Environment - Sunya Prelims 2024

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Environment & Ecology
(Revision Notes)
INDEX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY ------------------------ 1

CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM----------------------------------------------------- 8
CHAPTER 3: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ------------------------------------------------------- 15
CHAPTER 4: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ---------------------------------------------------------------- 25
CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION---------------------- 32
CHAPTER 6: BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY ----------------------------------------------------------- 52
CHAPTER 7: INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE ------------------------------- 55
CHAPTER 8: ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY ------------------------- 58
CHAPTER 9: PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA-------------------------------------------------------- 64
CHAPTER 10: MARINE ORGANISMS ---------------------------------------------------------------- 71
CHAPTER 11: PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS -------------------------------------------------- 73
CHAPTER 12: NATIONAL PARKS, TIGER & ELEPHANT RESERVES IN INDIA -------- 80
CHAPTER 13: MAJOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA---------------------------------- 95
CHAPTER 14: RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA ----------------------------------------------------------- 102
CHAPTER 15: BIOSPHERE RESERVES ------------------------------------------------------------- 119
CHAPTER 16: CONSERVATION EFFORTS -------------------------------------------------------- 129
CHAPTER 17: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE ------------------------------------- 135
CHAPTER 18: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES---------------------------- 141
CHAPTER 19: OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ---------------------- 143
CHAPTER 20: CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES -------------------------------------------- 145
CHAPTER 21: OZONE DEPLETION ------------------------------------------------------------------ 154
CHAPTER 22: INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE -------------------------------------------------- 157
CHAPTER 23: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS------------------------------------------ 159
CHAPTER 24: ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) ------------------------------- 162
CHAPTER 25: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ------------------- 164
CHAPTER 26: SCHEMES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT ------------------------------------- 168
CHAPTER 27: MISCELLANEOUS- STATIC AND CURRENT AFFAIRS -------------------- 171
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(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
1. Ecology: Scientific study of the reciprocal relationship between organisms (including microbes,
plants, animals, man) with their environment; derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning
home and ‘logos’ meaning study + A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used the term as
‘oekologie’ in 1869, became the first person to use the term ‘ecology’ + Father of Ecology in India-
Ramdeo Misra.
2. Autecology and Synecology
Autecology Synecology
It is the study of individual organism or It is the study of group of organisms or many
individual species or a population in relation species or communities in relation to their
to their environment. environment.
It is also called as population ecology It is also called as community ecology
Autecology studies can be accommodated Synecology studies cannot be accommodated in a
in a laboratory setup and data is interpreted laboratory setup as system is naturally formed after
using conventional mathematical tools interactions of hundreds of years such as a forest
ecosystem
Example: Study of Zebra population in Example: Study of entire grassland ecosystem
relation to its environment (include factors (including all the species or communities)
like rainfall, hunting, lion population etc. in
a grassland ecosystem)
3. Environment: Defined as the total planetary inheritance and the totality of all resources. It includes
all the biotic and abiotic factors that influence each other.
4. Components of Environment
● Biotic components: Green plants, non-green plants, parasites, decomposers and man.
● Abiotic components: Energy, radiation, temperature and heat flow, water, atmospheric gases
and wind, fire, gravity, topography etc.
● Note: Soil is composed of both biotic and abiotic components.
● Note: Earthworm breathe through skin
5. Habitat and Environment: A habitat always has life in it, whereas the environment does not
necessarily have life in it; all habitats are environments but all environments are not habitats.
6. Levels of organizations in ecology
 Individual: Individual living being, has ability to function independently + It may include
plant, animal, bacterium, fungi etc.
 Population: Community of interbreeding organisms (same species), occupying a defined
area during a specific time.
(Revision Notes)
 Community: refers to the populations of different kinds of organisms living together and
sharing the same habitat.
o Major community: Large-sized, relatively independent + Depend only on sun’s energy
from outside + Independent of inputs and outputs from adjacent communities + Example is
Tropical Evergreen forests.
o Minor communities: Dependent on neighboring communities + these are secondary
aggregations within a major community-> not completely independent units as far as energy
concerned + Examples are a mat of lichens on a cow dung pad.
 Ecosystem: Structural and functional unit of biosphere; consists of community of living beings
and physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
o Components of Ecosystem
▪ Abiotic components: Inorganic and non-living parts; consists of components such as
energy, rainfall, temperature, atmosphere, substratum, materials, latitude and altitude.
▪ Biotic components:
 Primary producers- Autotrophs (self-nourishing): Green plants and certain
bacteria; synthesize carbohydrate by the process of photosynthesis for themselves;
supply indirectly to other non-producers. Examples include herbaceous and woody
plants (in terrestrial ecosystem); microscopic algae (in aquatic ecosystem);
Cyanobacteria or blue green algae
 Consumers- Heterotrophs: incapable of producing their own food; depend on
organic food derived from plants, animals.
 Herbivores: herbivores feed on plants ex Deer, rabbit
 Carnivores- consume animals. Ex Lions, Polar Bear
 Omnivores: consume both plants and animals. Ex pigs, crows
 Decomposers: They break down the remains and other wastes and release simple
inorganic molecules back to environment
 Scavengers: Consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Ex vultures, raccoons
 Detritivores: Consume detritus of plants and animal origin. Ex earthworms,
millipedes and dung beetles, sea cucumber, certain crabs. Functions: They
contribute to the breakdown of all of the dead and decaying material in any
ecosystem-> important role in the cycling of nutrients and are an essential part of
most biogeochemical cycles, such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and the
phosphorus cycle.
 Saprotrophs: Feed on any remaining organic matter that is left after other
decomposers do their work. It includes fungi like mushrooms and yeast, bacteria
and single-celled protozoa.
(Revision Notes)
o Ecosystem services:
 Biome: naturally occurring large community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g.
Rainforest biome or tundra biome; distinct from habitats because any biome can comprise a
variety of habitats.
 Biosphere: The part of earth where life exists, it includes all living organisms on earth, together
with the dead organic matter produced by them.
7. Photosynthesis: It is the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light
energy into chemical energy + During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and
used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds
+ Factors: Internal: Number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells and chloroplasts,
internal CO2 concentration and the amount of chlorophyll + External: Availability of sunlight,
temperature, CO2 concentration and water.
8. C3 mechanism: Majority of plants uses C3 mechanism of photosynthesis, in which the first carbon
compound produced contains 3 carbon atoms. However, loss of water vapour through stomata leaves
C3 plants at a disadvantage in drought and high-temperature environments.
9. C4 mechanism: Acts as a mechanism to build up high concentrations of carbon dioxide in the
chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells. The resulting higher level of internal carbon dioxide in these
chloroplasts serves to increase the ratio of carboxylation to oxygenation, thus minimizing
photorespiration. Examples: Maize, Sugarcane & Sorghum.
10. Gross Primary productivity (GPP): Rate of production of organic matter during productivity. A
considerable amount is utilized by plants in respiration.
11. Net Primary Productivity: Gross Primary Productivity minus loss during respiration + It is the
available biomass for consumption of heterotrophs (herbivore or decomposers)
12. Secondary Productivity: Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers
13. Ecotone: zone of junction between 2 or more diverse ecosystems. Examples: mangrove, grassland
(between deciduous forest and desert), estuary (between sea and river water) and river bank.
 Characteristics: It is zone of tension (as it has conditions intermediate to bordering ecosystems)

+ It could contain species that are entirely different from those found in the bordering systems+
(Revision Notes)
It can be natural or man-made+ For example, ecotone between an agricultural field and a forest
is a man-made one.
14. Edge Effect: Higher density of organisms and variety of species can be found within an ecotone.
15. Edge Species: Organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone.
16. Ecocline: It is a zone of gradual but continuous
change from one system to another when there is no
sharp boundary between the two in terms of species
composition.
17. Terms related to response to biotic or abiotic
factors:
● Ecotope: Smallest ecologically distinct
landscape features landscape features in mapping
and classification system. Ex: Individuals sharing
space of particular landform.
● Ecological Amplitude: Every species has a
specific range within which it can tolerate
ecological changes which is called Ecological
amplitude.
● Ecophene: Also known as ecads, these are variation in phenotypes (observable physical
characteristics). For Example, European living in Africa will have different feature (E.g. higher
melanin in skin) than one living in Europe.
● Ecotype: It occurs when ecophenes remain in their new environment for too long as a result
morphological changes become genetically fixed. As a result, these morphological changes are
permanent. However, interbreeding among two ecotypes to produce a viable offspring is
possible.
● Ecospecies: Among animal or plant of some species, when kept in separate environment for a
very long time, the adaptations becomes permanent part of the genes. As a result, both
morphological and genetic variation is now permanent.
● Homeostasis: Maintaining constancy of internal body by physiological like ensuring constant
body temperature (Thermoregulation).
18. Animal behavior in stressful conditions
 Migration: Move away temporarily from stressful location + Every winter the famous Keolado
National Park (Bhartpur) in Rajasthan hosts thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia
and other extremely cold northern regions.
 Hibernation: Avoid stress by escaping time + It is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression
in endotherms + It refers to a season of heterothermy that is characterized by low body
temperature, slow breathing and heart rate, and low metabolic rate + It can be seen in bats, bears
and rodents + True hibernators like ground squirrels awaken slowly. However, bears can awaken
very easily during their denning period.
 Aestivation: Aestivation or “summer sleep” is the low metabolic process by the animals during
summer + Snails and fish to avoid summer–related problems-heat and desiccation
 Diapause: Diapause is the delay in development, in response to regular and recurring periods of
adverse environmental conditions + A stage of suspended development by zooplanktons in lakes
and ponds.
(Revision Notes)
19. Niche: Unique functional role of a species in an ecosystem; all the biological, physical and chemical
factors that a species need to survive; Types include habitat niche, food niche, reproductive niche,
physical and chemical niche. Two animals cannot have the same niche otherwise there will be direct
competition.
Habitat Niche
A place or part of an ecosystem, The role of an organism within its environment or
occupied by a particular organism. ecosystem.
Physical space Function of activity
Reflects living place of an organism Reflects its biotic and abiotic association with
environment in terms of its diet, reproduction and
other activities
20. Aquatic zones: not called biomes, divided into distinct life zones with regions of relatively distinct
plant and animal life; differences due to salinity, levels of dissolved nutrients, water temperature,
depth of sunlight penetration.
● Fresh water ecosystem: Classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water).
Lotic includes freshwater streams, springs, rivers etc; Lentic water includes pools, ponds, bogs
and lakes; water on land is continuously cycling; low salt content (always less than 5ppt).
● Marine ecosystem: Salt concentration equal to or above that of seawater i.e., 35 ppt, about 90%
of which is sodium chloride.
● Brackish water ecosystems: Salt content in range of 5 to 35 ppt. Examples include estuaries,
salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.
(Revision Notes)
o Estuaries: Fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and two mixed by action of tides;
highly productive as compared to adjacent river; coastal bays, river mouths form the
estuaries.
21. Biosphere: Part of earth where life can exist; represent a highly integrated and interacting zone of
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere(water) and lithosphere(land) + Absent at extremes of north and south
poles + Energy required for life within biosphere comes from the sun.
22. Important Terms
● Biotic Potential: Maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are
unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
● Carrying Capacity: Maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area’s resources
can sustain indefinitely without significantly depleting those resources.
● Absorptive capacity: Absorptive capacity means the ability of the environment to absorb
degradation.
● Adaptive radiation: It is a process in which organisms diversify from an ancestral species into a
multitude of new forms when environment opens new environmental niches.
● Gaia hypothesis: Earth is a complex living entity, with the sustenance of life dependent on self-
regulating interactions among organisms and their inorganic surroundings.
● Ecological Footprint: It is a resource accounting tool which measures how fast we consume
resources and produce waste in comparison to how fast nature generate new resources and
observe our waste + It is the only metric that measures nature we humans have and how much
nature we use.
● Eurythermal: Organisms that can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures.
● Stenothermal: Vast majority of organisms are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures.
● Sentinel species: Organisms used to detect risks to humans by providing warning of danger.
They serve as indicators of ecosystem health.
● Earth overshoot: It occurs when humanity consumes all the resources for that particular year
much before the end of the year our resource consumption exceeds the earth’s capacity to
regenerate the resources.
● Eco-anxiety: It refers to a chronic fear or worry about environmental issues and the potential
negative impacts of climate change + It is characterized by a sense of distress and anxiety related
to the state of the planet’s environment.
● Sixth Mass Extinction: Mass extinction refers to a substantial increase in the degree of
extinction or when the Earth loses more than three-quarters of its species in a geologically short
period of time + The sixth, which is ongoing, is referred to as the Anthropocene extinction
(Holocene extinction) + Researchers have described it as the “most serious environmental
problem” since the loss of species will be permanent.
23. Accounting of Ecosystems
● The Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity (TEEB): It was a study led by Pavan Sukhdev
from 2007-11 + It is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible” + Its
principal objective is to mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into
decision-making at all levels + It is based in Geneva, Switzerland at International Environment
House, the TEEB office is hosted by UNEP under the Economics and Trade Branch (ETB) of the
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE).
● The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES): It is an independent intergovernmental body, established by member States in 2012 +
Its objective is to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services
for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being and
sustainable development + Note: It is not a United Nations body + UNEP provides secretariat
(Revision Notes)
services to IPBES + Four complementary areas-> Assessments, policy support, Building

