a. The peaks of the voltage
b. The time period of the wave
c. The supply frequency
d. The average of the voltage values
e. The rms voltage
f. The form factor

Solution:
a. The peaks of the voltage (Value already given in the question, no need to use formula!)

o 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 1.414 ∗ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 169.7 𝑉

b. The time period of the wave

o If it completes ½ cycle in 0.007 seconds then for a full cycle it must be”
T= 2 x 0.007s= 0.014 s
T= 0.014 s or 14 ms

c. The supply
frequency
1 1 = 71.4 𝐻𝑧
o 𝑓= =
𝑇 0.014

f= 71.4 Hz

d. The average of the voltage values

1
o 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.637 ∗ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

1
 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.637 ∗ 169.7𝑉 = 108𝑉
Average voltage = 108V
e. The rms voltage
o 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.707 ∗ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.707 ∗ 169.7𝑉 = 120𝑉
RMS voltage = 120V

f. The form factor

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
o 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑉𝐸 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑅𝑀𝑆 120𝑉
o 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
108𝑉

o Form Factor= 1.11

Lastly, we must indicate the computed values on graph with 1½ cycle.

Advantages of AC Current over DC:

 AC generators are more robust, financially cheaper to maintain and run; costs less to produce and can
deliver higher voltages than a DC generator.

 Transformers can easily raise the voltage of AC and send over long distances efficiently with limited power
losses compared to DC. Transformers will not transform using DC voltages.

 Induction Motors operated on 3 – Phase AC current are cheap, robust, and easily maintained.

 Energy meters are much simpler and therefore much cheaper for ac supplies than DC supplies.

 Discharge lamps (like fluorescent tubes or bulbs) operate more efficiently from AC supplies than DC. Filament
lamps work equally as well in both DC and AC supplies.

 DC supplies (like batteries) are subject to severe corrosion due to electrolytic action which is not so present in
AC systems

 If a DC supply is required it is more cost effective to rectify AC voltage to DC voltage rather than using a DC
supply.
 All electrical house appliance relies on AC current for their operation. Even those that operate on DC!

1
Classwork #2: Show all working and formulas used. Any sketches should be neatly drawn.

1) The periodic time of a waveform is 20mS. What is its frequency?

2) The frequency of a waveform is 50Hz what is its periodic time?

3) A sinusoidal waveform has a frequency of 1kHz. What is its Periodic time?

4) A fully rectified sinusoidal waveform has a periodic time of 10mS. What is its frequency?

5) A voltage is represented by a sine wave, and has a maximum of 200v. Calculate its RMS and
Average Voltage.

6) A sinusoidal current has an effective value of 10A. Calculate its average and maximum current.

7) An alternating sinusoidal wave has a maximum peak voltage of 568V.It completes one half cycle in 0.08
seconds. Sketch 2 complete cycles of this wave indicating:
a) The peaks of the voltage
b) The time period of the wave
c) The supply frequency
d) The average of the voltage values
e) The rms voltage
f) the form factor

2
Project #1:
1) The positive half cycle of an alternating current has the following values at 1ms intervals and the graph
is drawn below.

a. Plot the points on the graph by placing an “x” on the curve for each point based on the table above.

b. Determine periodic time, frequency and RMS current of the waveform.

2
 Test Study Questions
1. The type of current used in transmission C) 40 Hz
lines over long distances from a power plant D) 30 Hz
is?
A) DC 5. A heater is rated as 110 volts, 5KW, A.C.
B) AC The value 110 V refers to
C) Both AC and DC A) average voltage
D) conventional B) r.m.s. voltage
C) peak voltage
2. The period of a wave is D) none of the above
A) the same as frequency
B) time required to complete one cycle 6. The peak value of a sine wave is 200 V.
C) expressed in amperes Its average value is
D) None of the above A) 127.4 V
B) 141.4 V
3. The form factor is the ratio C) 282.8 V
of D) 200 V
A) peak value to r.m.s value
B) r.m.s value to average value 7. The form factor for a sine wave is
C) average value to r.m.s value always A) 1.414
D) none of the above B) 0.707
C) 1.11
4. The period of a sine wave is 0.02 seconds. D) 0.637
Its frequency is?
A) 50 Hz
B) 20 Hz

2
 Chapter 3: Transformers
Objectives:
 Recall Faradays Law of electromagnetic Induction
 Recall the construction and operation of transformer
 Distinguish between a step-up, step down and an auto transformer.
 Apply the turns ratio formula in calculations involving transformers
 Recall the factors that influence the efficiency of a transformer.

Introduction/ review:
 An electromagnet is an arrangement of wire in a coil and when a current run through it, it produces a
magnetic field that looks a lot like a bar magnet.

 The magnetic field lines called fluxes always run from north to south.
 The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by: adding more coils of wire, using a larger power
supply (more current) and using an iron core to concentrate the magnetic field.

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

 In 1831, Sir Michael Faraday, an English physicist gave one of the most important laws of electromagnetism. This
law explained the working principle of electrical motors, generators and transformers. The law explains the
relationship between electric current in a circuit and magnetic field.

 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that when a coil of wires is exposed to a changing
magnetic field an electromotive force (called a voltage) will be induced into the coil . this voltage will in turn
produce a current.

 Lenz, another physicist, discovered that the voltage that was induced into the coil will cause the induced
current to move such as to oppose the direction of the voltage that produced it. Meaning, the electrons
(current) will move in the other direction of the motion of the magnet. This is known as Lenz’s law.

Diagram showing voltage being induced into a coil as a result of magnetic field lines cutting through a conductor.

2
  A galvanometer is the device used that is able to detect the small amounts of current that are produced
by induction.

Images demonstrating Lenz’s law of electromagnetism

What happens if you add AC instead of DC to a coil?

 When DC current is added to a coil it produces and electromagnet with a constant North and South pole.
 DC current in coils are commonly used in relay switches used at doors of offices, or as automatic switches
in vehicles or as motor that operate on a much greater voltage. For example:

DC added to a coil- automatic change over switch

 When AC current is added to a coil it produces changing magnetic fields (N to S, S to N). This rapid changing in
magnetism is the result of current changing polarity from positive to negative half cycles. Recall that for AC
power supply, the frequency of oscillation is 60 cycles pers second or 60 Hz.

The diagram below best illustrates the alternation of magnetic polarities as a result of altering current:

2
  Many electrical devices take advantage of this changing magnetic field as a result of AC current. Electric Bells
are one of them. In an electric bell, an electric current pass through the winding of the electromagnet. It creates
a magnetic field that attracts the soft iron armature of the striker, pulling it over to give the bell a tap. When this
occurs the circuits “opens up”. The spring returns the iron armature to its the original position where the cycle
repeats itself.

Transformer
 Is a device used to increase or decrease voltage.
 Transformers operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction (A.K.A mutual induction). This means that
it relies on the changing magnetic field polarities caused by AC current in electromagnets.
 Transformers are commonly used by the electric power companies like BEL to transmit and distribute
electricity across long distances over the country.

 Transformers are found in many house hold appliances and electronic gadgets. The voltage of the
outlet (typically 110 volts) is too high and so needs to be lowered before it can be safely used.
 Transformers that increase voltage are called step-up and those that decrease voltage are step-down.

Construction of a transformer
 A transformer consists of three main parts.
I. A primary coil connected to the main AC power supply.
II. A secondary coil which provides output AC voltage
III. A laminated (thin sheets) soft iron core

2
Operation of a transformer
 The input AC voltage in the primary coil generates a changing magnetic field which travels around the iron
core. The magnetic fields cut through the secondary coil and induces a voltage into it causing current to flow.

Image showing the magnetic field moving through the core from primary to secondary coil

Turns ratio
 is ratio of primary to secondary coils in a transformer and can be used in calculations to determine for
an unknown quantity. It is given by the formula:

Where:

n1 = number of turns on primary coil

n2 = number of turns on secondary coil
V1 = primary voltage
V2 = secondary voltage
I1 = primary current
I2 = secondary current

Example 1:
 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1 and the primary current is 3A when it is supplied at 240V.
Calculate:
a. secondary voltage (V2)
b. secondary current (I2).

Solution:
a. secondary voltage (V2)
 First, determine the givens and choose a suitable part of the formula.
 Given: n1=8, n2=1 and V1= 240V

 Set-up the formula as shown. Divide by the variable “opposite diagonally” to the
unknow.

25
 So,

V2= 30V

b. secondary current (I2).

 First determine the givens and choose a suitable part of the
formula. Given: I1=3A, V2= 30V, V1=240V

 Set-up the formula as shown. Divide by the variable “opposite diagonally” to the unknow

So,
𝑰 𝑽𝟏∗𝑰𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽∗𝟑𝑨 = 𝟐𝟒𝑨
𝟐
= = 𝟑𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝟐
I2= 24 Amps

Example 2:
 Determine the voltages V2 and V3 for the transformer give below.

Solution:
 Take pairs at a time of the circuit and apply the appropriate formula. Let’s start with the
circuits V1 and V2.

𝑽𝟏 ∗ 𝒏𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝑽 ∗ 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟒𝑽
𝒏𝟏

 Similarly, apply the same concept for the circuit containing V1 and V3.
𝑽𝟏 ∗ 𝒏𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝑽 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟑 = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝑽
𝒏𝟏

26
Energy losses in transformers:

 An ideal transformer would be one that is 100% efficient. This means that the power supplied at the
input terminal should be exactly equal to the power supplied at the output terminal, zero energy losses.
 In reality, no transformer is ideal. The output power of a transformer is never exactly equal to the input
power, due a number of electrical losses inside the core and windings of the transformer.
 Transformer is a static device, i.e. we do not get to see any movements in its parts, so no mechanical losses exist
in the transformer and only electrical losses are observed.
 Some of electrical losses in the transformer are:
 Iron losses
 flux leakage of magnetic flux.
Iron losses
 These losses occur in the core of the transformer and are generated due to the variations in the flux.
These losses depend upon the magnetic properties of the materials which are present in the core, so
they are also known as iron losses, as the core of the Transformer is made up of iron. And since they do
not change like the load, so these losses are also constant. There are two types of Iron losses in the
transformer:
 Eddy Current losses
 Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Losses
 Eddy current loss is a conductive power loss (I2R) which is produced by circulating currents induced in
response to AC flux linkage.
 As the magnetic fluxes circulate the core, it induces some current into the laminated iron. These
circular currents are unable to go anywhere due to the resistance of the iron, so they turn to heat. This
heat means loss of electricity so it means a decrease in efficiency.
 The stacked laminations of iron separated by varnish (insulator) as opposed to a tick piece of iron
helps decrease eddy current losses.

Hysteresis Loss
 Hysteresis loss is defined as the electrical energy which is required to realign the domains of
the ferromagnetic material (like iron) which is present in the core of the transformer.
 These domains lose their alignment when the magnetic fluxes alternate their polarities (N-S, S-N) as a
result of the input AC current. For their proper realignment, some external energy supply, usually in the
form of current is required. This extra energy is known as Hysteresis loss.

27
 Flux leakage losses
 The leakage of electromagnetic flux lines between the primary and secondary winding
represents wasted energy. The iron core helps concentrate the magnetic field lines to prevent
leakage.

Autotransformer:

 An autotransformer is a type of electrical transformer in which a part of the winding is common to both
primary and secondary circuit.

 Unlike a two winding transformer where power transfer is only inductive, the power transformer in
an autotransformer is both inductive and conductive.
 In the diagram above, the voltage of the secondary side can be increased or decreased.
 This type of transformer is commonly used in fans to control speed by modifying the voltage to the fan.

Advantages
 Requires less copper, less iron and hence low exciting current, low ohmic loss and less weight as
compared to a two-winding transformer
 compared to a 2-winding transformer gives higher output, has higher efficiency, and better voltage
regulation.
Disadvantages
 They are used for a voltage ratio less than 2. If the ratio differs far from unity then the economic
advantages decrease.
 A failure of the isolation of the windings could lead to full voltage applied to any load connected.
Could cause damage to equipment.

Cooling methods of transformers

 For very large transformers such as distribution and power transmission transformers the amount of heat
generated is a lot, so these transformers require special cooling mechanisms.

28
 Air Natural
o This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (up to 3 MVA). In this
method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.
 Air Forced
o For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this method,
air is forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply must be filtered
to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method can be used for
transformers up to 15 MVA.
 Oil Cooled
o This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the core
and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil flows in
the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the
radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the
transformer.

Oil cooled with radiator exposed to open air

29
Classwork#3: Show all working and formulas used for the calculation type problems.

1. The basic principle of the transformer is that when a current carrying coil is placed near a coil, a current is
induced in the second coil, this principle is called _.
2. The type of current that transformers used is .
3. The turns ratio is a ratio of to _ .
4. If the primary side of a transformer has voltage of 120 and the secondary has a voltage of 60, what type
of transformer is this? .