capacity and knowledge and Communications & Outreach.
● System of Environmental-Economic Accounting—Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA): The
52nd United Nations Statistical Commission, on March 2021, has adopted the System of
Environmental-Economic Accounting—Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) + It constitutes an
integrated and comprehensive statistical framework for organizing data about habitats and
landscapes, measuring the ecosystem services, tracking changes in ecosystem assets, and linking
this information to economic and other human activity.
● Wealth Accounting and valuation of Ecosystem services (WAVES): It is a World Bank-led
global partnership that aims to promote sustainable development by ensuring that natural
resources are mainstreamed in development planning and national economic accounts + It is part
of the broader World Bank umbrella initiative, the Global Program for Sustainability (GPS) + It
was launched at 2010 Convention on Biological meeting in Nagoya, Japan.
● The Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) initiative: It is a global initiative established in
2011 by UNCCD, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development,
and the European Commission. It is coordinated and supported by the ELD Secretariat + It
highlights the reward of investing in land management and provides a universal approach for
analysis of the economics of land degradation.
24. Important Environmental days
Environmental Day Date Significance
nd
World Wetland day 2 Feb Signing of the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar Convention)
st
World Forest day 21 March Adopted by UNGA resolution
nd
World Water day 22 March Adopted by UNGA resolution
International Biodiversity day 22nd May Adoption of convention of biological diversity
th
World Environment day 5 June United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held on June 5th in 1972.
World Ozone day 16th Sept Date of signing of Montreal protocol
World Desertification day 17th June Adoption of UNCCD on 17th June 1994
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1. Energy Flow: The flow of energy from producers to top consumers is called energy flow which is
UNIDIRECTIONAL.
 Characteristics: Energy always flow from lower (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore)
trophic level + It never flows in reverse direction + There is loss of some energy in form of
unsuable heat at each trophic level.
2. Ecological efficiency: It refers to efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level
to the next.
3. Trophic level interaction: It is representation of energy flow
in an ecosystem; trophic level is the position it occupies in a
food chain.
4. Food chain: Transfer of food energy from green plants
(producers) or dead organism through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food
chain + It starts with producers or dead matter and ends with
top carnivores + Example: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog
→ Snake → Hawk/Eagle.
 Grazing food chain: Consumers start food chain utilising
plant as their food; For example 
o In a terrestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten by a caterpillar,
which is eaten by lizard and lizard is eaten by a snake
o In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary
producers) eaten by zooplanktons which are eaten by
fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
o Grazing food chain is maximum at Aquatic ecosystem.
 Detritus food chain: Starts from dead organic matter of
decaying animals and plant bodies consumed by
microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organism called
detrivores + It is maximum in terrestrial/land.
5. Detritivores
 These are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming
detritus. There are many kinds of invertebrates, vertebrates
and plants that carry out coprophagy.
 By doing so, all these detritivores contribute to decomposition and the nutrient cycles.
 Examples include Earthworms, blowflies, millipedes, maggots, and woodlice.
 Functions of Detritivores: They contribute to the breakdown of all of the dead and decaying
material in any ecosystem-> important role in the cycling of nutrients and are an essential part of
most biogeochemical cycles, such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and the phosphorus cycle.
6. Food web: Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web + It represent all possible paths of
energy flow in an ecosystem + It has more than one alternative for food to most of organisms->
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(Revision Notes)
increase the chance of survival(Example: Grasses may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper or cow).
7. Ecological Pyramids: Steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as
ecological pyramids.
 Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of numbers - Upright: Grasses occupy lowest trophic level-> herbivores->
primary carnivore-> Secondary carnivores-> Top carnivores + In this, with each higher
trophic level, the number of individual decreases.
o Pyramid of numbers - Inverted: Number of individuals increased from lower level to
higher trophic level + Example: Tree ecosystem
o Pyramid of numbers - Spindle : Number of individuals increases and then decreases to higher
tropic level .
 Pyramid of Biomass: Individuals in each trophic level

are weighed instead of being counted i.e, the total dry
weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a
particular time + It overcomes size difference problem. 
o Upright pyramid: Biomass of producers
(autotrophs) is at the maximum; the high trophic
level has very less amount of biomass.
o Inverted pyramid: In aquatic ecosystems, pyramid
of biomass is inverted because producers are tiny
phytoplanktons that grow and reproduce rapidly.
 Pyramid of Energy: It is used to compare the
functional roles of trophic levels in an ecosystem + It
represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and
loss of energy at each transfer to another trophic level + Always Upward, with large energy base
at bottom + The 10 per cent energy law states that there is only 10 per cent of the transfer of
energy from one trophic level to another.
8. Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first
organism in a food chain. If the pollutants enter only through aquatic ecosystem then it is called
bioconcentration.
(Revision Notes)
9. Biomagnification: There is increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to
another; to biomagnify a pollutant must be long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active.
10. Biotic Interaction: Examples
● Mutualism : Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of transport
and obtaining new food while the anemone provides camouflage and protection utilizing its
stinging cells to the hermit crab ; Lichens; Egret and cattle ; common myna and cattle.
● Competition : An example would be competition between cattle and antelope on western
rangelands.
● Parasitism : Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are
common parasites of humans. The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from its host.
Endoparasitism - parasite lives inside tissues or host ; Ectoparasitism - parasite lives outside host
; Brood parasitism - cuckoo and crow .
● Commensalism: An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch, and barnacles growing
on the back of a whale.
● Amensalism : The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an antibiotic substance
which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria. A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the
growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.
● Predation : owls that eat mice, and lions that eat gazelles.
11. Phytophagous: Mostly insects feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants
12. Ectoparasites: Feed on external surface of host. Ex: Lice in human hair, ticks on dogs
13. Endoparasite: Live inside the host body
14. Bio-Geo-Chemical cycle: The cycling of nutrients in biosphere is called biogeochemical or nutrient
cycle. It involves movement of nutrient elements through various components of an ecosystem.
 Nutrient cycling
o Perfect nutrient cycling: Nutrients are replaced as
fast as they are utilized; most gaseous cycles are
perfect cycles. Example : Carbon cycle, Nitrogen
cycle
o Imperfect nutrient cycle: Sedimentary cycles are
relatively imperfect (some nutrients are lost from the
cycle and get locked into the sediments). Example : P,
S , Mg, Ca
15. Gaseous cycles:
(Revision Notes)
 Hydrological (Water) cycle: Continuous circulation of water in Earth-atmosphere system driven

by solar energy + Water moves from one reservoir to another by the process of evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration and ground water flow.
 Carbon cycle: Carbon is present in the atmosphere in form of CO2 + Cycle involves continuous
exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms + Carbon from atmosphere -> green
plants by photosynthesis + Carbon from animals -> Through respiration and decomposition of
dead organic matter, it returns to the atmosphere + It is usually a short term cycle; also
accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty layers of marshy soil in bottom
sediments of aquatic systems which take a long time to be released + Ocean is the second largest
carbon sink + CO2 is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other
GHGs, Earth would be a frozen world.
 Nitrogen cycle: Elemental form of Nitrogen cannot be used directly by most living organisms. It
needs to be fixed to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates before it is taken by plants. It occurs in three
ways:
o By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
o By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories): It exceeded amount fixed by natural
cycle and has became a pollutant which can disrupt balance of nitrogen lead to acid rain,
eutrophication etc.
o Atmoshperic phenomenon such as thunder and lightning
Step 1: N2 Fixing ==> Nitrogen → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions
Step 2: Nitrification ==> Ammonia or Ammonium Ions → Nitrite → Nitrate
Step 3: Ammonification ==> Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions.
Most of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere. Rest is Nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates.
Some of the nitrates is available for plants. Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
Step 4: Denitrification ==> Nitrate → Nitrogen
o Bacteria’s which fix free nitrogen to ammonia - Azetobacter, Beijemicia , Clostrodium,
Rhodospirullium . Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of legumes.
o Ammonia directly taken by plant or it converted into Nitrides by bacteria Nitrosomonas and
Nitrococcus .
o Nitrides are than converted into Nitrates by bacteria Nitrobacter. Denitrification which is
done by Denitrifying bacteria ex. Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas. In the process of
denitrification methane and water vapour is released.
 Nitrogen Fixation
(Revision Notes)
o It is a process that implies the transformation of the relatively non-reactive atmospheric N2

into its more reactive compounds (nitrates, nitrites, or ammonia).
o An N-fixing crop is a natural way to provide plant-adjusted N without any industrial harm to
nature.
o Nitrogen fixing plants are: Clovers, vetches, and peas are nitrogen-fixing plants used by
farmers worldwide.
o Peas or beans can be used as a summer nitrogen-fixing cover crop or harvested for food.
Both ways, they enrich the soil with plant-suitable N.
o Beans: fava (aka faba, broad), alfalfa, green (aka French), runner, field, sweet, peanuts (aka
groundnuts), soybeans, cream, black-eyed, or purple-hulled beans, lupins, lentils, cowpeas.
● Oxygen cycle:
o Oxygen-> most vital element on Earth- roughly 21% of the atmosphere.
o Processes that produce oxygen: Photosynthesis in plants; Sunlight + water vapour = some
oxygen is produced.
o Processes that consume oxygen: Breathing, decomposition, combustion and rusting.
o Cycling of oxygen
 Highly complex process
 Oxygen + nitrogen = nitrates
 Photosynthesis- oxygen is released as a byproduct
 Animals and humans consume oxygen during respiration and release CO2 into the
atmosphere.
 This carbon dioxide is then again utilised by plants for photosynthesis and thus the
cycle moves on.
● Sedimentary cycle:
o Phosphorous cycle: Occurs in large amounts in phosphate rocks and enters cycle from
erosion and mining activities + Main storage is earth’s crust and it is available by weathering
and erosion + Phosphates also enters rivers and ocean + After million years crustal plates rise
and expose phosphates on land and the geochemical phase begin again + The weathering of
rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the phosphorous cycle + Much of the
phosphorus on Earth is tied up in rock and sedimentary deposits, from which it is released by
weathering, leaching, and mining. Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil
and sediments and organisms.
o Excess phosphorous and nitrogen from fertilizer runoff and sewage-> excessive growth
of algae-> Death and decay of these organisms deplete Dissolved oxygen-> Death of
acquatic organisms such as shellfish and fish (Dead zones).
(Revision Notes)
o Dead zone: It is an area in lakes and oceans where large areas are periodically depleted of
their normal flora and fauna + These zones caused by eutrophication coupled with other
factors including oil spill, dumping toxic chemicals and other human activities.
o Sulphur cycle: Reservoir is in soil and sediments (locked in coal, oil etc) and inorganic
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic
Sulphur + It is released through weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition of
organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.
 Sulphur enters atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of
fossil fuels, from the surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
 Atmospheric sulphur dioxide carried back to earth after being dissolved in rainwater as
weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).
 Sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a series
of metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the
proteins of autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.
 Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and
lakes and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
9. Succession: Universal process of directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale + This
process continue until a stable, mature community develops
● First plant to colonize called as pioneer community
● Intermediate stage found in ecological succession is known as Sere or Seral community
● Final stage of succession is climax community.
o Primary succession: It takes place an over where no community has existed previously + It
include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and
lava flows, glacial moraines + new site is first colonised by hardy pioneer species such as
microbes, lichens and mosses , rhododendrons.
(Revision Notes)
o Secondary succession: Sequential development of biotic communities after complete or

partial destruction of the existing community. Examples - after forest fires, volcanic
eruptions. Secondary succession does not result in as luxurious growth as primary one.
o Autogenic and Allogenic succession: When succession brought by living inhabitants of that
community itself it is autogenic succession + If change brought by outside forces it is
allogenic succession
o Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession: Succession in which green plants in great
quantity is autotrophic succession + If heterotrophs are greater it isheterotrophic succession +
Both of these occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent.
o Hydrarch succession and Xerarch succession: Hydrarch succession is a form of plant
succession that starts in a shallow water and eventually culminates in a forest. Xerarch
succession is a form of plant succession, which starts from a very dry place and eventually
culminates in the mature forest.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 3: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
1. Introduction: Interrelations between organisms and environment on land constitute terrestrial

ecology + Most important limiting factors are moisture and temperature.
2. Forest Ecosystem: Classified majorly into coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical forest.
● Coniferous forest (Boreal forest):
o Region: covers most of inland Canada and Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Russiaand northern
parts of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Japan.
o Climate: Present in cold regions with high rainfall + Strong seasonal climates with long
winters and short summers;
o Flora: Evergreen plant species such as spruce, fir, pine trees;
o Fauna: Animals such as red fox, porcupine, bear etc;
o Soil: Soils characterized by thin podzols, acidic and are mineral deficient;
o Productivity and community stability is lower.
● Temperate deciduous forest: Characterized by moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous
trees
o Region: The world’s largest deciduous forests are typically concentrated in North America,
Europe, and parts of Russia, China, and Japan.
o Climate: Fairly uniform precipitation & average rainfall is in range of 30-60 inches annually.
o Flora: Three levels of plants- Lichens, moss, ferns found on the forest floor; shrubs in
middle and hardwood trees like maple, oak, beech at third level;
o Fauna: Animal life includes Red-crowned crane, Owls, Hawks, Squirrels, Lynx, Siberian
tiger, Otters, Red panda etc
o Soil: Soils are podzolic and fairly deep.
● Temperate Evergreen forest:
o Region: Parts of world which have Mediterranean type of climate such as Southern Chile,
California, Cape town of Africa and Southern Australia.
o Climate: warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters.
o inhabited by low broad leaf evergreen trees+ fire is hazardous factor + flora like oak, pine,
eucalyptus found here.
o Fauna: Animal Life includes Red-crowned crane, Black bears, Wolves, Leopard, Lynx,
Siberian tiger, Otters, Red panda
● Temperate rain forests:
o Region: The main is along the northwestern coast of North America from northern
California through southern Alaska+ small areas in southern Chile and Australia.
o Climate: Marked seasonality w.r.t temperature and rainfall + do not experience extreme
cold or hot temperatures+ fog contributes 18-30 cm of precipitation every summer+
average annual precipitation up to 350cm annually.
o Flora: Tallest trees have leaves 15-30 cms from ground + undergrowth is lush mainly of
mosses, lichens+ sciophilus plants developed mechanism to utilize low light intensity+ main
trees include oaks, beeches, walnut trees, lime trees etc.
o Fauna: Grizzly bears are the common mammals found in Alaska.
● Tropical rain forests:
o Region: Occur near the equator; Found in Central and South America, western and central
Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
o Climate: Most diverse and rich communities on earth; temperature and humidity remain
high and uniform; annual rainfall exceeds 200cms and distributed throughout the year.
o Flora: vertically stratified with tall trees covered with vines, epiphytic orchids.
(Revision Notes)
o Soils are red latosols + high rate of leaching-> useless for agri purposes + undergrowth
restricted by lack of sunlight at ground level.
o Fauna: The fauna species encompass okapi, tapir, rhinoceros, spider monkey etc.
● Tropical seasonal forests:
o Region: Found in S.E Asia, Central and south America, northern Australia, western
Africa and tropical islands of pacific as well as in India.
o Climate: Occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high + segregated into wet
and dry periods.
o Flora: Ferns, lichens, mosses, orchids, and bromeliads etc.
o Fauna: Jaguar, boa constrictor, African gray parrot, keel-billed toucan etc.
● Subtropical rain forests:
o Region: Occur in Central America, the West Indies, India, Madagascar, mainland Southeast
Asia, and the Philippines.
o Climate: Found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences between
winter and summer.
o Flora and Fauna: epiphytes are common;
o Flora: Animal life similar to that of tropical forests; It is home to a number of birds, snakes
and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards.
3. Forest types in India
● Tropical wet evergreen forests:
Found along western Ghats, Nicobar
and Andaman islands and some
regions in purvanchal hills + It is
characterized by tall, straight
evergreen trees + Shrubs cover layer
closer to ground, followed by short
structured trees + Annual rainfall
exceeds 250 cms + Dry season is
distinctly short + Mesosphytic plants
+ Thick canopy + Trees struggle for
sunlight result in layer arrangement +
Undergrowth formed mainly of
bamboos, ferns, climbers + Important
species are mahogany, mesua, white
cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
● Tropical semi-evergreen forests:
Found in Western Ghats, Andaman&
nicobar islands, Assam, Odisha and
Eastern Himalayas+ Transitional
forests between tropical wet
evergreen and tropical deciduous
forests+ Annual rainfall is 200-250cm
and relative humidity is about 75%+
More gregarious (live in colonies),
buttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes+ Important species are laurel, rosewood, thorny
bamboo, white cedar etc.
● Tropical Moist deciduous forests: Found throughout India except in western and north-western
regions + Annual rainfall 100-200cm+ Trees drop their leaves during spring+ Heavily buttressed
(Revision Notes)
trees and complete undergrowth+ main species are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun etc;
easy to exploit due to high gregariousness.
● Littoral and swamp: Found along the A&N islands, delta area of Ganga and Brahmaputra+
Occur in and around deltas, estuaries prone to tidal influences + Dense mangroves present in
sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks-> Sunderban in Ganga delta+ Important species are Sundri, agar,
rhizophora, screw pines and canes.
● Tropical Dry Evergreen: Found along the coasts of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
coast+ Annual rainfall of 100cm+ Mean annual temperature is about 28 degrees Celsius+ Short
statured trees with complete canopy+ Important species are jamun, tamarind and neem+
Predominance of casuarina plantations; wood suitable for paper pulp and manufacture of paper;
wasteland development+ Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber and pulses can also be raised.
● Tropical Dry deciduous forest: Found throughout northern part of country except in North-
east; also found in M.P, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu+ Shed their leaves
in dry season, closed but even canopy-> enough light reaches to ground for growth of grass and
climbers+ Important species are teak, sal, acacia, common bamboo, red sanders, satinwood etc+
Suffer from over grazing, fire etc.
● Tropical Thorn forests: Found in the areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh+ trees do not grow beyond metres+ Annual rainfall less than
75 cm+ Trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered+ Important species are
spurge, caper, neem and cactus.
● Subtropical broad leaved forests: Found in western Himalayas and western ghats+ Species are
evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sal and pines+ Climbers and epiphytes are common.
● Sub-tropical Pine forests: Found in steppe dry slopes of Shivaliks, Western and Central
Himalayas, Khasi, Naga and Manipur hills+ Important trees in these areas are chir, oak,
rhodendron, and pine as well as sal, amla found in the lower regions.
● Sub-tropical Dry evergreen forests: Found in Bhabar, Shiwaliks and western Himalayas+
Annual rainfall is 50-100cms + Summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold+ Low
scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees+ Important species are olive, acacia modesta and
pistacia.
● Montane Wet temperate forests: Found in higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in Eastern
Himalayan region+ Mean annual rainfall is about 150-300 cm+ Average relative humidity is
over 80%+ Closed evergreen forests and trunks have large girth+ Branches clothed with mosses,
ferns and other epiphytes+ Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus,
cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
● Himalayan Moist temperate forests: Occurs in temperate zone of Himalayas between 1500 and
3300 metres+ Mainly composed of coniferous species; Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. form
high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth+ Provides fine wood which is of much use
for construction, timber and railway sleepers.
● Himalayan Dry temperate forests: Found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim and other parts of the
Himalayas+ Precipitation below 100 cm and mostly in form of snow+ Coniferous forests with
xerophytic shrubs like deodar, oak, ash, olive etc.
● Sub alpine forests: Extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh+ Vegetation mainly consists of
juniper, rhodendron, willow and black currant+ In eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch are
the common trees+ Heavy rainfall and high humidity-> timber line in this part is higher than that
in the west.
● Alpine forests: Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500 + Occur lower alpine scrub and
grasslands + It has mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees; attain a height of about 30 m
while broad leaved trees reach only 10 m+ Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
(Revision Notes)
o Moist alpine scrub: Found all along Himalayas and on higher hills near Myanmar border+
low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres and
extends upto snowline.
o Dry alpine scrub: Uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 m above
sea level+ Found in dry zone+ Black juniper, honeysuckle, willow etc. are important species.
4. Biome: Terrestrial part of biosphere divisible into enormous regions are called as biomes+
Climate is major factor that determines boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and
animals+ Other most important factors are
temperature and precipitation.
● Tundra biome: Means a barren land->
environmental conditions are very severe.
o Distribution: Arctic tundra:
Continuous belt below polar ice cap and
above tree line in northern hemisphere;
North region of Canada, Alaska, Siberia
and island group of Arctic ocean+
Alpine tundra: Occurs at high
mountains above w.r.t to Arctic
mountains found at all latitudes; shows day and night temperature variations.
o Temperature: Low mean annual temperature + Summers are relatively warmer + Not more
than four months have above freezing points; ground remains solidly frozen and inaccessible
to plants.
o Precipitation: Convectional rainfall is absent + Present usually in the form of snow and
sleet
o Flora and Fauna: Devoid of trees due to permafrost in tundra + Typical vegetation is
cotton grass, willows and lowest form of vegetation like lichens + Coastal lowlands
support hardy grasses and reindeer moss + Animals like reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare,
lemmings are found; most of them have long life (E.g: Arctic willow-life span of 150-300
years) + Animals protected from chillness by the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal
hair or fur and shorter and thicker limbs as compared to animals of warm climates (Allen’s
rule)+ Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
o Human activities: Largely confined to coast; semi-nomadic life + In Greenland, northern
Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos; during winter they live in compact igloos + Food
derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
● Taiga/Boreal biome:
o Distribution: It extends in cool temperate continental margin (45-65 degrees) only in
Northern hempishere + The regions include Siberian region of Russia, Northern Canada
and Scandinavian countries. (Note: It does not extend in Southern Hemisphere because of
absence of land mass beyond this latitude extent).
o Climate: Very cold winter and mild warm summer+ Frost occur as soon as the month of
august+ The number of days in which rivers are frozen increases from south to north.
o Temperature: Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-25 °C whereas winters are long
and brutually cold – always 30-40 °C below freezing + Annual temperature range is
the greatest (Almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).
o Precipitation: Rainfall annually is not high because of absence of maritime influence+
Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm + Maximum rainfall in summer
is by convectional rainfall + In winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow.
(Revision Notes)
o Natural vegetation: Predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest such as spruce,