5. If a transformer has 240 volts on the primary side and a 500/ 1 turns ratio, what is the voltage in the
secondary side?

6. A transformer has a primary coil with 200 turns, and a secondary coil with 2000 turns. The input voltage is 120
V, and it runs at 1800 W. Fill in the table below for this transformer and show working for each answer.

Is this a step-up or step-down transformer? _ .

30
7. A transformer has a primary coil with 100 turns and 35A, and the secondary coil has 150 turns. The power in
the secondary coil is 1.4 KW. Fill in the table for this transformer and show working at the bottom for each
answer.

Is this a step-up or step-down transformer? _ .

8. Name TWO substances that can be used to minimize the effect of heat in transformers.

9. The figure below shows a double-wound transformer with 1200 turns in the primary winding.

a. Determine the number of turns in the 400V secondary winding

b. Determine the number of turns in the 24V secondary winding.

31
 Chapter 4: Capacitors & Inductors

Objectives:
 Distinguish between a capacitor and an inductor.
 Recall the construction and operation of capacitors and inductors
 Perform calculations involving capacitive and inductive resistance.
 Apply the turns ratio formula in calculations involving transformers
 Recall the factors that influence the efficiency of a transformer.

Capacitors
 A capacitor is a passive component that is able to store charge in an electrostatic field between two
charged plates.
Construction
 A capacitor consists of two conductors called 'plates' separated by an insulator called the 'dielectric'. These
two plates are separated by a piece of material called the dielectric and it is technically an insulator. Various
materials are used. The materials that are used will impact the capacitance significantly.
Establishing an electrostatic field capacitance
 When a voltage is applied to the plates of the capacitor they become charged according to the polarity
of the applied voltage. The electric filed is formed between the plates.

 A capacitor act as a load when it is being charge but act as a power source when it discharges.
Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance:
 The ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an electric field is called capacitance. It is
measured in the unit of the Farad (F).
 When capacitors are used in Alternating current (AC) circuits they oppose the changes in voltage by
“filling in” or “smoothening” of the AC waves.
 The ability of a capacitor to oppose the changes of an AC current is known as capacitive reactance.
 Capacitive reactance can be calculated using this formula and is measured in ohms (Ω).
1
𝑥𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency. In other words, the higher the frequency, the less
it opposes (the more it “conducts”) the AC flow of electrons.
Factors affecting Capacitance

 Plate Area. Increasing the plate area will increase the charge size
 Plate separation. If the plates are further separated the ability to store charge deceases.
 Type of Dielectric Material. Different types of dielectric materials have different ability to hold a field of
electrostatic field. Some common type of dielectric are: mica, glass, castor oil, air and wood

32
  Capacitors may be made polarized, non-polarized and variable depending on their construction. The
circuit symbols are:

o Some of the most common type of polarized capacitors are called electrolytic capacitors. Connecting
them in opposite direction can lead to their destruction and a small explosion.

Connecting capacitors in series and parallel:

o Capacitors are similar to resistors in the capacitors can be connected in parallel (across) or in series (side
by side). This too affects the overall capacitance of the capacitors.

Capacitors connected in Series

o When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the series
capacitors’ individual capacitances.

Capacitors connected in Parallel

o In parallel the capacitance of capacitors simply adds up.

Example 1:
 Determine the capacitive reactance (Xc) of the circuit below and current (I) flowing through the circuit.

33
 solution:
-
 Chose the appropriate formula and substitute. Recall that the sub-multiple micro(µ) means 10 6.
1 1
𝑥𝑐 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝛀
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2 ∗ 3.142 ∗ 60 ∗ (22 ∗ 10−6)

 Use ohms law to determine the current (I). Take the resistance as the capacitive reactance.
𝑉 𝑉 10
𝐼= = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝐀 = 82.6𝑚𝐴
� 𝑋𝑐 12
� 1

Example 2:
 Determine the total capacitance for the circuit below.

Solution:
 Identify the type of circuit and chose the appropriate formula. It’s a parallel circuit.

𝐶𝑇 = 5µ + 10µF + 15µF = 𝟑𝟎µ𝐅

Example 3:
 Determine the total capacitance for the circuit below.

Solution:
 Identify the type of circuit and chose the appropriate formula. It’s a parallel circuit.

𝐶𝑇 = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝑭
1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 + 0.2 + 0.1 0.8
+ + + +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 2 5 10

34
Classwork #4: Show all working and formulas used.

1) A capacitor rated at 2.2 microfarads (μF) is subjected to a sinusoidal AC voltage of 24 volts RMS, at a
frequency of 60 Hz. Calculate for capacitive reactance (XC), then solve for current (I) passing through the
capacitor.

2) Determine the current flowing through the circuit.

3) At what frequency (f) does a 30 μF capacitor have 10 Ω of capacitive reactance?

4) Determine the total capacitance for the series-parallel circuit shown below. (HINT: solve for the series
section first then solve the parallel section)

35
Inductors:

 An Inductor is a passive electrical component consisting of a coil of wire which is designed to take advantage
of the relationship between magnetism and electricity as a result of an electric current passing through the
coil.
 An inductor temporarily stores electrical charge in a magnetic field.
 In its most basic form, an Inductor is nothing more than a coil of wire wound around a central core.

 For most coils the current, (I) flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux, around it that is proportional to
this flow of electrical current.

Construction

 Inductors, also called a choke, are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a solid central core which can be
either a straight cylindrical rod or a continuous loop or ring to concentrate their magnetic flux.

 The schematic symbol for an inductor is that of a coil of wire so therefore, a coil of wire can also be called
an Inductor.

 Inductors usually are categorized according to the type of inner core they are wound around, for example,
hollow core (free air), solid iron core or soft ferrite core with the different core types being distinguished by
adding continuous or dotted parallel lines next to the wire coil as shown below.
36
Operation:

 The current, I, that flows through an inductor produces a magnetic flux that is proportional to it. But unlike a
Capacitor which oppose a change of voltage across their plates, an inductor opposes the rate of change of
current flowing through it due to the buildup of self-induced energy within its magnetic field.
 In other words, inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a steady state DC current.
 The ability of an inductor to temporary store electric charge in the form of an electromagnetic field is referred
to as inductance. Inductance is given the symbol L with units of Henry, (H) after Joseph Henry.

 Because the Henry is a relatively large unit of inductance in its own right, for the smaller inductors sub-units of
the Henry are used to denote its value. For example:

Inductive Reactance
 Inductive Reactance is the opposition to the change of AC current caused by an inductor. It depends on
the frequency of the applied voltage as reactance is directly proportional to frequency.

37
  The formula for calculating inductive reactance is given below. The value of pi can be taken as 3.142

Example
 A coil of inductance(L) 150mH and zero resistance is connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
the inductive reactance of the coil and the current (I) flowing through it.

Solution:
 Determine the givens and the unknown. Apply the formula for inductive reactance.
 L=150mH, V=100V, f=50Hz, π=3.142, XL= ?, I= ?

𝑋𝐿 = 2π𝑓L = 2 ∗ 3.142 ∗ 50 ∗ (150 ∗ 10−3) = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟑𝛀

 Now, apply formula to determine the current in the circuit. Take the inductive reactance as
the resistance.

𝑉 𝑉 100𝑉
𝐼= = = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝐀
� 𝑋𝐿 47.13
�

38
Classwork #5: Show all working and formulas used for the calculation type problems.

1) An inductor rated at 8 Henrys is subjected to a sinusoidal AC voltage of 24 volts RMS, at a frequency of 50

hertz. Write the formula for calculating inductive reactance (XL), and solve for current(I) passing through the
inductor.

2) Calculate the amount of current in this inductive AC circuit shown below.

1) Define the terms: [4 marks]

a. Capacitance:_ _ _
_ _

b. Inductance:_ _ _
_ _

c. Capacitive reactance:
_ _ _
_ _

d. Inductive reactance:
_ _
_ _
2) What is a dielectric material? Give TWO examples. [3 marks]
_ _ _ _
_ _ _

3) Construct a neat diagram of a capacitor to demonstrate its operating principle. Ensure to give a short
explanation. [3 marks]

4) Give the circuit symbol for a variable capacitor and an iron core inductor [2 marks]

5) What are 2 other names that an inductor may be referred to? [1 mark]
_ and _

6) Reactance and Resistance how would you distinguish the two? [2 marks]
_ _ _
_ _ _

39
_ _ _

40
 Chapter 5: Resistivity

Objectives:
 Recall the factors affecting the resistance of a material.
 Perform calculations using the resistivity formula
 Perform calculations using temperature coefficient formula.
 Transpose to make various variables as a subject of an equation.

Resistivity of a Material.
 Resistivity of a material is an intrinsic (natural) property which is independent of its shape and size. It
is symbolized by the symbol ρ (rho).
 Resistance of a conductor is dependent on its:
 Length- measured in meters (m)
 cross sectional area- measured in square meters (m2).
 resistivity – measured in ohm-meters (Ωm).
 temperature- measured in degrees Celsius ( oC)

 Resistivity of a material is calculated using the formula:

 Resistivity is useful in comparing various materials on the basis of their ability to conduct electric
currents. High resistivity designates poor conductors.

Table showing the resistivity of a few materials:

Material Resistivity (Ωm)

Silver 1.59x10-8

Copper 1.68x10-8

Gold 2.44x10-8

Aluminium 2.82x10-8

Iron 1.0x10-7

Constantan 4.9x10-7

Mercury 9.8x10-7

Graphite 2.5x10-6

41
 Example 1:
 Calculate the total resistance(R) of a 100-meter roll of 2.5mm2 copper wire if the resistivity of copper at
-
20 Co is 1.72 x 10 Ωm.

Solution:
-
 Data given: resistivity, ρ =1.72 x 10 8 Ωm, coil length L = 100m, the cross-sectional area of the
conductor, A= 2.5mm2 .
-
 The cross-sectional area is in mm2 but should be in m2. Recall that milli stands for (10 3)

-
A= 2.5mm2= 2.5 x (10 3m)2= 2.5 x 10-6m2

 Now, we apply the formula.

𝜌∗𝐿 (1.72 ∗ 10−8) ∗ 100

𝑅= =
𝐴 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝟖𝜴
2.5 ∗ 10−6
.
Resistance and Temperature Coefficient.
 The resistance of a Wire also depends on its temperature. The amount the resistance changes for
every degree Celsius is known as temperature coefficient symbolized as α measure in (1/oC).

 If The temperature of the wire increases and resistance increase the wire material is said to have a
positive temperature coefficient (+α)
 If The temperature of the wire increases and resistance decrease the wire material is said to have a
negative temperature coefficient (-α)

 To calculate the resistance of wire that experience a change in temperature the formula below is used

Where,
Ro = Initial resistance
α = Temperature coefficient
ΔT = Change in temperature = Final temp. – Initial temp

 The table below shows the temperature coefficient of a few conducting materials with both positive
and negative temperature coefficient.

42
Example:

 A car headlight filament is made of tungsten and has a cold resistance of 0.350 Ω. If its temperature is
increased from room temperature 20oC to a typical operating temperature of 2850oC, what is the resistance
of the filament?
Solution:
 Givens Ro=0.350 Ω =,ΔT=?,
 From the table, the temperature coefficient of tungsten, α= 4.5 x10-3 (1/oC)
 ΔT = final temp- initial temp= 2850oC-20oC= 2830oC
 Apply the formula:

𝑹 = 𝑹𝒐[𝟏 + (𝑎 ∗ 𝚫𝐓)] = 0.350 ∗ [1 + (4.5 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 2830)] = 𝟒. 𝟖Ω

_ _

Classwork#6:

1) Make resistivity the subject of the formula below. [2 mark]

Use the table to answer questions 2 to 3.