fir and pine + Greatest single band of coniferous forest is termed as Taiga+ Softwood is
found in cool temperate (USSR, USA, Canada are leading producers of softwood) resulting
in high paper production + Juniper, spruce, fir, pine are examples of coniferous.
o Fauna: Animals include Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolf, bear, red fox and amphibians like
Hyla, Rana etc.
● Temperate decidious forests (British type climate):
o Distribution: Extend over Britain, North France, North Germany, Norway, Tasmania,
New Zealand, Southern Chile and Western Canada.
o Climate: Moderately warm summers and cool winters + Temperature is moderate and is
best suited for human habitation + Less annual range of temperature.
o Temperature: The mean annual temperatures are between 5° C and 15° C + Winters are
abnormally mild.
o Precipitation: Adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight
winter maximum + Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
o Natural vegetation: Deciduous forestry+ It has tall trees with good canopy layer +
Multiple species not found-> commercially viable + Trees shed their leaves in cold season+
It comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, greenheart, cabinet wood and dyewoods.
o Fauna: European Hedgehog, Wood Mouse, Grey Seal etc.
o Economic activity: Lumbering (cutting of trees for commercial purposes) + winter cutting
is done where they would make wood logs float on frozen rivers.
● Tropical rain forest:
o Distribution: Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India,
Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
o Climate: Rainfall exceeds about 1,800 to 2,500 mm (about 70 to 100 inches) annually and
occurs fairly evenly throughout the year.
o Vegetation: High temperature and rainfall support luxuriant tropical rain forest + Presence of
multiple storey of broad-leaf evergreen tree species in abundance + Small palm trees,
climbing lianas-epiphytic or parasitic plants concentrated in the canopy or tree top zones +
Multitude of evergreen trees like mahogany, ebony, deywoods etc. Highly leached soil does
not support agricultural practices except plantation crops like cocoa, rubber, sugarcane,
tapioca.
o Epiphytes: Plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant and derives its moisture and
nutrients from air, rain and debris accumulating around it.
o Fauna: Sloths, Jaguars, toucans etc.
● Savannah:
o Distribution: West African Sudan, East Africa, South America (Llanos and campos),
Australia (Queensland).
o Climate: It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rainforests and hot
deserts.
o Temperature: Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C + Extreme diurnal range of
temperature+ Confined dry and wet season.
o Precipitation: Annual precipitation is around 80 cms + rainfall is confined to limited
period+ In northern hemisphere, rainy season begins in May and lasts till September + In
southern hemisphere, the rainy season is from October to March.
o Natural vegetation: Typified by tall grass and short trees (elephant grass) + It has
presence of deciduous trees like Acacius + Trees are deciduous and shed their leaves in the
(Revision Notes)
cool, dry season to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration + Broad trunks
with water storing devices to survive droughts + Presence of grasses with scattered trees
and fire resisting thorny shrubs + Boabs trees is special feature of this ecosystem
o Fauna: Antelopes, buffaloes, elephants and rhinoceros; carnivores include lion, cheetah,
hyena and many rodents.
o Other names: Brazil (Campos) + Venezuela (Llanos).
o Limited water and forest fires prevent succession from grasses to trees.
● Temperate grasslands:
o Distribution: Found in various regions north and south of the equator including Argentina,
Australia, and central North America.
o Climate: They have cold winters and warm summers.
o Temperature: The temperatures can vary from -40 degrees Fahrenheit to more than 100
degrees Fahrenheit
o Precipitation: The annual rainfall is in the range of 25 cm to 75 cm + It is mostly in the
form of dew and snow.
o Vegetation: Cacti, sagebrush, perennial grasses, buffalo grass clovers, and wild indigos, etc.
o Other names: Pampas (Argentina), Prairie (America), Velds (South Africa), Steppe (Asia)
and Downs (Australia).
o Tree less and cattle rearing is widely practiced due to presence of short and juicy grasses .
● Desert:
o Distribution: Major hot deserts of world are located on tropics on western margin of
continent.
o Climate: Continental interiors with low and sporadic rainfall with low humidity + The days
in these regions are very hot but nights are cold.
o Temperature: Temperature is high throughout the year + Annual average temperature is 30-
35 degree Celsius + Diurnal range of temperature is very high.
● Vegetation: Drought resistance vegetation such as cactus, euphorbias, sagebrush + Presence of
long roots and well-spaced out to gather moisture + The seeds of many species of grasses have
thick, tough skins to protect while they lie dormant. Xerophytic vegetation is present.
5. Deforestation: Felling of trees as a result of urbanization, industrialization, mining and use of wood
for domestic and other purposes, shifting cultivation.
● Deforestation report by Utility Bidder: India has
seen the highest surge in deforestation in the past 30
years + The country lost 384,000 hectares (ha) of
forests between 1990 and 2000, but the figure rose to
668,400 ha between 2015 and 2020 + India is the
second-largest country with deforestation after Brazil.
● UN REDD Program = It is collaborative initiative of
FAO, UNDP and UNEP + Multilateral body which
partners with developing countries by assisting them
to develop capacities needed to meet UNFCCC
REDD+ requirements + It has country-based approach that provides advisory and technical
support tailored to national circumstances.
● Introduction to REDD+: Climate change mitigation solution developed by parties to UNFCCC
+ It incentivizes developing countries to keep their forest standing by offering results-based
payments to remove forest carbon emissions.
o REDD+ in UNFCCC: First negotiated in UNFCC 2005 (COP-11) + In 2013, seven
decisions on REDD+ produced known as “Warsaw Framework on REDD-Plus” + REDD+
(Revision Notes)
goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks + UNFCCC rulebook
on REDD+ finalized in COP-21 in 2015.
● India’s REDD+ Strategy: Prepared by Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education
(ICFRE), Dehradun + It builds upon existing national circumstances updated in line with
NAPCC, Green India Mission and INDCs + Please Note: ICFRE is an autonomous organisation
or governmental agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India
6. REDD and REDD+
● UN REDD: Headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland + 64 partner countries + multilateral
collaborative programme of FAO, UNDP and UNEP + created in 2008 in response to the
UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13 + It partners with developing
countries to support them in establishing the technical capacities needed to implement REDD+
and meet UNFCCC requirements for REDD.
● REDD+: Voluntary climate change
mitigation approach developed by parties to
the UNFCCC + It goes beyond simply
deforestation and forest degradation + It
incentivize developing countries to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks,
sustainably manage forests + Developing
countries would receive results-based
payments for results-based actions. +In
addition to UN-REDD programme, World
Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility,
GEF and GCF also assist it.
7. Grassland Ecosystem: Found where rainfall is
about 25-75 cm per year + It is found mainly in
the high Himalayas in India; the rest of India’s
grasslands mainly composed of steppes and
savannas.
● Indian Grasslands and Fodder research
institute: Located at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
● Central Arid zone research institute:
Located at Jodhpur (Rajasthan).
8. Desert ecosystem: Found in regions with less
than 25 cm of rainfall + It is also found in hot regions where there is more rainfall but unevenly
distributed in annual cycle.
● Adaptations of Desert plants
o Leaf modifications to inhibit water loss:
 Wax coatings on leaves prevent water loss through evaporation.
 Leaves few or absent or represented by spines only.
 Petiole modified into leaf like structure.
 Thorns instead of leaves E.g: Cacti have spines in place of leaves, which conduct
photosynthesis.
 Stem reduced and branching is sparse; even stems contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
 Prevention of loss of water by transpiration modifications: Intercellular spaces reduced,
Spongy parenchyma is present, Stomata on lower surface and sunken in stomatal pits.
(Revision Notes)
 Prevention of excessive heat Modifications: Leaves covered with dense hairs; leaf
surfaces shiny or glaborous, leaf blade remains rolled during the day
 Animal adaptations: Fast runners, nocturnal in habit to avoid sun’s heat, conserve water by
excreting urine, long legs to keep body away from hot ground, camel is known as ship of desert;
few species of nocturnal rodents also present.
● Indian Desert- Thar desert (hot): Excessive drought, rainfall is scanty and irregular; relative
humidity of atmosphere is always low + Flora includestrees and shrubs like Acacia jacquemontii,
Acacia nilotica, Calligonum polygonoides+ slender stems and root systems, rain perennials
(visible above ground only during rainy season) + Fauna: Sanctuary for Great Indian Bustard +
Blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal inhabit open plains, grasslands and saline depressions +
It has nesting ground for Flamingoes and only known population of Asiatic wild ass.
9. Desertification: Process by which the biological productivity of drylands is reduced due to natural or
manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of existing deserts; Almost 30% (96.4 million
hectare) of India’s land mass is under desertification.
● UNCCD: One of three
conventions finalized in 1992
Earth Summit + Established in
1994 + Sole legally binding
international agreement linking
environment and development to
sustainable land management +
Only convention stemming from
a direct recommendation of the
Rio conference’s Agenda 21 +
India became a signatory to
UNCCD on October 14, 1994,
and ratified in 1996 +
MoEF&CC is the nodal Ministry
+ Focus areas are improved
living condition of people in
drylands; maintain and restore
soil productivity; mitigate the effect of drought.
o COP 14 in New Delhi (2019): First time that India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP;
theme was ‘Restore land, Sustain future’ + Key outcomes were:
▪ Delhi declaration: Commitment for issues, including gender and health, ecosystem
restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement.
▪ Peace Forest initiative: Initiative of South Korea + Aims to use ecological restoration as
peace-building process; addressing issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border areas.
▪ Drought Toolbox launched to assess drought risks in their regions.
▪ Roadmap for scaling up African-led Great Green wall initiative which aims to restore
100 million hectares of land and create 100 million green jobs by 2030.
▪ International coalition on sand and dust storms: Develop an SDS source base to
improve response to these storms.
▪ Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S): Launched by 14 African
countries to address migration driven by land degradation.
o COP 15 in Cote d'Ivoire (Western Africa) + Theme: ‘Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity
to prosperity' + It was built on the findings of the second edition of the Global Land Outlook
o New UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic framework
(Revision Notes)
▪ Most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land degradation neutrality

(LDN)
▪ LDN Target setting program: Global mechanism (GM) and Secretariat on UNCCD
supporting countries in national LDN target setting process.
▪ LDN Fund: Impact investment fund + Resources from public, private and philanthropic
sectors will be used to achieve LDN and land restoration projects implemented in private
sector + officially launched at COP 13 in Ordos, China.
● National initiatives to combat Desertification
o National Afforestation Programme (NAP)” for ecological restoration of degraded forest
areas implemented by National afforestation and Eco-development board (NAEB) of
MoEFCC.
o Multiple schemes like Green India Mission, fund accumulated under CAMPA, Nagar Van
Yojana etc. MoEF&CC promotes tree outside forests for increasing Trees Outside Forest
(TOF).
10. Land Degradation Neutrality: It is a condition where further land degradation (loss of productivity
caused by environmental or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land can be restored.
11. Bonn Challenge: Launched by Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011 + It is a global goal to
bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and 350
million hectares by 2030 + The Challenge exhorts the achievement of their stated goals through an
approach to restoration called forest landscape restoration (FLR) + India joined the Bonn Challenge
in 2015 with a pledge to restore 21 mha of degraded and deforested land + This was raised to target
of 26 mha by 2030 during UNCCD COP 14.
12. Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas: It is a study recently published by ISRO, reveals
that land degradation and desertification have risen considerably in recent years + Some 97.85
million hectares (29.7%) of India’s total geographical area (TGA) of 328.72 mha underwent land
degradation during 2018-19.
13. About India state of Forest report: Report for assessment of India’s forest and tree cover + It is
published every two years by the Forest Survey of India(FSI) + First survey was done in 1987 and
ISFR 2021 is the 17th in the series + Three categories of forests surveyed – very dense forests
(canopy density over 70%), moderately dense forests (40-70%) and open forests (10-40%) + Scrubs
(canopy density less than 10%) are also surveyed but not categorised as forests.
14. Forest Survey of India (FSI) = Established
in 1981 + Premier national organisation
under the Ministry of Environment + It is
responsible for assessment and monitoring of
the forest resources of the country regularly.
In addition, it is also engaged in providing
the services of training, research and
extension
15. Indian State of Forest Report 2021 = ISFR
is a biennial (every two years) report on
India’s forest and tree cover prepared by the
Forest Survey of India (FSI) + The ISFR
2021 is the 17th edition in the series since
1987. The last such report was published in
2019 + The ISFR-2021 provides information
on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover,
growing stock, carbon stock in India’s
(Revision Notes)
forests, forest fire monitoring, above ground estimates of biomass using SAR data & climate change
hotspots in Indian forests + It also provides for the first time the forest cover in tiger reserve areas,
tiger corridors and the Gir forest that houses the Asiatic lion + Key findings:
● New features: First time assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir forest
were accounted + Forest cover in tiger corridors increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32%) between
2011-2021; decreased by 22.6 sq km (0.04%) in tiger reserves.
● Total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectare (24.62% of the geographical
area of the country). As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of 2,261 sq km
in the total forest and tree cover of the country
● Increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest followed by very dense forest. There is
a decline in the moderately dense forests or “natural forests”
● Highest losses found in Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka) and the Sunderbans reserves
(West Bengal).
● Pakke Tiger Reserve (Aru.P)-> highest forest cover of 97%.
● Top 3 states showing increase in forest cover: Andhra Pradesh > Telangana > Odisha
[Northeast reported the biggest losses in forest cover]
● Area-wise Largest Forest Cover: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh >
Odisha > Maharashtra
● Forest cover as percentage of total geographical area: Mizoram > Arunachal Pradesh >
Meghalaya
● The present assessment reveals that 17 states/UT’s have above 33% of the geographical area
under forest cover
● Mangroves: Top three states showing mangrove cover increase - Odisha, Maharashtra and
Karnataka + Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq Km in
mangrove cover has been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019
● Bamboo Resources: MP > Arunachal Pradesh > Maharashtra > Odisha > Assam + Total area
under bamboo is decreased + State with highest increase in bamboo bearing area: Mizoram
● Carbon stock: Total carbon stock in India’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tones. There
is an increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of country as compared to the last
assessment of 2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes
● It also identifies 35.46% of the forest cover as prone to forest fires
● Climate Change Hotspots - The report has also mapped the climate change hotspots in Indian
forests, based on projections for 2030, 2050 and 2080. It predicted that Himalayan states and
UTs (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K and Ladakh) will record the maximum increase in
temperature and may experience decrease in rainfall. Extreme rainfall may also increase in the
states of the North East.
● New initiative of FSI documented where the ‘Above Ground Biomass’ has been estimated
Miyawaki method: It is a technique pioneered by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki, that helps
build dense, native forests in a short time. It has revolutionised the concept of urban afforestation
by turning backyards into mini-forests.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 4: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
1. Introduction: Ecosystems consisting of water as main habitat known as aquatic ecosystems.