2) Calculate the total resistance of a 120 meter roll of copper with a cross sectional area of 2.5 x 10-6 m2 copper
wire. [2 marks]

3) Comparing Silver and Mercury from the table which has the highest resistivity? _ [1 mark]

43
4) A wire made of an unknown metal was found to have a resistance of 0.030 Ω. The wire is 0.50 m long and has
a cross-sectional area of 2.65 x 10-7 m2. What is the wire made from? [3 marks]

5) A gold cylinder radius 0.5 cm, is 25 cm long. Calculate the resistance of the cylinder. [3 marks]
Hint: find the area using (A = π r²)

6) A platinum resistance thermometer uses the change in Resistance to measure temperature. Suppose the initial
resistance is 50 Ω at 20 oC. The temperature coefficient for Platinum is 3.92×10-3 1/oC in this temperature range.
What is the resistance when the final temperature is 50.0 oC? [3 marks]

7) A heating element is a wire with cross-sectional area of 2 × 10−7 m2 and is 1.3 m long. The material has resistivity
of 4 × 10−5 Ωm at 200°C and a temperature coefficient of 3 × 10−2 1/°C. Find the resistance of the element at
350°C. [3 marks]

44
Second Semester

45
 4V Electrical and Electronics Technology Second Semsester
Chapter Units Page Number
DC motors and magnetism A1.1 Factors that affect magnitude of Lorentz force
A1.2 Fleming’s Left hand rule
A1.3 Construction and operation of a DC motor
A.14 Types of DC motors

Classwork #1 54
AC motors A2.1 Three phase induction motors
A2.2 Single phase induction motors
A2.3 Synchronous motors
Classwork #2 63
Electrical tools & materials A3.1 Electrical tools
A3.2 Electrical materials
Assignment #1 70
A3.3 American wire gauge
Classwork#3 75
Electrical Installation of lighting A4.1 Parts of an electrical service entrance
circuits & service entrance Assignment #2 79
A4.2 Types of electrical diagrams
A4.3 Types of switches
A4.4 Fluorescent lighting fixture
Project #1 86
Project #2 86
Electrical Floor Plans A5.1 Electrical floor plans and symbols
A5.2 Good and Bad Practices of drafting electrical Plan
Project #3 93
Project #4 93
Semiconductors A1.1 Energy Bands in insulators and conductors
A1.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Materials
A1.3 PN Junction Diodes
A.14 Applications of PN Diodes
A1.5 Full wave rectification process

Classwork #4 101
Transistors A2.1 Transistor Construction
A2.2 Operation Regions of Transistors
A2.3 Common-Emitter Connections
A2.4 Coupling and Blocking Capacitors in Transistor Circuits
Classwork #5 113
Logic Gates A3.1 Types of Logic Gates
A3.2 Circuit equivalent of logic gates
A3.3 Combinational Circuits
Classwork#6 120
Electric Power Generation and A4.1 Types of power
Distribution A4.2 Efficiency
Classwork #7 127
A4.3 AC Generation
A4.4 Transmission and Distribution of Three phase AC
A4.5 Motor control Starters
Classwork #8 136
References 139

46
 Chapter 1: DC Motors and Magnetism

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Recall the factors that affect the force acting on a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field.
 Perform calculations using the formula F= BIL.
 Determine the direction of force of a wire placed in a magnetic field using Fleming’s left hand rule.
 Recall the construction and function of the components in a DC motor.
 Classify DC motors into three main types: series, shunt and compound motors.

Introduction

o DC motors are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy (motion). They operate on the
principle that a current-carrying wire that is placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. This force is known as
Lorentz force.

A1.1 Factors that affect the magnitude of Lorentz force

o The magnitude and direction of the force experienced by the current carrying wire in a magnetic field
depends on four variables:
- Magnitude (size) and direction of the current (I),
- Length (L) of the wire or coil placed in the magnetic field
- Strength and direction of the magnetic field (B),
- Angle (Θ) between the field lines (fluxes) and the current-carrying wire.

o The formula used to determine the magnitude of force is given by the formula
F= BILSinΘ where:
- F is force measured in newton (N)
- B is magnetic field strength measured in Tesla (T)
- I is current measured in Amperes (A)
- Length (L) of wire is measured in meters (m).
- Θ is the angle between magnetic field and current. The sine of angle (sinΘ) can be found using a
scientific calculator.
If the angle is 90 degrees (when wire and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other) then the wire experiences
maximum force. If the angle is 0 degrees (when wire and magnetic field are parallel to each other) then the wire
experience no force. If the angle is between 0 and 90 degrees then the force will be dependent on the sinΘ.

47
Example1:
o Calculate the force experienced by a current carrying wire of length 20cm that is placed in a magnetic
field of 12T at an angle of 30o if the current flowing through the wire is 3A.

Solution:

First, notice that the length is in “cm” and not meters. We convert “cm” to “m” by dividing by 100.
20
20cm = 100 = 0.2m

Also, using scientific calculator we find that sin30o = 0.5

F= BILSinΘ
F= (12T)(3A)(0.2m)(Sin30o)
F= 12 x 3 x 0.2 x 0.5
F= 3.6 N

Example2:
o A wire carrying a 30.0-A current passes between the poles of a strong magnet that is perpendicular to
its field and experiences a 2.16 N force on the 4.00 cm of wire in the field. What is the magnetic field
strength?

Solution:

First, notice that the length is in “cm” and not meters. We convert cm to m by dividing by 100.
4
4cm = 10 = 0.04m
0

Also, the angle is perpendicular meaning 90o, using scientific calculator we find that sin90o = 1

Next, The equation F= BILSinΘ needs to be transposed so that “B” magnetic field strength is the subject of the
equation as shown below:

𝐹
𝐵 = ILSin𝛩

2.16 𝑁
𝐵 = 30.0A∗0.04m∗ Sin90

1.2
2.16 2.16
𝐵= 30.0∗0.04∗1 =
48
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝑻

49
A1.2 Fleming’s Left hand rule
o Fleming’s left hand rule gives the direction of force (otherwise known as thrust) for the case when
the magnetic field and current are at right angles (perpendicular) to each other.

Example1:
o Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine whether the current-carrying wire shown below will swing to
the left or to the right?

Solution

50
A1.3 Construction and operation of a basic DC motor
o A simple DC motor must consists of:
- DC Power supply
- Brushes
- Commutator segments
- Axle
- Armature (rotor)
- Magnetic field from either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet (stator)

DC power supply

o For the DC power supply of a motor we always work with the conventional flow of current- from
positive to the negative polarity.
Axle

o The axle or shaft allows for rotation of the rotor (armature) all with commutator segments.
Normally the axle is supported on bearings to reduce friction.
Brushes

Brushes take current from the power source and deliver it to the rotating commutator segments
o
which move rotate along with the rest of the axle. Brushes rub against the commutator
segments and generate heat due to friction.
o Brushes are made from carbon (graphite) like the lead found in pencils. They are soft and
generate far less heat than if two metals were being rubbed together.
Commutator segments

o The commutator come in even number of segments (2s, 4s 6s etc.) In the diagram above, half
segment makes connection with the positive terminal of the power source while the other
half contacts the negative terminal.
o The purpose of the commutator is to reverse the direction of the current for every half revolution
made by the rotor. This keeps the armature or rotor rotating in one direction only.

51
 Armature (rotor)

The armature is the coil of wires that rotate inside the magnetic field hence it is referred to as
o
the rotor.
o When electric current passes through the coil of wires that is located in the magnetic field of
the stator, they experience a force (Lorentz Force) on each side of the wire resulting in torque
and eventually rotation.
o The direction which the rotor rotates can be determined using Fleming’s left hand rule.
Magnetic Field (stator)

o The stator is the part of the motor which does not rotate, it supplies the needed magnetic field.
o The stator can be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
Factors that affect the speed of rotation of the motor.

o The speed of rotation of the motor can be increased by:

- Adding more coils (length) of wire to the armature. This would mean that more wire will experience
Lorentz forces and thus a faster rotation. However too many coils can also increase the weight of
the rotor which will cause the motor to slow down instead.

- Increasing the strength of the magnetic field by using stronger magnets or electromagnets

- Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire of the armature coil. However, too
much current can burn the wires due to resistance of the wire itself which generate heat.

- Ensuring that majority of the armature wire is perpendicular or at angle to the magnetic field lines.
Having wires that run parallel to the magnetic field lines would mean an angle of zero degrees
which would experience no Lorentz force.
A1.3 Types of DC motor

o DC motors are categorized depending on the way the armature and magnetic field windings
are connected. They can be categorized as four main types as follows:

o For the individual classifications we will focus on the armature, commutator and field winding.

I. Permanent magnet motors

o The permanent magnet supplies the magnetic field.

Advantages:
o They have excellent starting torque capability with good speed regulation.
Disadvantages:
o They are limited to the amount of load they can drive. Used in low horse power
applications where a lot of torque is not required like in cooling fans, DVD players
52
 o They are limited to 150% of the rated torque to prevent the permanent magnet to lose
magnetization.

Permanent magnet motor

II. Series wound motors

o In a series wound DC motor the field is connected in series (side by side) with the armature. The
filed coils wound with a few turns of large wire because it must carry the full armature current.

Advantages:
o They develop large starting torque

Disadvantages:
o Speed varies widely between no load and full load (speed not easily regulated)
o Cannot be used where a constant speed is required under varying loads.
o With no load, the speed goes up and the motor can become damaged.

Series wound motor

o The diagram below show the speed to torque characteristic of a series wound motor. Notice
the speed changes with torque. As torque increases, speed decreases.

III. Shunt wound motors

o In a shunt wound DC motor the field is connected in parallel (across) with the armature.
o The field and armature in shunt motors can be connected from:
- common (same) power source or,
- From separate power source/.
53
 Shunt wound motor
Advantages:
o The motor offer good speed regulation.
o Operates at constant speed during load.
o Can control speed drive from both the armature and/or field windings independently.
o Offers an easy method for reversing

Disadvantages:
o No real disadvantage but if variable speeds is desired under load then this is not a suitable motor.

54
III. Compound wound motors

o In a compound wound DC motor the field is connected in series with the armature and is connected
to separately connected shunt field.

Compound wound DC motor

Advantages
o The Series field provides better starting torque and the shunt field provides better speed regulation.
Disadvantage

o The series field can cause problems with speed regulation.

Speed-torque characteristic of a compound motor

55
 Classwork #1/ Test Study Questions
Part I: fill in the blanks

1. Motors are devices that convert _ _ energy into energy.

2. The basic principle behind the simple DC motor is that wires that carry _ experience
when placed in regions of space that have .
3. Only sections of wire that curry current in a direction _ _ to a magnetic field experience forces.
4. The speed at which the rotor of a motor spins depends on three important factors:
_, _ _ and _ .
5. The direction that the rotor of a motor spins can be determined using _ rule.
Part II. Calculations, show all formulas used and working in pencil. Highlight the final answer(s).

6. Compute for the unknown quantity

a. b.

c. d.

7. A length of wire 0.5 m carrying a current of 2 A is placed at right angle to a magnetic field of 0.2T calculate
the force on the wire.

8. A magnetic field exerts a force of 0.25 N on an 8.0 cm length of wire carrying a current of 3.0 A. What force
would be exerted on a wire 24 cm long carrying the same current?

9. A 2 m long wire with a resistance of 0.020 Ω is connected to a 24 V battery and placed in a 0.001
T magnetic field. What is the magnetic force on the wire?

56
Part III multiple choice.

10. In order for a wire to experience a magnetic force it must include all of the following EXCEPT:
a. Have a current flowing in it.
b. Be charged.
c. Be in a magnetic field.
d. Must be, at least partly, perpendicular to the magnetic field.

11. Which of the following changes to a motor might decrease the speed at which it spins?
a. Using two magnets instead of one
b. Using tow batteries instead of one
c. Using a rotor with only six loops instead of twelve

12. When using your hand to determine the direction that the motor spins, your thumb always points in
the direction of:
a. The current
b. The magnetic field
c. The force experienced by the wire

13. Consider the motor shown below. The magnetic field is oriented vertically so that it is directed into the
magnet. The current runs through the loop in a clockwise manner. What will the direction of the force on the
bottom section of the rotor be?
a. Into the plane of the paper
b. Out of the plane of the paper
c. No force will be experienced at the bottom section

14. Consider the motor in question 13. What will happen to the direction that the motor spins if the bar magnet
is flipped so that the direction of the magnetic field is reversed AND the battery leads are switched so that the
direction of the current is reversed?
a. The motor will continue to spin in its initial direction
b. The motor will reverse the direction that it spins

15. A long straight wire carries a 6.0 A current that is directed in the positive x direction. When a uniform
magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a 3.0 m segment of the wire, the magnetic force on the segment is
0.36N, directed in the in the negative y direction, as shown. What are the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field?
a. 0.02 T, out of the paper
b. 0.02 T, into the paper
c. 0.06 T, out of the paper
d. 0.06 T, into the paper
e. 0.65 T, out of the paper

57
Use the following information to answer questions 16 and 17.

A long straight vertical segment of wire traverses a magnetic field of magnitude 2.0 T in the direction shown in the
diagram. The length of the wire that lies in the magnetic field is 0.06 m. when the switch is closed, a current of 4.0 A
flows through the wire from point P to point Q.

16. Which one of the following statements concerning the effect of the magnetic force on the wire is true?
a. The wire will be pushed to the left.
b. The wire will be pushed to the right
c. The wire will have no net force acting on it.
d. The wire will be pushed into the plane of the paper
e. The wire will be pushed out of the plane of the paper.

17. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force acting on the

wire? a. 0.12 N
b. 0.24 N
c. 0.48 N
d. 67 N
e. 0 N
Part IV: Extended Questions: give well supported reasons for your answers

18. Engineers often find that while increasing the value of a variable may be beneficial to a desired outcome, a
critical point is often reached where increasing the value of that variable any further actually works against
them. With the simple DC motor, the number of loops in the rotor acts as such a variable.
a. Explain why increasing the number of loops is initially beneficial.

b. Explain why there is a limit to increasing the number of loops. In other words, why is it that at some
point, increasing the number of loops does not increase the speed at which the motor spins?

19. A fellow student suggest making a square rotor instead of a circular one. He proposes that using a similarly
sized square rotor will actually allow the motor to spin faster. Do you agree with him? Why or why not?

58
 Chapter 2: AC Motors

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Classify the types of AC motors
 Recall the operation and construction of single phase, three phase induction motors and synchronous
motors through the use of schematic diagrams.
 Compare the characteristics of three phase induction to synchronous motors

Introduction

o Ac motors operate on alternating current, they convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. They are
made up of two main parts:
“Stator”- stationary part that provide the magnetic field
“Rotor”- rotating part

o Principle of operation for all AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving magnetic field created in the
stator by AC current, with an opposing magnetic field either induced on the rotor or provided by a separate
DC current source.
o Ac motors can be classified into two main categories induction and synchronous motor. Under induction
we have single phase and three phase types.

Classification of AC motors

59
A2.1 Three phase Induction motors (squirrel cage and slip ring induction motors).
o Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipment in industries.
o Three phase induction motors are connected to a 3 phase power supply which means that they are 3 single
phases of AC waves at an angle of 120O to each other. The three phase motor need no starting mechanism.

Three phase induction motor

o The induction ac motor derives its name from currents flowing into rotor that are induced by alternating currents
flowing from the stator. It is Similar to how current is induced from a primary coil to the secondary coil of a
transformer. Recall the principle of electromagnetic induction.
o The current that gets induced into to coils of the rotor produces a magnetic field of its own which interacts
with electromagnetic field of the stator resulting in a torque thus creating rotation.
o Induction motor come into types:

I. Squirrel Cage Induction motor

- Squirrel cage motor: the rotor of the motor looks like a squirrel cage. It is the most common type
of induction motor due to less maintenance cost, simpler design and higher efficiency.
- They are no moving parts making physical contact. The rotor and stator are separated by a small
air gap.
- In this type of motor the rotor is a cylindrical core which is laminated to avoid power losses. Squirrel
cage rotor is made up of aluminum or copper bars which are placed parallel to each other and all
the bars (conductors) are short-circuited with end rings. The rotor conductors and end rings form a
complete closed circuit. Here rotor core is laminated to avoid power losses from eddy current and
hysteresis.

Squirrel cage rotor

60
 II. Slip ring induction motor (wound motor)
- The slip ring induction motors works similarly to any other three phase induction motor. They
have same stator constructor but the rotor is different.
- The rotor consist of slip rings which are connected to a 3 phase power supply in a Y- configuration
as shown below.
- The rotor contains windings, slip rings and brushes which provide an electrical connection to
the rotor windings.
- The wound-rotor induction motor is considered to be a variable-speed motor.
- Initial cost is higher and maintenance costs are higher than for a squirrel-cage induction motor.

Slip Ring Rotor and wiring schematic diagrams

A2.2 Single Phase induction motors

o These only have one stator winding, operate with a single-phase power supply.
o Unlike the 3 phase motors, single phase motors need a starting mechanism to start rotation on their own.

61
i. Split Phase induction motor
o Consist of two windings: the primary (running) winding and an auxiliary (starting) winding that
are perpendicular to each other.
o The starting winding consists of a few thick wires in a coil used only in the starting of the motor. They
are later disconnected from the circuit by a centrifugal switch which opens by itself when the rotor
picks up speed.
o The starting winding has low resistance since it is thick but it has high reactance to the flow of AC
current so it causes the current to lag (stay behind) the other current flowing through the
running winding which has high resistance but very low reactance.
o We say the currents become out phase, the starting current lags the running currents. This causes
the two different currents to produce their own magnetic fields. These fields interact by creating a
net resultant force (torque) needed to start the motor.
Run Winding

Voltage

Cage Rotor Run (I)

Start (I)

Automatic or centrifugal switch Start Winding

L N

o Can be reversed by changing connections to any one winding

o Has a high starting current
o Used in simple domestic machines

ii. Capacitor start induction motor

o Similar in effect to the split phase motor
o Capacitor causes current in start winding to lead voltage
o Start and Run windings are approximately 90° out of phase
o High torque
o Used in compressors, refrigerators and when high torque starting is needed

Run Winding

Voltage

Cage Rotor
Run (I)

Start (I)

Automatic or centrifugal switch Start Winding

L N

62
iii. Capacitor start capacitor Run induction motor
o Two capacitors are connected in parallel with the start winding
o Once started, the first capacitor cuts out and leaves the second to continue to maintain an out
of balance magnetic field
o This type is similar to the capacitor start motor but has:
o Better torque. Commonly used in power tools, washing machines, tumble dryers, dishwashers,
vacuum
o Improved power factor

Automatic or centrifugal switch

C2

Start Winding

C1

L N

iv. Shaded pole motor

o A part of each pole is wrapped with low resistance copper bands, which form a closed loop
(These copper bands are called shading bands or shaded poles).

o When a single-phase AC supply is given to the stator of an induction motor, alternating flux will set
up a current in the shading bands.

o The magnetic field created in the shaded poles will lag the stator magnetic field. The result is similar
to a rotating field moving from un-shaded to shaded portion of the pole. This will produce the
starting torque.

63
A2.3 Synchronous motor

o The stator in this type of motor is identical to that used in an induction motor, except the rotor alternatively
carries its own magnetic field windings, which are supplied from a DC source.
o Synchronous motors are not self-starting .The rotor needs to get locked to the rotating magnetic field of
the stator. They require some external means to bring the speed of the rotor close to synchronous speed of
the stator before they are synchronized.
o The speed of operation of is constant irrespective of load condition related to frequency of supply.
o This motor rotates at a synchronous speed (Ns), which is given by the following
equation Ns = 120 f / P
Where:
f = frequency of the supply frequency & P= number of poles

o Parts of the Synchronous motor are:

• Rotor with single winding
• Slip rings and brushes
• Three-phase stator windings

o The table below compares synchronous and induction motors:

64
Classwork #2. Answer in complete sentences and elaborate on your answers, you are encouraged to read over the
chapter to get your answers. Don’t rush to google.

1. Compare and contrast the two types of three phase induction motors. Which is better? Give at least
two comparisons.

2. In terms of the starting mechanism, how are the single phase and three phase induction motors different?

3. What is a main disadvantage of using brushes in slip ring induction motors and synchronous motor?

4. In your own words, explain how a split-phase induction motor is able to create a starting torque for the rotor
to rotate.

5. Which single phase AC motor provides the best starting torque and where would such a type of motor be used?

YouTube Video links for additional Study and Review

Single phase motor Demonstration:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2XYdTogWcIA

Animation showing DC motor construction & operation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=LAtPHANEfQo

DC motor Demonstration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=onjFFoOC_yk

65
 Chapter 3: Electrical Tools and Materials

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Recall the names and the use of common tools used to carry out electrical work.
 Recall the name of common electrical materials used in the construction of circuits.
 Determine the ampacity (gauge) of needed for wiring in a circuit using an American Wire Gauge (AWG) chart.

Introduction

o Electrical tasks can be accomplished systematically to save time, effort, and resources. Most of the work cannot
be done using bare hands. To do the task, electrical tools or equipment are needed to perform the job. This
lesson will discuss the function/use of each tool or equipment used in electrical wiring installations.
A3.1 Electrical Tools
o The following are common electrical tools and equipment needed in the installation of electrical wiring:

66
67
68
A3.2 Electrical materials

o Electrical materials are developed and constructed for special purpose such as to:
o Control the flow of current in an electrical circuit;
o Carry electrical current the source of the load or current consuming apparatus;
o Hold and secure wire to its fixtures inside and outside houses and buildings; and
o Protect the houses, building, appliances and instruments from any destruction or damage.

69
70
71
Assignment #1:
o Analyze each statement carefully and identify what is being described or defined in the space beside.
1. This is used for griping, holding, cutting electrical wires and cables and even small nails.
Usually used by linemen in doing heavy tasks.
2. Used for cutting and holding fine wires. This can reach tight space or small opening where
other pliers cannot reach and also used in making terminal loops of copper wires.
3. This has a cross tip resembling a positive (+) sign. It is used to drive screws with cross slot
heads.
4. A tool used for removing insulation of medium sized wires ranging from gauge #10 to gauge
#16.
5. It is a device inserted to a convenience outlet to conduct electric current.
6. A flat cord is attached to it on one end and the other end is connected to a current
consuming instrument or appliance.
7. This is a circuit protective device that automatically blows and cut the current when an over
load or short circuit happens.
8. This is a rectangular shaped metallic or plastic (PVC) material in which flush type
convenience outlet and switch are attached.
9. It is an octagonal shaped electrical material where the connections or joints of wires are
being done. It is also where the flush type lamp holder is attached.
10. This is a circuit protective device that automatically blows and cut the current when an over
load or short circuit happens.
11. This is a rectangular shaped metallic or plastic (PVC) material in which flush type
convenience outlet and switch are attached.
12. Are electrical materials used as the passage of wires for protection and insulation.
13. Are used to attach metallic or non-metallic conduit to the junction or utility boxes.
14. Used by linemen to remove insulation of wire and cables in low and high voltage
transmission lines

72
A3.3 American Wire Gauging (AWG)
o American wire gauge (AWG) numbers are assigned to electrical wires to indicate their diameter. The numbers
refer to the metal conductor only, and not include the insulation. These numbers appear on the cable
sheathing.
o The AWG number for a particular cable tells its ampacity- how much current in amperes if can conduct
adequately without becoming overheated and burnt.
o The ampacity of a conductor is determined by the size of the conductor, the material that the conductor is
made of, the type of insulation on the conductor, and where the conductor is used.
Conductor cable
o A cable consist of two or more wires contained in the same protective sheathing and every individual
conductor has its own insulation.

o The insulation on each wire is sufficient to prevent the bare wire from coming in contact with other wires or
other objects that can cause a short circuit or ground fault. The insulation will stay on the wire and do its job for
an indefinite period of time unless the insulation is damaged or destroyed by improper use.
o Heat will destroy insulation. Any time current flows through a wire, heat will be generated in the wire. If the
wire is overloaded, excess heat is generated. This excess heat can cause damage to the insulation. This excess
heat may cause the insulation to burn which in turn can cause a fire in the building in which the wire is
installed.
o An overcurrent protection device like a circuit breaker with the proper amperage rating will prevent damage
to the insulation on the wire by limiting the amperage load in the wire to a safe level.
o The rating of the overcurrent protection device to protect the circuit conductors should be selected based on
the ampacity of the conductor to be used. The current rating of the breaker should be the same current rating
of the cable. If it is more then, the breaker will allow more current to pass thus causing the cable to overheat.

73
 o For example most domestic and commercial wiring the type of cable used is “Type NM 600V 14-2G”.
Where NM stands of nonmetallic sheathing, maximum of 600 volts, two wires (live and a neutral) of gauge number 14
and one ground wire.

If we look at the table above, the AWG #14 means that the conductors have an ampacity of 15 Amps so we would chose
a breaker rated at 15 Amps.
Trends in AWG numbering.
o The smaller the AWG number, the thicker the wire. Wires that are less than AWG #1 follow a naming
system such as:
 one-naught (which is 1 over zero) = “1/0” or just “0”
 two-naught (which is 2 over zero) = “2/0” or “00”
 three-naught (which is 3 over zero) = “3/0” or “000”
 four-naught (which is 4 over zero) = “4/0” or “0000”
o The diagram shows the AWG # with their ampacity and uses.

74
Color coding of wires
o Grounded conductor (neutral conductor) – a current carrying conductor that is connected to the earth
(grounded). The grounded conductor is often called the neutral wire. Color must be white or natural gray (or
bare if part of a service entrance cable. Also known as identified conductor. This means that it must installed so
that anyone can always recognize that it is in fact the grounded conductor. A white wire may be used for
purposes other than a grounded conductor. The grounded conductor must never be fused or switched. One
grounded conductor must be used on all 110 volt outlets or equipment. The grounded conductor is never
connected to the power terminals on 220 volt outlets or equipment.
o Ungrounded conductor (hot/live) – a current carrying conductor that is not connected to the earth. The
ungrounded conductor is often called the “hot wire”. Color should not be white, gray, or green. Color may be
black, red, blue, etc. Circuit breakers (or fuses) and switches are placed on ungrounded conductors. One
ungrounded conductor is used in 110 volt circuits. Two ungrounded conductors are used in 220 volt circuits.

o Equipment grounding conductor (earth conductor) – Under normal conditions, the equipment grounding
conductor is never a current carrying conductor. It serves as a path to ground if a fault occurs in the electrical
system or electrical equipment. The color of the equipment grounding conductor may be a bare wire (no
insulation or may have green or green with yellow stripe insulation. The conductor is always connected to
the grounding terminals of devices and to non-current carrying metal parts of equipment and circuits
(including all metal boxes).