2. Classification based on salt content
● Fresh water ecosystems: Less than 5ppt + Examples include lakes, ponds, springs and rivers.
● Marine ecosystems: Salt content 35 ppt or above + Examples are seas and open ocean.
● Brackish water ecosystem: Salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt + Examples are estuaries, salt
marshes, mangroves etc.
3. Various Zones
4. Aquatic organisms
● Neuston: unattached organisms live at air-water interface; E.g: beetles and backswimmers
● Periphyton: Attached to stems of rooted plants+ live submerged in water; E.g: Sessile algae.
● Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants and animals like crustaceans+ limited
locomotory power-> distribution controlled largely by currents; E.g: Algae and crustaceans.
● Nekton: Swimmers; live under water; large and powerful to overcome water currents; E.g: All
sea animals.
● Benthos: Attached to bottom of water mass. Example: macroalgae, seagrasses, corals,
barnacles, mussels, sea urchins, and sea stars.
● Copepods: These are small aquatic crustaceans and are one of most numerous metazoan groups
in aquatic communities. These are major secondary producers in World Ocean which represent
an important link in phytoplankton, micro zooplankton and higher trophic levels such as fish.
● Diatoms: These are photosynthesising algae; found in almost every aquatic environment
including fresh and marine waters; major primary producers in the ocean, responsible annually
for ~20% of photosynthetically fixed CO2 on Earth.
5. Lentic is standing water system E.g: Pond; Lotic-> Moving water system E.g: River
6. Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic habitats
● Sunlight
o Euphotic/Photic zone: Upper layer up to which light penetrates and photosynthesis takes
place + The depth depends on the transparency of water.
o Aphotic zone: Light does not penetrate so plant growth restricted + Only respiratory
activity takes place + It is also known as profundal zone.
● Dissolved Oxygen: Escapes water body through air-water interface & respiration of organisms +
When dissolved oxygen falls below 3-5 ppm, many organisms die.
● Transparency: SPM such as clay, silt etc. make water turbid-> limits light participation and
photosynthetic activity.
● Temperature: Water temperatures are less subject to change + The aquatic organisms have
narrow temperature tolerance limit.
(Revision Notes)
7. Lake Ecology: Large body of water with huge area and depth + born from geological or
geomorphic process + receives water from surface run-off; ageing occurs as lakes accumulate
mineral and organic matter.
8. Lakes in India
● Artificial lakes are more in number than natural lakes + natural lakes predominantly in
Himalayan regions, floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
● Lakes classified on the basis of salt content: On nutrient content basis they are classified as
oligotrophic (very low), Mesotrophic (moderate) and Eurotrophic (high rich).
● Removal of nutrients technique: Deep water abstraction + Flushing + algae skimming + plants
to suck nutrients + harvest fish and macrophytes + Sludge removal + Filters for algae removal.
● Brackish lakes : Chilika , Pulicat(located between Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh) , vembanad(
longest lake in India) , Ashtamudi
● Brine Lakes : Sambhar Lake , Didhwana , Van golu (Highest salinity in the world)
9. Saline lakes: It is a landlocked body of water with a much greater concentration of salts and other
dissolved minerals than other lakes. Salt lakes can contain more salt than sea water in rare situations;
these lakes are known as hypersaline and are sometimes referred to as pink lakes due to their colour.
 Saline lakes in news
o Lonar Lake, Maharashtra: It is a saline and alkaline lake located at Lonar in Buldhana
district, Maharashtra. It is situated inside the Deccan Plateau—a massive plain of volcanic
basalt rock created by eruptions. It is a notified National Geo-heritage monument. Colour of
Lonar lake water in Maharashtra’s Buldhana distt turned pink due to presence of salt-loving
‘Haloarchaea’ microbes-> Water samples tested by Nagpur-based National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) and Agharkar Research Institute in Pune.
o Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan: It is India's largest inland salt water lake. It is a wetland of
international significance under Ramsar convention. It gets its water from the Samood,
Khari, Mantha, Khandela, Medtha, and Roopangarh rivers.
o Chilika Lake, Odisha: It is world's biggest lagoon; declared as the first Ramsar Convention
wetland of international importance in India in 1981. Irrawaddy dolphins are major
attraction. o Pulicat Lake, AP and Tamil Nadu: Each year, a vast variety of species, such as
grey pelicans and painted storks, visit the location. Annual Flamingo Festival will take place
in Pulicat Lake in January + Chilika Lake, Odisha is largest saline water lake in India.
o Pachpadra Lake, Rajasthan: Pachpadra Lake is a salt-lake near Pachpadra in Barmer
District, Rajasthan, India. Its sodium chloride level is marked at 98%.
o Pangong tso lake, Ladakh: Derives its name from the Tibetan word, “Pangong Tso”, which
means “high grassland lake” + long narrow, endorheic (landlocked) lake situated at a height
of more than 14,000 ft (4,350 meters) in the Ladakh Himalayas + It is the world's highest
saltwater lake + India holds one-third of the 135 km-long boomerang-shaped Pangong lake +
It change colors, appearing blue, green, and red at different times.
10. Eutrophication: Response to addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates through fertilizers, sewage etc. + It results in growth of green algae + Algal bloom
restricts penetration of sunlight + It leads to reduced oxygen levels-> organisms suffocate leads to
degradation of ecosystem and death of organisms.
(Revision Notes)
● Effects of Eutrophication:
o Loss of freshwater lakes: It creates detritus layer in lakes and produces
successively shallower depth of surface water.
o Death of aquatic plants: Algal bloom-> restrict penetration of sunlight-> death of aquatic
plants and restrict replenishment of oxygen.
o New species invasion: cause ecosystem competitive by transforming the normal limiting
nutrient to abundant level.
o Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in water transparency.
o Affects navigation due to increased turbidity + smell and water treatment problems +
increases biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae +
unsuitable for aesthetic recreation.
● Mitigation: Restoration and preservation of ecosystems + Create buffer zones for sediments to
collect + Nitrogen testing + Industrial waste treatment and efficiency + reduce livestock densities
+ Reduce non-point source+ neutralising N and P by addition of suitable chemicals .
11. Harmful Algal Bloom: When algal bloom produces toxins, it affects marine organisms thus making
it difficult to breathe + Produces diatoms, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates + Blooms can occur due
to nutrient enrichment and warm waters.
Producing High Biomass (Green Tides) Producing Toxins (Red Tides)
Mechanical disturbance Shellfish poisoning
Shading Direct lethal toxicity
Clogging water and overgrowth Ambush predation
Mucus and foam formation
12. Sea Snot and its Formation: Recently, Turkey’s Sea of Marmara, which connects the Black Sea to
the Aegean Sea, has witnessed the largest outbreak of ‘sea snot' + It is marine mucilage that is
formed when algae are overloaded with nutrients as a result of water pollution combined with the
effects of climate change + The nutrient overload occurs when algae feast on warm weather caused
by global warming + It has caused mass deaths among fish populations + It looks like a viscous,
brown and foamy substance.
13. National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: Single conservation programme for both
wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by Ministry of
Environment + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
14. Comparison between Lakes and Wetlands
● Lakes: Minimum depth 3 mts (NLCP), origin from multiple sources, small pelagial ratio, low
productivity and biodiversity, oligotrophic status, thermal stratification.
(Revision Notes)
● Wetlands: Low tide does not exceed 6m (Ramsar definition) , origin due to geomorphic
processes, large pelagial ratio, high productivity and biodiversity and no thermal stratification.
15. Estuary ecosystem: Areas where river meets the sea (exhibiting gradient in salinity), resulting in
mixture of fresh river water with salty ocean water, subject to tidal variations.
● Conditions: rising sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes and tectonic
processes.
● Characteristics: Free connection with open sea, complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt, filter for
river water, heavily populated, little wave action + It is the biologically most productive region
and receives high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
● Flora: Home to unique animals such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, saltworts,
eelgrass, salt grasses, cord grasses, sea grass, sedge and bulrush.
● Benefits of Estuarine ecosystems: Commercial fishing + Travel and tourism + Economic and
social benefits + Water purification + Breeding hotspot + Recreational and community benefits +
Erosion protection + Stores and recycles nutrients.
16. Mangroves: small tree or shrub that grows along coastlines, taking root in salty sediments, often
underwater + It belong to the families Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae,
and Arecaceae.
● Characteristics: Mostly evergreen forests grow in
sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats etc+
Highly productive ecosystems + It protect shoreline
from the effect of cyclones( low energy coasts)+ Best
example of ecotone + Grow below high water level of
spring tides + Salt tolerant trees (halophytes) +
Adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of
waterlogged mud + Produce pneumatophores (blind
roots) to overcome the respiration problem + Occur
worldwide mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S
+ Succulent leaves (store fresh water in leaves),
viviparous (Their seeds germinate while still attached
to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows into a propagule).
● Types: Rhizophora (send arching prop roots down into water), Avicennia (send vertical
“Pneumatophores” up from the mud), Adventitious roots emerge from main trunk of a tree
above ground level are called stilt roots.
● Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest
regions in the world (Largest Ramsar site in India) + listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site
+ Home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine crocodiles.
● International Day for conservation of Mangrove: celebrated by UNESCO on July 26; raising
awareness about mangrove ecosystems and promote their sustainable management and
conservation.
● CRZ rules are also protecting mangroves.
● SMART (Special Monitoring and Reporting Tool) monitoring in Sundarbans empowers local
administration contributing to more effective management of natural resources.
● Gujarat uses direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations and fishbone channel plantations to
restore degraded mangroves + Andhra Pradesh has established Eco-Development committees
and Van Samrakshan Samiti to implement conservation projects in mangrove areas.
● Mangroves for Future Initiative: initiative by IUCN and UNDP + It promotes investment in
coastal ecosystem conservation called “Mangroves for Future” + India is part of initiative.
● India State of Forest Report, 2021
(Revision Notes)
o Mangroves have increased by 17sqkm making India’s total mangrove cover as 4,992 sqkm.
o Top 3 states showing mangrove cover increase: Odisha (8 sq km), Maharashtra (4 sq km),
and Karnataka (3 sq km).
o Overall Mangrove cover increased by 0.34% as compared to the previous assessment.
o Mangrove Location in India - Sundarbans; Ganga sagar; Bhitarkanika ; chilika lake ;
Chandrabhaga; Gulf of khambat.
17. Coral reefs
● Coral: Colonial organisms made up of individual polyps (tiny animals related to anemones) +
symbiotic relationship with ‘Zooxanthellae’ microscopic algae which live on coral + use
calcium and carbonate ions from water to form hard-cup shaped skeleton of calcium carbonate.
● Symbiotic relationship between Coral and algae
o Zooxanthellae assist coral in nutrient production through photosynthetic activities +
Provide corals with fixed carbon compounds for energy, nutrition and enhance calcification.
o Corals-> Provide algae protected environment to live within and steady supply of CO2 for
photosynthesis.
● Types of corals
o Black Corals: Black corals (Anthozoa: Antipatharia) can be found growing both in shallow
waters and down to depths of over 26,000 feet (8,000 metres), and some individual corals can
live for over 4,000 years + However, the taxonomy of black corals is poorly known
compared to many other anthozoan groups + Many of these corals are branched and look like
feathers, fans or bushes, while others are straight like a whip.
o Hard corals: Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral
exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the
extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
o Soft corals: Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their
ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These
growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.
o Fire coral: Fire corals have a bright, yellow-green to brown skeletal covering, and are
widely distributed in tropical and subtropical waters.
o Snowflake coral: Invasive species of coral which has a capacity to dominate space and
crowd out other marine organisms.
o Mesophotic corals: They are types of corals which can survive in low light environments.
They can grow at greater depths. They normally grow between 30 and 40 meters and up to
150 meters in tropical and subtropical water.
o Pillar corals: They are found throughout the Caribbean Sea.
● Coral reefs: Large underwater structure composed of skeleton of corals + It is built by coral
polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate from under their skin + It grow best in warm
water and prefer shallow range with lots of sunlight for their symbiotic algae.
o Features: Occur in shallow tropical areas + It is one of the most productive ecosystems
with high biological diversity + Corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals while
zooxanthellae are fast growing plants + They live in nutrient poor waters + They high
capability to recycle scarce nutrients; extremely high productivity and biodiversity->
Tropical rainforests of the oceans.
o Temperature
▪ The water's temperature should not be less than 20°C.
▪ The optimal temperature range for coral reef growth is between 23°C and 25°C.
▪ A temperature of no more than 35°C should be used.
▪ Corals can only thrive in saline settings with average salinity of between 27% and 40%.
(Revision Notes)
▪ It thrives in shallow water less than 50m deep. Water depth should not exceed 200m.
o Classification of coral reefs based on location
▪ Fringing reefs: Grow near coastline around islands and continents + Separated from
shore by narrow and shallow lagoons + Examples include reefs of Andamans.
▪ Barrier reefs: Parallel to coastline separated by deeper, wider lagoons + Can reach
water’s surface forming a ‘barrier’ to navigation + E.g: reefs in Nicobar and
Lakshadweep.
▪ Atolls: Rings of corals that create protected lagoons and usually located in middle of
sea; circular barrier reefs but without their central land mass + Example is Atolls of
Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
▪ Patch reefs: Small, isolated reefs that grow up from open bottom of island platform +
They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs.
o Important Facts: Great barrier reef is the largest coral reef in the world+ most of the coral
reefs located between Tropic of cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
o Deep sea corals : Unlike tropical reefs, they live from 150 feet to more than 10,000 feet
below sea level, where sunlight is dim to nonexistent. Deep-sea corals and sponges feed
on microscopic organisms that flow in ocean currents. Unlike warm-water corals, they
don't require sunlight as a source of nutrition. Significance
▪ Biodiversity protection-> highest productivity, occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor
but home to 25% of marine life (Tropical rainforests of the oceans).
▪ Coastal protection: act as barrier and protect coastal areas from strong ocean
currents and waves.
▪ Medicinal properties-> medicine chests of the sea; tourism potential.
▪ Others: Provide substrate for mangroves; largest biogenic CaCO3 producer.
18. Location of corals in India - Gulf of Kutch: Represent northern limits of corals in Indian
Ocean; Inter tidal areas on the West Coast of India; Lakshadweep Islands; Gulf of Mannar; Palk
Bay; Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
19. Coral Bleaching: When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light or
nutrients; expel symbiotic algae living on their tissues-> causing them to turn completely white.
(Revision Notes)
20. Initiatives for protection of coral reefs

● Corals included in Schedule-I list of WPA, 1972 by Ministry of Environment.
● Aichi Target 10: Concerns reducing pressures on coral reefs and other vulnerable ecosystems
impacted by climate change or ocean acidification
● Cryomesh: Scientists in Australia have successfully used this method for freezing and storing
coral larvae. This method is expected to help rewild coral reefs threatened by climate change.
● Global fund for coral reefs: It is the first and only global blended finance instrument devoted to
coral reefs + It is a joint initiative of ($500 million) Private Philanthropies & UN organisations
such as UNEP, UNDP, and UN Capital Development Fund etc + It leverages grants to unlock
reef-positive private investment in the blue economy. The Fund Secretariat is managed by the
United Nations + It unlock financing for coral reef-related climate adaptation through the Green
Climate Fund, Adaptation Fund, and multilateral development banks.
● Biorock Technology: Also known as Mineral Accretion Technology, it is a coral reef restoration
technology that utilizes low voltage electricity to improve the health and growth rates of corals
and other marine organisms. The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical
current through electrodes in the water + When a positively charged anode and negatively
charged cathode are placed on the sea floor, with an electric current flowing between them,
calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode) + This results in
calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
● Glowing Glowing Gone Initiative: In partnership with the United Nations Environment
Programme, the Ocean Agency has launched Glowing Glowing Gone, a creative awareness
campaign that draws attention to coral fluorescence due to climate change.
● Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network report (2021): Operational network of ICRI with
the primary task of reporting on the condition of the world’s coral reefs.
o Between 2009 & 2018, rising ocean temperatures destroyed approximately 14% of world's
coral reefs.
o Coral bleaching events induced by rising sea surface temperatures have been identified as
the primary cause of coral loss.
o The report concluded that global warming due to climate change, overfishing, coastal
expansion, and deteriorating water quality have put coral reefs under relentless stress.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION
1. Green Chemistry/Sustainable chemistry: It deals with the design and optimization of processes
and products in order to lower, or remove altogether, the production and use of toxic substances.
Green chemistry reduces pollution at its source by minimizing or eliminating the hazards of
chemical feedstocks, solvents, and products. This is unlike cleaning up pollution, which involves
treating waste streams or cleanup of environmental spills and other releases.
2. Water Pollution: It is addition of undesirable substance to water such as organic, inorganic,
biological and others which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.
● Causes of water pollution
o Natural causes such as soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks and decaying of
organic matter; Community waste water, industrial wastes, excess fertilizers reach
groundwater by leaching, thermal pollution, marine pollution etc. Pathogens include bacteria
and other organisms that enter water from domestic sewage and animal excreta.
o Organic wastes such as leaves, grass, trash etc. Excessive phytoplankton growth within
water also causes water pollution.
● Effects
o Aquatic ecosystem: Polluted water-> less dissolved oxygen (DO) content-> eliminates
plankton, molluscs etc.; biocides and PCBs affect sensitive aquatic organisms.
o Human health: Water borne diseases like jaundice, typhoid etc; mercury compounds in
waste water cause numbness of limbs, blurring of vision; Cadmium causes itai itai
disease also called ouch-ouch disease; lead in water cause anaemia, headache, bluish line
around the gum; Trachoma (an infectious eye disease caused by unclean water).
o Ground water pollution: Excess fluoride cause neuro muscular disorders and, hardening of
bones and stiff, skeletal fluorosis. Fluoride upto a certain limit is necessary for proper bone
and teeth health.
● International standards for drinking water
o Fluoride: Its deficiency in drinking water is harmful to man and causes diseases such as
tooth decay etc. Soluble fluoride is often added to drinking water to bring its concentration
upto 1 ppm or 1 mg dm–3.
o Lead: Drinking water gets contaminated with lead when lead pipes are used for
transportation of water. The prescribed upper limit concentration of lead in drinking water is
about 50 ppb. Lead can damage kidney, liver, reproductive system etc.
o Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in drinking water causes laxative effect, otherwise
at moderate levels it is harmless.
o Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate in drinking water is 50 ppm. Excess nitrate in
drinking water can cause disease such as methemoglobinemia (‘blue baby’ syndrome).
● Key terms
o Dissolved oxygen: Higher organic and inorganic wastes -> Increased rates of decomposition
and O2 consumption-> less dissolved oxygen.
▪ DO < 8.0 mg L-1 is contaminated.
▪ DO < 4.0 mg L-1 is highly polluted.
▪ Factors: Surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms and
decomposition of organic matter determine amount of DO in water
o Biological oxygen demand: Water pollution by organic wastes measured in BOD + It is
amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes
present in water + It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water + Higher value
of BOD -> low DO content of water.
(Revision Notes)
o Chemical oxygen demand: Measure of oxygen equivalent of requirement of oxidation of

total organic matter (both biodegradable and non-biodegradable) present in water.
o Putrescibility: It is the process of decomposition of organic matter present in water by
microorganisms using oxygen.
o Biological Magnification: Increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable toxic
materials at each trophic level of a food chain. Examples include DDT, BHC, Heptachlor,
Aldrin, Endrin etc.
o Eutrophication: When a water body becomes overly enriched with minerals and
nutrients which induce excessive growth of algae or algal bloom + It leads to oxygen
depletion of the water body.
▪ Phytoplankton thrive on the excess nutrients and their population explosion covers
almost entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom.
● Water (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974: It provides for prevention and control
of water pollution and for maintenance of wholesomeness of water in the country + It was
amended in 1988.
Important Provisions:
o Establishment of Central, state and joint pollution control Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution
o to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture
o to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works, and plants for the treatment of sewage and
trade effluents
o It vests regulatory authority in SPCBs to establish and enforce effluent standards for
factories.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for the
purpose of analysis.
● Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: To provide for levy and
collection of cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of
industrial activities + Augment resources of Central board and State boards for prevention
and control of water pollution under Water act, 1974 + Creates economic incentives for
pollution control and requires local authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess
(Revision Notes)
for water effluent discharge + Act gives a polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cessupon
installing effluent treatment equipment.
● Dynamic Ground Water (GW) Resource Assessment Report: Released by: Ministry of Jal
Shakti; Carried out at periodical intervals jointly by Central Ground Water Board and
States/UTs.
● International efforts
o Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes (Water Convention) -> international legal instrument which aims to
ensure sustainable use of transboundary water resources
o Protocol on Water and Health-> jointly serviced by UNECE and WHO-Europe; it is a
legally binding instrument aiming to protect human health by better water management and
by reducing water-related diseases.
o United Nations Water Summit on Groundwater (GW) 2022: Concluded in Paris;
organized by: UN-Water, UNESCO and International Groundwater Resources Assessment
Centre (IGRAC).
3. Soil Pollution: Addition of substances which adversely affect physical, chemical and biological
properties of entire soil and leads to reduced productivity.
● Causes: Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides + Dumping of large quantities of solid waste,
deforestation and soil erosion + pollution due to urbanization etc.
● Sources: Industrial wastes (mercury, lead, cynides, chromates etc.), pesticides (insecticides,
fungicides, rodenticides), discarded materials (concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, carcasses),
radioactive wastes (mining and nuclear power plants).
● Effects: Agriculture (reduced nitrogen fixation, increased salinity), Health (bio magnification,
radioactive rays), Environment (reduced vegetation, ecological imbalance).
● Soil contaminants
Lead Lead paint, mining, foundry activities, vehicle exhaust, constructiones,
agriculture activities, and batteries etc.,
Mercury Mining, incineration of coal, alkali and metal processing, medical waste,
volcanoes & geologic deposits.
Arsenic Mining, coal-fired power plants, lumber facilities, electronics industry, foundry
activities, agriculture, natural accumulation.
Nickel Mining; foundry activities; construction activities
● World Soil Day: UN celebrates 5th December as World Soil Day + celebrated to commemorate
the birthday of Thailand Bhumibol Adulyadej for his commitment to raising awareness of
sustainable soil management.
4. Noise pollution: Presence of such levels of nose in environment that are disturbing, irritating to
living beings.
● Causes: Transportation vehicles, factories and industries, loudspeakers, domestic appliances etc.
● Effects: Loss of hearing, cardiac disturbance, sleeplessness, headache, stress tension and
aggressiveness, mental imbalance and also affects biodiversity.
● Measurement: Sound is measured in decibels; an increase of about 10 Db is double the
increase in loudness; WHO recommends that indoor levels of sound should be less than 30 Db.
● Ambient noise levels: Noise pollution control and regulations Rules, 2000 notified under
EPA, 1986.
o Industrial areas 70-75 dB
o Commercial areas 55-65 dB
o Residential areas 45-55 dB
o Silence zone 40-50 dB
(Revision Notes)
● National Ambient noise monitoring network (NANMN): Through CPCB and State pollution
control boards to monitor noise on 24*7 basis in India’s seven largest cities.
5. Radioactive Pollution: Spontaneous emission of proton (α particles), electrons (β particles) and
gamma rays due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
● Types of radiation particles
o Alpha particles: Can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin. (He+2)
o Beta particles: Penetrate through skin + Blocked by pieces of glass and metal. (Electron
or positron)
o Gamma rays: Penetrate to human skin and damage cells + Blocked by a thick massive
piece of concrete.
● Non-ionising radiation: Short wave radiations such as ultraviolet rays + It has low
penetrating power + It damages eyes and injures cells of skin and blood capillaries.
● Ionising radiations: Include X-rays, cosmic rays; high penetration power and cause breakage
of macro molecules.
● Effects
o Human health: Radioactive contamination can enter the human body through ingestion,
inhalation, absorption, or injection. Long term exposure to radiation can cause serious
radiation sickness, may harm the DNA causing cancer or birth defects. Higher levels of
exposure may lead to radiation sickness with symptoms depending on the exposure levels
ranging from decreased blood cells to nearly immediate death.
o Marine organisms may also be affected and the reproductive stages and growing tissues are
the most sensitive in marine fish. Mammals appear to be the most sensitive of all fauna
followed by birds and then insects.
6. E-Waste: Electronic and electrical equipment such as desktops, air conditioners etc discarded after
their end of life.
● Three types: White goods (household appliances), Brown goods (TVs, cameras) and Grey
goods (computers, printers, scanners etc.)
● India ranks third among the largest generators of e-waste globally, behind only China and
the US.
● Maharashtra generates the most e-waste among all the Indian states. Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, and Haryana are among the States that have a bigger capacity to
dismantle and recycle e-waste.
● Impacts: They are repositories of hazardous and toxic substances such as lead, halogenated
substances, polychlorinated biphenyls etc + Refrigerators contain CFCs, HFCs-> Ozone
depletion and climate change + Damage central nervous systems, effect brain development of
children, kidney and reproductive system.
● E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
o MoEF&CC notified the rules in supersession of e-waste (Management and Handling) rules,
2011.
o Definition of E-waste: Now includes CFL and other mercury containing lamps.
o Extended producer responsibility: Recovery of 10% of waste generated by 2017-18, which
increases by 10% every year to reach 70% 2023 onwards.
o Separate producer responsibility organization (PRO) can be established by producers.
o Cost for sampling and testing of hazardous substances shall be borne by the government
for RoHS test. If product does not comply-> cost should be borne by producers.
o Role of state governments: Ensure safety, health and skill development of workers
involves in recycling operations.
(Revision Notes)
o Provision for penalties + One system authorization (CPCB) for process of dismantling
and recycling.
o Deposit Refund Scheme: Producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time
of sale of the electrical and electronic equipment and returns it to the consumer along
with interest when the end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment is returned.
o Urban Local Bodies: Duty to collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized
dismantlers or recyclers.
 E-waste (management) rules 2022
o Applicable to every manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, dismantler, and recycler who
must register with CPCB.
o Every producer of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and their components shall
ensure that their products do not contain lead, mercury, and other hazardous substances
beyond the maximum prescribed concentration.
o No entity shall carry out any business without registration and not deal with any
unregistered entity.
o Provision of an EPR framework with the mandatory requirement of ‘Registration of
Stakeholders’ (manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, and recycler).
o A ‘digitalized systems approach’ will address the challenges of the weak monitoring
systems.
o Two aspects ‘component recovery’ and ‘residual disposal’- Component recovery refers to
adequate and efficient recoveries of rare earth metals so as to reduce dependence on virgin
resources; Residual disposal means the safe disposal of the ‘residual’ material during the e-
waste recycling process.
o Schedule I has been expanded, now 106 Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) have
been included under the EPR regime.
o Producers of notified EEE have been given annual E-Waste Recycling targets based on the
generation from the previously sold EEE or based on sales of EEE, as the case may be.
o Provision for generation and transaction of EPR Certificate has been introduced.
● First E-waste clinic: The Bhopal Municipal corporation and CPCB joined hands to set up
country’s first e-waste clinic in Bhopal + E-waste will be collected door to door in exchange
for a fee.
● Invisible e-waste: Electronic waste that often goes unnoticed due to its nature or appearance,
causing consumers to overlook its recyclable potential.
7. Solid Waste: These are discarded materials which include any garbage, refuse, sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant and other discarded materials.
● Treatment and disposal of solid waste
o Open dumps: Uncovered areas used to dump solid waste of all kinds + It act as breeding
ground for flies, rats + Rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates nearby land
and water spreading disease.
o Landfills: Garbage is dumped and pit is covered with soil, preventing breeding of flies and
rats.
o Sanitary landfills: More hygienic, lined with materials that are impermeable such as
plastics and clay and built over impermeable clay.
o Incineration plants: Process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperature is
known as incineration + Recyclable material is segregated and rest of material is burnt and
ash is produced.
(Revision Notes)
o Pyrolysis: Process of combustion in absence of oxygen or material burnt under controlled