Color coding of electrical connections (for example: outlet)

o A 110 volt outlet (receptacle or lighting outlet) will have a grounded and an ungrounded conductors in a
circuit attached to the outlet. Outlets and other electrical devices normally come with a color code for the
terminals where the grounded and ungrounded conductors will be attached to.
The correct color coding in the electrical circuit is:

 Silver or white colored terminal – attach the grounded (neutral) conductor.

 Copper or brass colored terminal – attach the ungrounded (hot) conductor.
 Green colored terminal – attach the equipment grounding conductor.

75
Other types of cables

Type SE (service entrance) cables

o These types of cables are thick and are used for the service entrance cable where high ampacity of 100 to 200
Amps are needed depending on the power need by the domestic home. They start at the weather-head of the
service mast and lead to the meter box outside and then to the breaker panel box.
Type AC (armored clad) cables
o Also known as BX cables are used indoors similar to the Type NM (non-metallic). These types of cables come
with a protective sheathing made from flexible steel excellent for providing protection to the conductors
inside from mechanical stress.
Type UF (underground feeder) cables
o This type of cable is made specially to be used underground to withstand weathering from humidity in the soil
and mechanical stress due to weight. They are made from a solid plastic that cannot be “rolled”
o Underground feeder conductors appear similar to NM and NMC cables except for the thicker
protective sheathing.

76
 Classwork #3/ Test Study Questions
1. Every circuit must contain_ or more 6. In a 110 volt circuit, the wire that must be
conductors. used for the grounded or neutral wire is the
A. 1 wire with insulation.
B. 2 A. Green
C. 3 B. Black
D. 4 C. White
D. none
2. All individual circuits in a residence must be 220
volt circuits. 7. In an electrical circuit, the wire that serves as
A. True a path to ground during faults, but is normally
B. False a non-current carrying wire, is the
.
3. The minimum size service entrance panel A. Grounded conductor
that may be used in a house is___amps. B. Ungrounded conductor
A. 60 C. Electrode conductor
B. 80 D. Equipment grounding conductor
C. 100
D. 200 8. On a 110 volt outlet, the grounded
(neutral) conductor connects to
4. The insulation on the wire is protected terminal.
from overheating by _. A. Silver
A. the type of outlets to which the wire B. Brass
is connected C. Green
B. overcurrent protection D. Any one of the terminal.
C. installing only in open places so that air
can cool the wires 9. Which of the wires has the greatest ampacity?
D. undercurrent protection A. 4 AWG
B. 6 AWG
C. 10 AWG
5. The maximum load that should be carried by D. 14 AWG
a No. 12 AWG conductor is
A. 120 volts 10. In the table below enter the respective color
B. 240 volts codes used conductors that are live, neutral
C. 15 amps and earth.
D. 20 amps Color of wires that may be used for:
Live/ hot Neutral Earth/ ground

11. If metal electrical boxes are used, the 12. The load-carrying capacity of a wire stated
conductor must be connected to in amperes is .
the boxes. A. total load
A. Black B. ampacity
B. White C. voltage
C. Red D. volume
D. Bare
77
 Chapter 4: Electrical Installation of lighting circuits & service entrance

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Identify the various components of a service entrance connection
 Recall the clearances in terms of height needed by service drops at public driveways and walkways.
 Use schematic and pictorial drawings to aid in the construction of various electrical circuits.
 Analyze the operation of intermediate and 3-way switches when used to control lights from multiple locations.
 Analyze the operation fluorescent lighting fixtures.

A4.1 Parts of an electrical Service entrance

o In order to install a service entrance first someone need to know the names of various components and safety
connection standards set by NEC (national electric code) and by local electricity provider like BEL. The details of
how the service lateral or triplex cable provided by the electrical utility is fastened and spliced to the customer’s
service point are illustrated
in Fig. 5-3

o The bare neutral/grounding cable that supports the triplex is fastened at one end to the utility pole and the
other end is fastened at the service point with a combination insulator and anchor bolt crimped onto the
cable. This attachment method leaves the end of the neutral/grounding cable and the bare ends of the two
insulated “hot” conductors available for splicing.

o Electrical utility employees splice these three ends to corresponding ends of the customer’s service entrance
(SE) cable, which is installed by the electrical contractor. The three ends of the customer’s SE cable are pulled
through the bushings in a protective metal hood called the weatherhead or service head with enough slack
to permit an adequate drip loop to be formed when the three conductors are spliced.

o The drip loop, which must be at least 36 in. long, prevents water from entering the weatherhead. Without a drip
loop, water could drain down the conduit to the cable connections inside the meter base to the bus bars that
power the watthour meter, corroding them and causing a short circuit.

o The details of two different aerial feed service entrances are illustrated in Fig. 5-4. A 200-A service entrance
made with three-wire service entrance (SE) cable is shown in Fig. 5-4a. The cable from the weatherhead is
brought down to the meter base, where the bus bar connections to the meter are made. Another length of SE
cable goes from the meter bus bars to the load center.

78
 o A second version of a 200-A service entrance has the SE cable protected by metal or nonmetallic conduit
between the weatherhead and the meter base, as shown in Fig. 5-4b. The service entrances for 175- and 100-A
service are identical except that the SE cable has either a 175- or a 100-A rating. The limits of the meter height
dimensions above grade level are approved by NEC 2002.

The service entrance is made up of:

Service conductors

o Service conductors are those conductors that are installed between the power company’s transformers to the
building. The conductors may be run overhead or underground to the building. If the conductors are run
overhead, there are minimum clearances for the conductors to the ground, drives, etc. Overhead conductors
are usually referred to as a service drop. Refer to “Service Drops. If the conductors are run underground, there
are minimum requirements such as depth of burial for these conductors. Underground conductors are usually
referred to as service laterals
Service mast.

o A mast is conduit connected to the top of the meter base through which overhead service conductors pass to
the meter base. The mast may or may not pass through the roof of the building. The mast must be attached to
the meter base with an approved water tight conduit connector
Service entrance head or weather head

o The weather head is attached to the top of the mast. The service conductors pass through the weather head.
The purpose of the weather head is keep water out of the service entrance.
Meter base

o The meter base serves as the socket into which the meter will be installed to supply electrical power to the
building. It is also the point of entry for the service entrance conductors into the building. The meter base is
installed 4’ to 5’ (feet) above ground level. In many installations, the meter base will also include a main
disconnect
Service entrance cable

o The service entrance cable supplies electrical power to the building from the point of attachment to the
service drop if the service entrance is overhead. The service entrance cable is installed through the mast to the
meter base and to the service entrance panel

79
o A 200-A service with the triplex cable terminating on a metal conduit mast is shown in Fig. 5-5. The mast
projects high enough to comply with NEC 2002 for the minimum distances of the triplex termination above the
ground. The hollow pipe functions as both a mast and a conduit for SE cable from the weatherhead to the
meter base. As in Fig. 5-4, the service entrances for 100- to 175-A service are identical except for the lower SE
cable ratings. All of the dimensional limits shown are those approved by NEC 2002.

80
 Electrical terminal of the meter socket
Assignment #2:
1) What is the purpose of the drip loops and what would occur if water got into the weather?
2) How long should the drips be and what height should they be from the slope of the roof?
3) What clearance height should there be from the bottom of the drip loop to the pedestrian walkway?
4) In order to keep the electric distributors’ service entrance cables firmly attached to the conduit or house, the bare neutral
wire should be attached to using a .
5) The electric distributors’ service entrance cables and customer service entrance cables should be joined using
.

81
 6) NEATLY Create your own diagram of a service entrance showing the clearances distance in feet, the service mast, conduit,
meter socket and connections of the live and ground/neutral, earth rod and a simplistic electrical panel.
A4.2 Types of electrical diagrams
Schematic diagrams
o These diagrams use symbols to show the electrical components in a circuit and lines to represent
wiring connections of the components.
o Schematic symbols such as the following are used:
Electrical Symbol Electrical Symbol
Component component
AC power supply Fluorescent tube

Single pole switch Incandescent bulb

3-way switch DC motor

4-way switch Ac motor

(intermediate)

Junction Fuse
(spliced wire)
No junction (not Breaker
splice)

Electrical Panel Earth

(breaker box)
Starter Bell

Ballast Capacitor
(choke)

o Example of a schematic diagram

82
 Schematic diagram of an electrical circuit
Pictorial Diagram
o Pictorial diagram represents the elements of a system using abstract, graphic drawings or realistic pictures.
o For example,

Dual control lighting circuit using two 3-way switches

83
A4.3 Types of switches

Single pole switches

o Switches that control the flow of current. Should always be connected to the live/hot wire and not the
neutral wire.

3- way switches
o 3-way switches sometimes called 2-way switches consist of a common terminal and two traveler terminals.
Switches are connected to the live wire (Black/ Red color) and two traveler terminals.
o These switches are useful to control a bulb from more than one position as shown below:

84
4- way switches (intermediate switches)
o These type of switches are composed of 4 terminals and work in conjunction with a pair of 3-way switches. They
are used where an addition control point may be needed.
o The 4-way switches are always connected in-between two 3-way switches as shown below. Observe the bulb
is now able to be controlled from 3 positions.

Circuit Breakers

o A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current
flow after a fault is detected.

85
Distribution board (breaker box)

o Distribution Board (Breaker Box): consists of a main breaker usually rated at 100 Amps and distribution breakers
of various ampacities such as 15A, 20A, 25A or 30A depending on the load of the circuits.
o 110 volts circuits are connected to one breaker and a neutral line
o 220/240 volts circuits are connected to two circuit breakers. Meaning two live lines, each of 110 volts.
o The breaker box consists of a
 Neutral bus bar where all neutral lines are connected to.
 Hot bus bar where the breakers are locked into place and feeds current to circuits.
 Ground bus bar where all the ground wires are connected to. From the ground bus bar a thicker
gauge wire is routed to the earth via an Earth Rod.

Example of an electrical distribution box

86
A4.4 Fluorescent Lighting Fixture construction and operation

o This lamp consists of a glass tube filled with an inert gas (usually argon) at low pressure. On each side of the
tube you will find a tungsten electrode. The ballast regulates AC power to the electrodes. A starter is used to get
the lamp going.

Operation

o AC electric current passes through the ballast. The ballast also known as choke or reactor will step-up 110 AC
volts to about 220 V. This creates a large amount of current that then passes through the electrodes causing
them to becoming very hot but at this time not hot enough for the gas in the tube to become ionized and
conduct. Instead the current flows to starter and back to the ballast.
o The cycle repeats until the electrodes become hot enough to ionize the argon (inert) gas. The resistance in
the tube becomes less than through the starter so the starter portion becomes shorted out.
o The ionized gas release electrons which are absorbed by the phosphorous coating which in turn release
photons of light. The tube begins to glow bright.
o Once the tube emits light, the choke/ ballast creates a type of electrical resistance known as inductive
reactance to the flow of AC current. This useful because it prevents the electrodes in the tube to
become overheat which would destroy the lamp. All arc discharge lamps need a choke to limit current.

87
Project #1.

 On a legal sized paper, you are to draw a schematic wiring diagram for a fluorescent lighting fixture
being controlled from three different positions and receiving current from a circuit breaker. Ensure to
use the appropriate schematic symbols for all the components.
 Your legal size paper should be bordered similarly to how you draw diagrams in technical drawing and
must include a title block.
 To the upper right part of the paper include a legend (table) of only the symbols used for this particular drawing.
The table should look similar to the table of schematic symbols in this chapter.
 All labels (words) should be written using guidelines 3mm apart.
 Give the drawing your own title of choice.
 No free hand allowed, you automatically fail if your drawing looks untidy. Use ruler, sharp pencil and a clean
eraser.

Project #2

 For the same schematic drawing in project 1, you are to now create a wiring diagram showing all
the components like the switches, breakers and breaker boxes etc. “for what they actually like to
you”.
 Ensure that you are consistent with the sizes of the components. Don’t make one bulb or one switch bigger than
another.
 Neat free hand is allowed fur curved part of your diagrams.
 All components should be labeled using guidelines 3 mm apart.
 This wiring diagram should be done on its own legal sized paper, bordered and with a title block. No
legend needed for this one.

88
 Chapter 5: Electrical Floor Plan

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Recall the symbols of various types of electrical components in an electrical floor plan.
 Analyze various poor and good wiring practices in an electrical floor plan
 Practice drawing electrical floor plans using adequate symbols and standards.

A5.1 Electrical Plans and symbols

Electrical Plans
o Displays all of the circuits and systems to be used by the electrical contractor during installation.
o They display:
 all outlets
 all light fixtures connected to switches
 all switches connected to light fixtures
 all miscellaneous and low voltage items
 power panel and electrical meter
Symbols

o Electrical plans can be drafted (drawn) using computer program like computer-aid drawing (CAD) or they can be
done so by traditional pencil drawings. Either way, the same symbols are used to represent the position of
electrical components.

Outlets- the drafting symbols for various types of outlets are shown below.

o Outlets are categorized by whether they are WP (water proof) or have a GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter),
these are used near water. The GFCI outlets have breaker-like mechanism built into them.
o Two lines on the outlet means a duplex receptacle outlet of 110 volts. While 3 lines means a 220 volt outlet.

89
Switches- The drafting symbols used to represent various types of switches are shown below:

Light fixtures drafting symbols are shown below.

o Recessed fixtures are built flush into the wall while surface are sitting on the surface of the wall.

90
 o Other low voltage devices like phones or door bells are also a part of the electrical floor planning layout.
We categorized these as miscellaneous symbols

Electrical code drafting practice

Outlets in living rooms, bed rooms, garage.

o Like in any type of electrical work, there are standardized way of doing things known as electrical codes.
The placement of outlets in a house is no exception to that.
o Duplex convenience outlets (wall plugs) should be a maximum of 12’ apart. Closer spacing is desirable, although
economy is a factor. Code reads: “no point along a wall is further than 6’ from an outlet.”
o Duplex convenience outlets should be no more than 6’ from a corner
o There should be a duplex outlet in any usable wall space over 2’ long
o For example, look at the electrical plan below:

Drafting practice for receptacle outlet

Outlet is Kitchen /Bathroom areas

o usable counter space of 12” & greater require an outlet

o outlets are required every 48” of counter space (with new code text is in error)
o GFI or GFCI protection for any outlets in rooms with a water source.
o Use special purpose outlets (220Volts) for garbage disposal, dishwasher, separate oven, and hood.
Switches

91
 o Switch symbol and fixture are connected with a dashed line using an irregular curve
o Types of switches commonly used are
Single Switching, 3-Way Switching and 4-Way Switching
o See example of the type of switching arrangement below

A5.2 Good and Bad Practices of drafting electrical Plan

o When drafting electrical plans there are few practices that one must avoid because it simply doesn’t make sense
to have switches or outlets any kind of way.
o For example, who would place a switch on the wall behind a door where the door opens to, a better practice
would be to place the switch on the inside wall next to the door entrance so that it can be easily turned on or off
when entering or exiting the room/house.
o The following diagrams depict good and bad practices to consider when laying out the components on
the electrical floor plan:

92
o In the case where a porch light is needed, it may be connected as shown below with switch inside of wall:

93
94
Project #3
o You are replicate the electrical floor plan given in the previous page of this chapter on a legal sized paper.
It must be bordered and have a title block. You can choose to use your own dimensions to scale it bigger or
smaller, or you can chose to keep the same dimensions.
o The symbols should be drawn using a stencil not by free hand. Use a sharp pencil, clean eraser to draw.
o Labels should be written using guidelines 3mm apart
o You must include a legend of all the symbols used.

Project #4
o You are to create an electrical floor plan of your dream house on a legal sized paper. It must be bordered and
have a title block. You can choose to use your own dimensions to scale it bigger or smaller, or you can chose
to keep the same dimensions.
o The symbols should be drawn using a stencil not by free hand. Use a sharp pencil, clean eraser to draw.
o Labels should be written using guidelines 3mm apart
o You must include a legend of all the symbols used

95
 Chapter 6: Semi-conductors

Objectives:
 Analyze energy level diagrams for Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
 Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
 Distinguish between p-type and n-type material
 Explain the formation of a depletion layer of the p-n Junction diode.
 Recall the flow of current when the p-n junction diode is forward-biased or reverse-biased.

Introduction

Semiconductors are materials that show characteristics halfway between those of a conductor and those of an
insulator. Most electronics is made from the semiconductor know as silicon. Silicon wafers are subjected to special
procedures which result in what is called p-type silicon material and n-type silicon material. Where these two types of
materials meet, we have a p-n junction.
 Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenide, Indium, Antimonide and cadmium sulfide are some commonly
used semiconductors in electronics.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients of resistance, i.e. as temperature increases resistivity
decreases.

A1.1 Energy Bands in Insulators and conductors

 For any atom there exist different energy shells where electrons can be found. In electronics we pay
keen attention to the
 valence band- which is the band or energy shell that contains the outermost electrons of an atom.
 conduction band- which is the band where free electrons and can move from one atom to
another. When an atom is energized electrons move from the valence band to the conduction
band.

 For any electron to move form the valence band to the conduction band, the electrons must be
sufficiently energized to jump the “forbidden gaps”

 For metals, there is no forbidden gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Electrons move
freely from band to band.

96
  For Insulators, there is a forbidden gap between the conduction band and the valence band. A
moderate increase in energy is not sufficient for electrons to move from the valence band to the
conduction band. Electrons do not flow.

Image showing that insulators have a wide forbidden gap while metals have no forbidden gap.

Energy Bands and Semiconductors

 The forbidden gap between the conduction and the valence band is small
 Less energy required for electron to move from valence to conduction band as compared to insulators.
 A vacancy (hole) remains when an electron leaves the valence band to the conduction band.
 Hole acts as a positive charge carrier moving toward the center of the nucleus while electrons act as
negative charge carrier moving away from the nucleus.

97
  If we compare the energy diagrams for insulators, conductors and semi-conductors the image below is true.

A1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic materials

Intrinsic materials:

 Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four valence electrons in their outermost shell.
 Both elements crystallize with a diamond-like structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside
a tetrahedron formed by the four atoms which are closest to it.
 Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four immediate neighbors, so that each atom is involved
in four covalent bonds.

 The valence band is completely full and the conduction band completely empty.
 Thus, in a pure silicon semiconductor the material is said to be intrinsic. It behaves as a perfect insulator
because there are no conducting electrons present. All electrons are locked in the covalent bonds.
Extrinsic Materials:

 A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. However, these are relatively
few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers can be achieved by introducing
impurities into the semiconductor in a controlled manner. The result is the formation of an extrinsic
semiconductor. This process is referred to as doping.
 There are basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor impurities.

98
  Donor impurities are made up of atoms which have five valence electrons. For example, Lead (Pb)
or Arsenic (As).
 Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms which have three valence electrons. For example, Boron (B)
or Gallium (Ga).

N-type extrinsic materials

 Arsenic has 5 valence electrons; however, only 4 of them form part of covalent bonds. The 5th
electron is then free to take part in conduction.
 The extra electron causes the material to have a net negative charge thus its name “n-type material”
A1.3: P-N junction Diode

 On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is not very useful. However, when combined very
useful devices can be made.
 The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-type material to diffuse into a n-type region at high
temperatures.
 The p-n junction has led to many inventions like the diode, transistors and integrated circuits.

 Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can initially diffuse across the
junction. Uncovered charges are left in the neighborhood of the junction.
 This region is depleted of mobile carriers and is called the DEPLETION REGION (thickness 0.5 – 1.0 µm).
 The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to the barrier (p.d. across the junction) reaching some
critical value.
 The barrier p.d. (or the contact potential) depends on the type of semiconductor, temperature
and doping densities.
 At room temperature, typical values of barrier p.d. are:
 Ge ~ 0.2 – 0.4 V
 Si ~ 0.6 – 0.8

99
 Forward Bias P-N Junction Diode

 When an external voltage is applied to the P-N junction making the P side positive with respect to the
N side the diode is said to be forward biased
 A forward bias diode has a very low resistance.

Reverse Bias P-N Junction Diode

 When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction making the P side negative with respect to the
N side the diode is said to be Reverse Biased.
 A reverse bias diode has a very high resistance.
 When the PN junction is reversed biased the width of the depletion layer increases, however if the
reverse voltage gets too large a phenomenon known as diode breakdown occurs

A1.4: Application of p-n diodes

 Most electronic systems, like HDTVs, audio power amplifiers, and computers, need a dc voltage to work
properly. Since the power-line voltage is alternating and normally too high of a value, we need to reduce the ac
line voltage and then convert it to a relatively constant dc output voltage. The section of the electronic system
that produces this dc voltage is called the power supply. Within the power supply are circuits that allow
current to flow in only one direction. These circuits are called rectifiers. Other circuits will filter and regulate
the dc output. This chapter discusses rectifier circuits, filters, an introduction to voltage regulators.
Power Diodes

 A widely used application of power diodes in general is in the conversion of an alternating voltage (AC)
into a continuous voltage (DC). In other words, Rectification.
 Power Diode have a large PN junction area compared to smaller signal diode, resulting in a high forward
current capability of up to several hundred amps (KA) and a reverse blocking voltage of up to several
thousand volts (KV).
 Since the power diode has a large PN junction, it is not suitable for high frequency applications above
1MHz, but special and expensive high frequency, high current diodes are available. For high
frequency rectifier applications Schottky Diodes are generally used because of their short reverse
recovery time and low voltage drop in their forward bias condition.

10
  A single power diode rectifies AC current by blocking the negative half cycle as shown below

A1.5 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 A Single-phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge”
configuration to produce the desired output.

 The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to
one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

 The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2
conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load
as shown below.

10
The Positive Half-cycle

 full wave rectifier positive cycle

 During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

Full wave rectifier negative cycle

 As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.
 However, in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one
so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX
amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or
120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)
The Smoothing Capacitor

 The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less
superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input
supply frequency.
 We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing the AC variation
of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output waveform. Smoothing or
reservoir capacitors connected in parallel with the load across the output of the full wave bridge
rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even higher as the capacitor acts like a storage
device as shown below.

10
  The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smoother DC
output voltage.

Classwork #4

1. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

2. What is a p-type and an n-type material?
3. Which of the energy bands are important in electronic interactions?
4. In order for an electron to move to a higher energy band, does it need to gain or lose energy?
5. If you were required to make an p-type material, list a few steps how you would accomplish this including
the materials you would use.
6. Draw a circuit diagram for a P-N diode, labeling the anode, cathode and the direction of
conventional current flow.
7. List one Similarity and 1 difference of Germanium and silicon diodes.
8. What is the function of the transformer, capacitor and the diodes in a full wave rectifier circuit?

10
 Chapter 7: Transistors

Objectives:
 Recall the parts of a transistor.
 Describe the operation and construction of a transistor
 Perform calculations to determine collector, emitter and base current of BJT transistors
 Perform calculations for transistor are connected in a biased configuration.
 Identify and recall the functions of coupling and bypass capacitors in transistors circuits.
Introduction:

 In 1951, William Shockley invented the first junction transistor, a semiconductor device that can amplify
(enlarge) electronic signals such as radio and television signals. The transistor has led to many other
semiconductor inventions, including the integrated circuit (IC), a small device that contains thousands
of miniaturized transistors. Because of the IC, modern computers and other electronic miracles are
possible.
 This chapter introduces the fundamental operation of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the kind that
uses both free electrons and holes. The word bipolar is an abbreviation for “two polarities.” This
chapter will also explore how this BJT can be properly biased to act as a switch.
A2.1 Transistor Construction:

 The transistor of Fig. 6-1 has two junctions: one between the emitter and the base, and another
between the collector and the base. Because of this, a transistor is like two back-to-back diodes.
T
 The emitter region is heavily doped and its job is to emit carriers into the base.
 The base region is very thin and lightly doped.
 Most of the current carriers injected into the base from emitter pass on to the collector.
 The collector region is moderately doped and is the largest of all three regions.

 For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be forward-biased
and the collector-base junction must be reverse-biased.
 The common connection for the voltage sources is at the base lead of the transistor.
 The emitter-base supply voltage is designated VEE and the collector-base supply voltage is designated
VCC.
 For silicon, the barrier potential for both EB and CB junctions equals 0.7 V
Proper biasing for an NPN transistor with common-base connection is shown below
 The EB junction is forward-biased by the emitter supply voltage, VEE.

10
  VCC reverse-biases the CB junction.

 Fig. b illustrates currents in a transistor.

 CE voltage of an NPN transistor must be positive
 Ratio of IC to IE is called DC alpha αdc

A2.2 Operation Regions of a Transistor:

Active Region
 Collector curves are nearly horizontal
 IC is greater than IB (IC = dc X IB)
Saturation
 IC is not controlled by IB
 Vertical portion of the curve near the origin
Breakdown
 Collector-base voltage is too large and collector-base diode breaks down
 Undesired collector current

Cutoff
 IB = 0
 Small collector current flows IC  0

10
Transistor Currents formulae:

Flow of current in an NPN transistor:

 Figure 6-6a show the schematic symbol for an NPN transistor. There are three different currents in
a transistor; emitter current IE, base current IB, and collector current Ic.

10
10
A2.3 Common Emitter Connection:

 There are three useful ways to connect a transistor: with a CE (common emitter), a CC (common
collector), or a CB (common base). The CC and CB connections are discussed in later chapters. In
this chapter, we will focus on the CE connection because it is the most widely used.
 The common or ground side of each voltage source is connected to the emitter. Because of this,
the circuit is called a common emitter (CE) connection. The circuit has two loops. The left loop is the
base loop, and the right loop is the collector loop.

10
10
11
11
 Summary Example:

A2.4 Coupling and Blocking Capacitors in Transistor Circuits:

 A coupling capacitor is a capacitor which is used to couple or link together only the AC signal from
one circuit element to another. The capacitor blocks the DC signal from entering the second
element and, thus, only passes the AC signal.

 Uses of Coupling capacitors

A coupling capacitor normally is used in an audio circuits, such as a microphone circuit. DC power is
used to give power to parts of the circuit, such as the microphone, which needs DC power to
operate. So, DC signals must be present in the circuit for powering purposes. However, when a user
talks into the microphone, the speech is an AC signal, and this AC signal is the only signal in the end
we want passed out.
 Bypass Capacitors
A bypass capacitor is a capacitor that shorts AC signals to ground, so that any AC noise that may be
present on a DC signal is removed, producing a much cleaner and pure DC signal.

1
Voltage divider biasing of BJT transistors:

11
11
Classwork #5/ Test Study Questions

Answer all questions. Where necessary show working and formulas used in pencil.

1) With the aid of simple sketches, show the difference between the construction of NPN and that of
PNP junction transistors. Label the emitter, base and collector for each sketch.
[2 marks]

2) State the polarity of the base-emitter voltage (VBE) require to turn on a [2 marks]
I. NPN transistor

II. PNP transistor.

3) Give an approximate value of VBE across the collector- emitter region required to turn on [2 marks]
- NPN silicone type transistor _
- PNP germanium type transistor. _

4) The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier.

For IE≈ IC =1mA, VBE = 0.7 V and VCE = 7V, calculate the: [4 marks]
i. Value of RE

ii. Value of RC

11
5) The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a single stage transistor amplifier

What is the function of each of the following pair of components in the operation of the transistor amplifier?
a) R1 and R2 [1 mark]
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
b) C1 and C2 [1 mark]
_ _ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
c) R4 and C3 [1 mark]
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _

6) The figure below shows a common-emitter amplifier where IE ≈ Ic

a. State the type of transistor in the amplifier circuit. [1 mark]

b. Calculate the following: [10 marks]

i. Base voltage (VB)

ii. Emitter voltage (VE)

iii. Emitter current (IE)

iv. Collector voltage (VC)

v. Collector-emitter voltage (VCE)

11
Formulas:

11
 Chapter 8: Logic Gates

Objectives:
 Recall the various types of logic gates
 Represent combination of logic gates using logic diagrams.
 Represent logic diagrams in terms of Boolean expressions.
 Determine the truth tables of various logic gates

Introduction:
 A gate is a device that performs a basic operation on electrical signals
 Logic gates are combined into circuits to perform more complicated tasks
 Logic gates are the electronic circuits in a digital system such as computers.
 Basic logic gates are often found in circuits such as safety thermostat, push-button lock, automatic
watering system, light-activated burglar alarm and many other electronic devices.
 In digital integrated circuits (ICs) we will find an array of the logic gate area unit.

A3.1 Types of logic gates:

 AND
 OR
 NOT
 NAND
 NOR
 EXOR
 EXNOR
 Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination to perform more complicated tasks.

AND gate:
 The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
 A dot “.” is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e.
AB
 The logic diagram and truth table for this gate is shown below.
 Truth Table defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input combinations that the gate could
encounter, and the corresponding output.
 A logic diagram is a graphical representation of a circuit. Each type of gate is represented by a specific
graphical symbol

OR gate:

 The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A
plus “+” is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate:

11
  The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is
also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also
shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs.

NAND gate:

 NAND is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on
the output. The small circle represents inversion.

NOR gate:

 NOR gate is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the
output. The small circle represents inversion.

EXOR gate:

 The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of its two
inputs are high. An encircled plus sign “ ” is used to show the EOR operation.

EXNOR gate:

 The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low output if either,
but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on the output.
The small circle represents inversion.

A3.2 Circuit equivalent of logic gates:

 The operation of each type of gate can be represented using everyday circuits.
 For example,
 The AND gate can be represented as a series circuit shown below.

11
 The output ”C” is ON (1), only if both inputs “A” and “B” are on (1).

 The OR gate can be represented using a parallel circuit shown below.

The output is ON if one of the inputs is on or both are on.

 The NOT gate can be represented using a switch

When the switch is on, the bulb goes off because of the short circuit created by the switch.

 The NAND gate can be represented by combing the circuits for the AND & NOT gate.

 The NOR gate can be represented by combining the circuits for the OR and NOT gate.

A3.3 Combinational Circuits:

 Gates are combined into circuits by using the output of one gate as the input for another.
Example 1:
Complete a truth table for logic diagram shown below.

11
 Solution:
 First, determine the expression for the output of each logic gate as shown below.

 Represent the outputs of each gate on the truth table as shown.

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT
A B A.B C D C.D F= (A.B) + (C.D)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Example 2:

 Give the Boolean expression and truth table for the logical diagram shown below.

Solution:

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B B C B.C
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1

11
Classwork#6/ Test Study Questions:

1) Derive the Boolean expression at “O” and give the truth table for the following logical diagram.

2) Use logical gates to create a logic diagram to represent the Boolean expression given below.

3) State the Boolean expression at point “Z” for the logic diagram given below.

4) If the Input at A=1, B= 0 and C= 1, what is the output at Z for the logic diagram below.

5) State the Boolean expression at point “X” and provide a truth table for the logic diagram given below.

6) An apartment has two doors and two windows. These doors and windows are equipped with sensors
consisting of switches which are open when any of the doors or windows are open.
Using one (1) OR gate with four inputs, construct a logic circuit and an equivalent circuit, such that the output
of the OR gate is high when any or all of the windows and doors are open.

12
7) .

8) .

12
 Chapter 9: Electric Power Generation & Distribution

Objectives:
 Distinguish between True power, Apparent Power and Reactive power.
 Recall the effects of resistive, capacitive and inductive loads to form factor of an AC wave.
 Perform Calculations using Form factor equations.
 Explain how single phase and three phase power is generated, transmitted and distributed.
 Explain the operation of a direct-on-line starter for three phase induction motor.

Introduction:
 The three main circuit components are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor. Each component has
a different effect on the phase shift between voltage and current.
 A resistor causes no shift between current and voltage while capacitors and inductors do in fact causes a shift in
voltage and current. The opposition to the flow of AC current by capacitors and inductors is known as
reactance.
 Inductive or capacitive reactance (XL or XC) have some of the circuit power stored temporarily, and then the
power is returned to the source. The power is stored in the electromagnetic field of induction and
electrostatic field of capacitance.

 Power is what performs work in the circuit and it is measured in Watts (W). This is the power that will drive
a circuit board or a motor. It is the desired outcome of an electrical system.

A4.1 Types of Power:

 Most AC circuits consist of a combination of resistor, capacitors and inductors we must consider
three types of power.
 If the circuit consists of purely resistive load then we only consider what is known as true power.
 If the circuits consist of a combination of inductors and capacitors then we must consider the apparent
power and the reactive power.
 The analogy below compares what the three powers are like in an AC circuit to that of a glass of
cappuccino.

12
Apparent Power (VA/KVA):
 If you measured the voltage and current in a circuit in and inductive or capacitive circuit, and
then multiplied them together , you would obtain the circuit apparent power.
 This is the power supplied tot eh circuit by the source. It is not the power consumed by the circuit.
 Apparent power is commonly measured in VA or KVA.

P= V x A

 Devices like motors and transformers are always sized according to their apparent power not
by true power.

True Power (W/KW):

 True power is the energy used (consumed) for work accomplished., expressed by the terms
watts (W). Utility companies like Belize Electricity Limited charge on the amount of work
performed (watts)
 For a purely resistive circuit, the true power is the same as the apparent power.
 To determine the true power of a circuit that is inductive or capacitive, we must multiply the
volts times current times power factor.

P= V x A x P.F.

Power Factor (P.F.):

 Circuits that are capacitive or inductive causes the voltage and current sine waves to be out
of phase.
 Power factor is a measurement of how far the voltage and current are out of phase with each
other. It is the ratio of resistance and impedance.

𝑹
P.F. =
𝒁

 P.F. is expressed as a percentage not to exceed 100%.

 Power factor is also defined as the ratio of true power (KW) to Apparent Power (KVA)

P.F. = 𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

 In an AC circuit that supplies power to only resistive loads such as incandescent lighting, heating
elements etc., the circuit voltage and current are said to be “in phase”. It means that both the
current and voltage reach their peak values at the same time, resulting in a power factor of
100% (unity)

12
 The power factor for inductive, capacitive and resistive loads in AC circuits are shown below.

 One way to effectively remember the phase differences for inductors and capacitors is:
“ELI” the “ICE” man

Where E is the voltage (energy) that drives the current.

12
A4.2 Efficiency
 Efficiency is an assessment of how well time and effort are used to accomplish a specific task. If that
task is the conversion of one form of power to another, the efficiency of the conversion indicates
how well the power conversion is implemented.
 For an electrical power conversion process, efficiency is measured simply by dividing the output
power in watts by the input power in watts and is expressed as a percentage
 In the transfer of energy from one source to another, there are power losses in the conductors,
power supply and the load. Energy that is not used for its intended purpose is called power loss.
Power losses can be caused resistance, friction, mechanical loading etc.
 Electrical efficiency is not a factor that electricians must determine in most electrical installations.
 The formula for efficiency is given below.

Example 1:
 What is the apparent power of 16 amperes of load operating at 120 volts, power factor 85%?

Solution:
 Apparent power is measure d in VA, so we simply multiply the Volts times the Amps.
P= V x A
= 120V x 16 A
= 1,920 VA

Example 2:
 What is the True power of 16 amperes of load operating at 120 volts, power factor 85%?

Solution:
 True power is measured in Watts. we simply multiply the Volts times the Amps time the
power factor.
P= V x A x P.F.
= 120V x 16 A x 0.85
= 1,632 W
Example 3:
 A house contains four (4) 40 Watts lamps. Each ballast is rated 1.66 Amps at 120 Volts. What is power
factor of the ballast assuming 100% efficiency?

Solution:
 Int total, the four lamps consume 4 x 40 watts = 160 watts.

12
  Next, we apply the P.F. formula.
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
P.F. =
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

160 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
= = 0.80
120𝑉∗
1.66𝐴

= 80%
Example 4:
 What size of transformer is required for fifty (50), 150 Watt lighting fixtures if the adjusted power factor
is 85%?
Solution:
 Int total, the fifty lamps consume 50 x 150 watts = 7,500 watts.
 Next, we re-arrange the P.F. formula to make apparent power the subject.

Apparent Power 𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

= 𝑷.𝑭.
7,500 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
= = 8,823.5 𝑉𝐴
0.85

= 8.8 KVA

Example 5:
 If the output of a transformer is 640 Watts and the input is 800 watts, what is its efficiency?
Solution:
 Efficiency is always less than 100%.
 Apply the formula.

Efficiency = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

640
𝑊 = 0.8
=
800
𝑊

= 80%

Example 6:
 If the output of a 5-horse power motor is 3.730 Watts and the input is 4,800 watts (40 Amps at
120 volts), what is its efficiency?
Solution:
 Efficiency is always less than 100%.
 Apply the formula.

Efficiency = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

12
 3,730
𝑊 = 0.777
=
4,800
𝑊

= 77.7%

12
Classwork #7/ Test Study Questions
Shade the letter of the correct answer. Show working for the multiple-choice questions involving calculations.

1) Circuits containing inductive or capacitive reactance temporarily store power in the electromagnetic field
of induction and the electrostatic field of capacitors.
A) True
B) False

2) If you measure voltage and current in an inductive or capacitive circuit and then multiply them together,
you would obtain the circuits _ _.
A) True power
B) Power factor
C) Apparent power.

3) Apparent power is equal to or greater than True power depending on the power factor.
A) True
B) False

4) When sizing circuits or equipment, always size the circuit components and transformers according to
the apparent power, and not true power.
A) True
B) False

5) Power factor is a measurement of how fat the voltage and current are out of phase with each other. It is
the ratio of True power to apparent power. Power factor can be expressed by the formula:
A) P/E
B) R/Z
C) I2R
D) Z/R

6) When the current and voltage are in phase, the power factor is
__. A) 100%
B) Unity
C) 90 degrees apart
D) Both A and B

7) A house contains four, 34 watt lamps, ballast is rated 1.5 Ampere at 120 volts. What is the power factor of
the ballast assuming 100% efficiency?
A) 55%
B) 65%
C) 70%
D) 75%

8) What is the apparent power of a 20 ampere load operating at 120 volts, power factor 85%?
A) 2,400 Watts
B) 1,920 Watts
C) 1,632 Watts
D) 2,400 VA

12
9) What is the true power of a 20 ampere load operating at 120 volts, power factor 85%?
A) 2,400 Watts
B) 1,920 Watts
C) 1,632 Watts
D) 2,400 VA

10) What is the true power of a 10 ampere circuit operating at 120 volts with unity power factor?
A) 1,200 VA
B) 2,400 VA
C) 1,200 Watts
D) 2,400 Watts

11) What size transformer is required for a 125 ampere, 240 volt single phase load?
A) 3KVA
B) 30KVA
C) 12.5KVA
D) 15KVA

12) What size transformer is required for a 125 ampere, 240 volt single phase load, power factor 85%?
A) 12.5KVA
B) 30KVA
C) 7.5KVA
D) 15KVA

13) If the output is 1,320 Watts and the input is 1,800 watts, what is the efficiency of the equipment?
A) 62%
B) 73%
C) 80%
D) 100%

14) If the output is 160 watts and the equipment is 88% efficient, what is the is input amperes at 120
volts? A) 0.75 A
B) 1.5 A
C) 2.275 A
D) 3.25 A

15) If the input of a motor is 1,128 watts (4.7 amperes at 240 volts), what is the efficiency of the
motor? A) 66%
B) 74%
C) 87%
D) 100%

12
A4.3 AC Generation (Single Phase):
 Three things must be present in order to produce electrical current:
 A Magnetic field
 Conductor
 Relative motion between magnetic field and conductor
 Conductor cuts lines of magnetic flux, a voltage is induced into the conductor in the opposite direction
according to Lenz’s law.
 Direction and Speed are important

 Single phase AC generator consists of ONE set of armature coil rotating through a magnetic field.
 Maximum Voltage gets induced when the rotating armature is moving perpendicular (90 degrees)
to magnetic field (PEAK VOLTAGE)

 Voltage induced is 0.707 of the maximum when the armature and magnetic field are at 45 degrees
to each other (RMS VOLTAGE)

13
  Voltage induced is 0 when the armature and magnetic field are parallel (0 degrees) to each other.

 All appliances in domestic homes are made to operate using single phase AC current but at
factories where more electric power is required another system is used.

AC Generation (Three Phase):

 Almost all electric power generation and most of the power transmission in the world is in the form
of three-phase AC circuits.
 . A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase generators, transmission lines, and loads.
 There are two major advantages of three-phase systems over a single-phase system:
 More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase machine
 Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time, instead of pulsing as it does in a
single-phase system.

Three Phase AC Generators:

 The generator consists of a rotating magnet (rotor) surrounded by a stationary winding (stator).
 Three separate windings or coils with terminals a-a’, b-b’, and c-c’ are physically placed 120
degrees apart around the stator.

 As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field cuts the flux from the three coils and induces voltages in the coils.

13
  The induced voltages have equal magnitude but are out of phase by 120 degrees.

A4.4 Transmission and Distribution of Three phase AC:

• ALL electric power system in the world used 3-phase system to GENERATE, TRANSMIT and DISTRIBUTE.
 One phase, two phase, or three phase current can be taken from a three-phase system rather
than generated independently.
• Power is constant (not pulsating).– thus smoother rotation of electrical machines
 High power motors prefer a steady torque
• More economical than single phase – less wire for the same power transfer
 The amount of wire required for a three-phase system is less than required for an equivalent single-
phase system.
• The diagram below illustrates the generation, transmission and distribution of three phase AC current.

1
Connecting Loads to three phase AC supply:
• There are two types of connections in three-phase circuits: Y and Δ.

• Each generator and each load can be either Y or Δ connected. Note that the Z is the impedance of the
load, which is like the resistance in DC circuits.

• Any number of Y and Δ connected elements may be mixed in a power system

• Impedance is unique to AC circuits and is the result of circuits resistance, capacitive reactance and
inductive reactance. It is measured in ohms and is calculated using the formula:

13
A4.5 Motor Control Starters:
• A Motor starter is essential for starting of 3-phase induction motors of larger size(rating exceeding 2
kW).
• If the motor of higher capacity(larger than 2 kW) is connected directly to the supply mains, it will draw
heavy current(about 5-8 times the rated full-load current) at the starting instant which is offensive
because it will cause large voltage drop in the distribution network and thus affect adversely the
operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same distribution.
• Starter used for starting of a squirrel cage induction motor are:
 Direct-on-line starter (DOL)
 Line resistance starter
 Star-delta starter and
 Auto- transformer starter

Direct-on-line Starter (DOL):

• Squirrel cage motors of capacity up to 1.5 kW, double cage motors and squirrel cage motors of
large capacity having a large rotor resistance are started by this DOL method.
• This is one of the most economical method of starting of induction motors.
• This method involves the direct switching of poly phase squirrel cage induction motor to the
supply mains.
• In this method of starting the rate of temperature rise is high and the motor may get damaged if the
starting period is large which may be due to:
 excessive load
 insufficient rotor resistance or
 excessive voltage drop in the supply mains
• The diagram below shows is the direct-on-line starter which is very common in use.
• It consists of: a 3-phase breaker, contactor, a thermal overload relay, a normally closed push button
(Stop button), a normally open button (Start button), an auxiliary button and of course the three phase
squirrel cage motor itself.

13
 • The annotated diagram explains how the direct-on-line starter operates.

Operation:
• The start button is momentary contact switch that is held normally open by a spring. The stop button is held
normally closed by a spring. When a start button is pressed the operating coil(or main contractor) gets energized
through the overload relay contacts OL (normally closed). This closes the three main contacts (C) that connects
the motor to the supply. At the same time a set of auxiliary or maintaining contacts (MC) are closed. When the
maintaining contacts (MC) are closed, a new circuit is established through stop button, maintaining contacts
(MC) and operating coil. Since operating coil circuit is now maintained by the auxiliary contacts (MC), the start
button may be released.
• When the stop button is pressed, the operating coil gets de-energized, thereby opening all main contacts
and auxiliary contacts.

13
Protection mechanism of the DOL Motor starter:

• Overload protection relay is employed for protecting the motor and control apparatus from excessive
heating due to overloads on motor.
• Thermal overload relays are commonly used for motor overload protection. Consist of heat sensitive
bimetallic strips which act to open the motor control circuit and disconnect the motor from the source of
supply.

Advantages of DOL starter

• Simple, inexpensive and easy to install and maintain.
• Full starting torque at starting.
• DOL starter connects the supply to the delta winding of the motor.

Disadvantages of DOL starter

• Starting current is about 5-8 times of full load current.
• This method is suitable for only small machine as there is significant voltage dip.
• Unnecessary high starting torque.
• Mechanically tough.

DOL starter Applications

• Used in small water pumps.
• conveyors belts
• fans and compressor

Recommended YouTube videos to watch for additional information:

a. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBxZnW6szgU
b. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1SPmmcUffE

13
Classwork #8:

Instructions: Answer all questions concisely.

1)

13
13
2)

13
 References:

Wale Sangosanya, W., Belton, D., & Bigwood, D. (2005). Basic Gates and Functions.
Http://Www.Ee.Surrey.Ac.Uk/.
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/CAL/digital-logic/gatesfunc/index.html#logicgates

Harrington, A. (n.d.). Introduction to Computing Comp 150 Notes. Http://Anh.Cs.Luc.Edu/150/Notes/. Retrieved

December 14, 2020, from http://anh.cs.luc.edu/150/notes/hardware.pdf

Associated Power Techniques, Inc. (n.d.). True vs. Apparent Power. Https://Www.Pema.Ie/. Retrieved December 15,
2020, from https://www.pema.ie/TECHTALK%20LIBRARY/APT/True%20vs.%20Apparent%20Power.pdf

Tippens, P. (2007). Chapter 32A- AC Circuits. Https://Www.Stcharlesprep.Org/.

https://www.stcharlesprep.org/01_parents/vandermeer_s/Useful%20Links/Honors%20Physics/pdf%20lectures/A C
%20Circuits.pdf

Tcheslavski, G. (2008, January 14). Lecture 3: Three-phase power circuits. MyLamar.

http://doctord.dyndns.org/courses/textbooks/Chapman/Lecture%2003%20-%203phase.pdf

Electrical4u. (2020, November 22). DOL Starter (Direct On Line Starter) Diagram & Working Principle.
https://www.electrical4u.com/direct-online-starter-or-dol-starter/

Neupane, E. (2020, June 16). Direct online starter(DOL). Engineering Notes

Online. https://engineeringnotesonline.com/direct-online-starterdol/

Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange. (2019). Self inductance in Steady State equivalent model of Brushed DC
machine. Stack Exchange. https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/452474/self-inductance-in-steady-
state-equivalent-model-of-brushed-dc-machine

Vendeera. (2017). Factors Affecting the Magnitude of the Force on a Current Carrying Conductor.
AplusTopper. https://www.aplustopper.com/factors-affecting-magnitude-force-current-carrying-
conductor/

Ahmed, A. (2020). Lecture 8 DC motor 1. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/35599235/Lecture_8_DC_Motor_1

Frahm, R. (2006). DC electric motor. HyperPhysics Startseite. http://hydrogen.physik.uni-
wuppertal.de/hyperphysics/hyperphysics/hbase/magnetic/motdc.html

Shah, S. (2017). Types of single Phase induction Motor. Slideshare. https://www.slideshare.net/qwerty7696/type-of-

single-phase-induction-motor

pnptransistor. (2019). explain Starting Methods of 3 Phase Induction Motor. https://pnpntransistor.com/starting-

methods- of-3-phase-induction-motor/

Seif, A. (2017). Ac motors. Slideshare. https://www.slideshare.net/amrseif1/ac-motors-75992534?from_action=save

International Association of Certified Home Inspectors. (2020). Common Electrical Conductor Types. InterNACHI.
https://www.nachi.org/conductor-types.htm

ppt video online download. (2017). AWG, American Wire Gauge. Slideshare. https://slideplayer.com/slide/6171844/
CircuitsTune. (2020). Fluorescent Light Wiring Diagram| Tube Light Circuit.
http://www.circuitstune.com/2012/01/fluorescent-light-wiring-diagram-tube-light-circuit.html

13
Edison Tech Center. (2015). The Fluorescent Lamp- How it works & History. Edisontechcenter.
https://edisontechcenter.org/Fluorescent.html

14
Barnhill, W. (2015). Electrical Plan. Ricks College. https://www.powershow.com/viewfl/52aea1-
MjEzZ/Light_Fixtures_powerpoint_ppt_presentation

Chargetek, Inc. (2020). ChargingBasics. Https://Chargetek.Com/. https://chargetek.com/chargingbasics.html

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (2007). Batteries. Https://Www.Oakton.Edu/.

https://www.oakton.edu/user/1/agero/elt101/presentations/Chapter12.pdf

Scibd. (n.d.). Basic AC Theory Handout 01-Mec. Eng. Scribd. Retrieved December 10, 2020,
from https://www.scribd.com/document/147099221/Basic-AC-Theory-Handout-01-Mec-
Eng

Autotransformers. (n.d.). Https://Www.Ee.Iitb.Ac.In/. Retrieved December 10, 2020, from

https://www.ee.iitb.ac.in/course/~emlab/assets/autotfm.pdf

Cooling Methods of a Transformer. (n.d.). Electricaleasy.Com: Retrieved December 12, 2020, from
https://www.electricaleasy.com/2014/06/cooling-methods-of-transformer.html

Self-Induction. (n.d.). Https://Web2.Ph.Utexas.Edu/. Retrieved December 15, 2020, from

https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/%7Ecoker2/index.files/selfinduction.htm

Circuit Globe. (2020, May 15). What is RLC Series Circuit? - Phasor Diagram & Impedance Triangle.
https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-rlc-series-circuit.html

14