atmosphere of oxygen + It is alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid obtained can be
used as fuels.
o Composting: Biological process in which microorganisms decompose degradable organic
waste into humus in presence of oxygen + It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and
makes the soil easier to cultivate.
o Vermiculture: Also known as earthworm farming + Earth worms added to compost which
break the waste and add excreta, making the compost very rich in nutrients.
o Bioremediation: Use of bio-culture to degrade organic waste + Environment altered to
stimulate growth of micro-organisms and degrade pollutants. Bioremediation can be used to
break down toxic metals from the environment .
▪ Bio-stimulation: Widely used approach to bioremediation; stimulate natural microbial
communities with nutrients to break down contaminant.
▪ Bio-augmentation: Organisms selected for high degradation abilities used to inoculate a
contaminated site.
● Bio-mining: Use of separator machines to separate waste material of different sizes, obtaining
plastic, wood and metal in isolation for appropriate processing.
8. Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
● Beyond Municipal Areas: now applicable beyond municipal areas and extend to urban
agglomerations, census towns, notified industrial townships, SEZs, state and Central
Government organizations etc.
● Source Segregation of waste has been mandated; Responsibility of Generators have been
introduced to segregate waste in three streams: Wet (Biodegradable), Dry (Plastic, metal, wood
etc), Domestic hazard wastes (diapers, napkins, empty containers of cleansing agents, mosquito
repellants, etc).
● Integration of waste pickers and dealers in the formal system by State governments, and
SHGs, or any other group to be formed
● User Fee and Spot Fine: Generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to waste collector and for
‘Spot Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
● Provisions for Bulk and institutional generators
o All Resident Welfare and market Associations, Gated communities and institutions with an
area > 5000 sq.m should segregate waste at source in to valuable dry waste like plastic, tin
etc and handover recyclable material to either the authorized waste pickers or authorized
recyclers, or to urban local body.
● The Biodegradable waste treated through composting or bio-methanation within the premise
as far as possible.
● New township to develop in-house waste handling, and processing arrangements for
biodegradable wastes.
● Industrial Estate to earmark 5% of the total area of the plot or minimum 5 plots/sheds for
recovery and recycling facility.
● All manufactures of disposable products shall provide necessary financial assistance to local
authorities for the establishment of waste management system.
● All industrial units using fuel and located within 100km from a solid waste based RDF plant
shall make arrangements within 6 months of notification of these rules to use at least 5% of
their fuel requirement by RDF so produced.
● Non-recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500K/cal/kg or more shall not be disposed of
on landfills and shall only by utilized for generating energy either or through refuse-derived
fuel.
(Revision Notes)
AIR POLLUTION
1. Introduction: Air pollution is presence of any solid, liquid, gaseous and other substances in the
atmosphere in such concentration that may interfere with the normal environmental processes.
2. Causes: It is aggravated because of increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic
development and industrialization.
3. Primary and Secondary air pollutants
Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants
Directly emitted from the sources to the Result of chemical and photochemical reactions
atmosphere of primary pollutants
Affect Living things directly and indirectly (by Affect living things directly. Although, they can
forming secondary pollutants) also affect indirectly via some intermediate
Usually Unstable pollutants Usually stable or inert
They can be control by reducing anthropogenic Complicated to stop because of the interlinked
emissions chemical reactions.
Examples: Particulate Matter, Carbon Examples: Tropospheric Ozone (O3), acid rain,
Monoxide, Sulfur dioxide, VOCs etc. Secondary particulate matter (SPM) etc.
4. Major Air pollutants
● Carbon Monoxide: Colourless, odourless gas produced by incomplete burning of carbon-
based fuels, cigarettes etc. + It lowers amount of oxygen entering blood + Major role in the
formation of ground-level ozone and can elevate concentrations of methane. Sources include
burning fossil fuels like natural gas, petrol, coal and oil, wood smoke, car and truck
exhausts,faulty gas heaters, BBQs, ovens, and cooktops.
● Carbon dioxide: It is a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure,
emitted as a result of burning of coal, oil and natural gas + Concentrations of 7% may cause
suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen.Sources include when organisms respire
or decompose (decay), carbonate rocks are weathered, forest fires occur, and volcanoes erupt,
atmosphere through human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and forests and the
production of cement.
● Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs): Gases emitted from air conditioning systems and refrigeration +
Rise to stratosphere-> reduction of ozone layer. Sources include Refrigerators, air
conditioners, different types of sprays, fire extinguishers, and paints.
● Lead: Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints etc + It cause nervous system damage
and digestive problems. Sources include Lead based paint and lead contaminated dust.
● Ozone: Occurs naturally in upper layers of atmosphere + It shields earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
● Ground level ozone: Pollutant with high toxicity, vehicles and industries are major sources +
It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia + It is formed when nitrogen oxides and VOCs
interact in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere through chemical
reactions between pollutants emitted from vehicles, factories and other industrial sources,
fossil fuels, combustion, consumer products, evaporation of paints, and many other sources
● Benzene: Natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals + It
increase the risk of cancer, bone marrow failure and other illnesses. Sources of benzene are
exposure are tobacco smoke, automobile service stations, exhaust from motor vehicles, and
industrial emissions, Vapors (or gases) from products that contain benzene, such as glues, paints,
furniture wax, and detergents.
(Revision Notes)
● Nitrogen Oxide: Causes smog and acid rain; produced from burning fuels like petrol, diesel;
make children susceptible to respiratory diseases; Agricultural fertilisation and the use of
nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOx.
● Suspended Particulate matter: Solids in air in form of smoke, dust, vapour suspended for
extended periods + The main source of haze-> reduces visibility.
● Sulphur dioxide (SO2): India is largest emitter of anthropogenic SO2 + It is a colourless gas,
nasty and sharp smell + It reacts with other to form sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid etc.; largest
source is burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities + Other sources
include extracting metal from ore, volcanoes, locomotives, ships etc + It react with other
compounds to form Particulate matter (PM) + It harm trees by damaging foliage and
decreasing growth.
o Major SO2 hotspots in India: Singrauli (MP), Nevyeli (Tamilnadu), Talcher and
Jharsuguda in Odisha, Ramagundam in Telangana and Chandrapur in Maharastra.
o Norilsk smelter complex in Russia is the largest SO2 emission hotspot in the world
followed by Kriel in Mpumalanga province in South Africa.
5. Smog: Term used by HA Des Voeux; smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large
amounts of coal, vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants) + Smog contains
soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide.
● Photochemical Smog: Also known as Los Angeles smog + It occurs most prominently in
urban areas that have large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen oxides) + It is formed when
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and organic compounds (primary
pollutants) react together in the presence of sunlight-> Ozone is formed + It causes a light
brownish coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation of the
eyes, and respiratory distress.
Fig: Photochemical Smog

● Sulfurous smog: Also called London smog + It results from a high concentration of Sulfur
dioxide in the air and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal + It is
aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.
6. Indoor air pollution: Rural areas at greatest risk-> rely on traditional fuels such as firewood,
charcoal etc. + release of particulates, carbon monoxide, organic matter and formaldehyde +
Urban areas-> construction of sealed buildings, use of synthetic materials etc.
7. Pollutants
● Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, air
fresheners etc; cause irritation of eye, nose and throat, suspected to damage liver and other
parts of the body.
● Tobacco: Smoke generates chemicals which are carcinogenic + Health effects include burning
eyes, nose and throat irritation.
(Revision Notes)
● Biological pollutants: Includes pollen from plants, mite and hair from pets, fungi, parasites
and some bacteria.
● Formaldehyde: Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation foam; causes irritation
to eyes and nose.
● Radon: Gas emitted naturally by the soil. Poor ventilation-> confined inside the houses and
cause lung cancers.
● Particulate pollutants: These are matter suspended in air such as dust and soot. Major source
are industries, vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, etc + Size ranges
from 0.001 to 500 micrometres (µm) in diameter. As per CPCB, particulate size 2.5 µm or less
in diameter (PM 2.5) are greatest harm + It can be inhaled deep into the lungs and can cause
respiratory symptoms, irritation, pneumoconiosis, coughing, and fibrosis – excess deposition of
fibrous tissue.
8. Fly Ash: It is a coal combustion byproduct produced in coal based thermal power plants. It is
mainly composed of Aluminum silicate, Silicon dioxide and Calcium oxide + It is oxide rich and
consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium and magnesium and toxic metals like arsenic,
cobalt and copper + It is captured by electrostatic precipitators.
● Environment effects: Pollute air and water; causes respiratory problems, settles on leaves and
crops near -> lowers the plant yield.
● Advantages: It is a Pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that
forms cement in the presence of water. Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35% + fly ash
bricks (light weight, high strength and durability) + reclamation of wastelands + filling
abandoned mines + enhances water holding capacity of the land + utilized in agriculture as soil
conditioners + tiles manufacturing and road embankments construction etc.
● Reducing Fly ash pollution: Washing the coal at its place of origin, capturing fly ash before it
is released in air by Chimney.
● Steps taken to Promote Fly ash
o Various notification for fly ash utilization since 1999
▪ 2016 notification: Every agency engaged in construction within a radius of 300km of
coal based thermal power plant should use ash based products for construction.
▪ Maharastra: First state to have Fly Ash Utilization policy.
▪ GST rates on fly ash and its products reduced to 5%.
▪ ASHTrack Mobile app for better management of fly ash -> act as an interface between
flyash producers and potential users such as road contractors, cement plants etc.
▪ NTPC Ltd, India’s largest power producer has successfully developed Geo-polymer
coarse aggregate from fly ash. The development will help in replacing natural aggregates
reducing the impact on environment.
o New MoEFCC notification on fly ash (2023)- Major Highlights
 It is mandatory for Thermal Power Plants (TPPs) to ensure 100% utilisation of fly
ash within three to five years.
 It also introduced fines of Rs 1,000 on non-compliant plants under the ‘polluter pays
principle’.
 The ‘polluter pays’ principle; collected fines will be deposited in the designated account
of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
 The fine collected by CPCB from the TPPs and other defaulters shall be used towards
the safe disposal of the unutilised ash.
 The utilisation of legacy ash was not required in areas where reclamation has taken
place with greenbelts or plantations, stated the sub-para 6 of the last notification.
 Solar and wind power plants will exempt TPPs from fly ash utilisation.
(Revision Notes)
 If the utilisation of legacy ash is not completed at the end of 10 years, a fine of Rs 1000
per tonne will be imposed on the remaining unutilised quantity which has not been fined
earlier.
 The price of the fly ash bricks will be decided according to the Department Schedule
Rates (DSR) of Central Public Works Department (CPWD) or Public Works
Department (PWD) concerned.
 The new notification states the cost of fly ash bricks will not be more than the price
mentioned in the schedule of rates as specified by CPWD or PWD concerned. If not
mentioned in the schedule of rates, it cannot be higher than the price of alternative
products.
9. Control measures: Destroying pollutants by thermal combustion; collection of the pollutant;
arresters (separate particulate matters from contaminated air); Scrubbers (clean air for both
dust and gases); control of automobile exhaust; catalytic converter filters in vehicles; lead free
petrol etc.
10. Stubble burning: It is the practice of intentionally setting fire to straw stubble that remains after
grains, such as rice and wheat, have been harvested + Every year, when winter sets in, Delhi’s air
pollution peaks with the air quality index (AQI) often plunging to the ‘severe’ and ‘hazardous’
categories.
● Torrefaction: It is a thermal process to convert biomass into a coal-like material, which has
better fuel characteristics than original biomass + Torrefied biomass is more brittle, making
grinding easier and less energy-intensive.
● Pusa bio-decomposer: It is developed by scientists at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

which turns crop residue to manure in 15-20 days by accelerating the decomposition process.
● Turbo Happy Seeder (THS): It can uproot stubble and also sow seeds in the area cleared; can
then be used as mulch for the field.
11. Acid Rain: Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6. When pH falls below this; it is called acid rain (pH
4.2 to 4.4) + Caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels
12. Taj Trapezium zone: SC ruling, 1996-> Banned the use of coal/ coke in industries located in the
TTZ; ordered switching over from coal to natural gas + Central Government in exercise of the
powers conferred under EPA, 1986 constituted the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and
Control) authority in 1998.
13. Bharat Stage Emission Standards: Instituted to regulate output of certain air pollutants by
vehicles and other equipment using internal combustion engine; standards set up by the CPCB
under MoEFCC; based on European regulations first introduced in 2000.
● BS-3: Since 2010, BS 3 norms have been enforced across the country.
● BS-4: Applicable throughout country from 1st April 2017.
(Revision Notes)
● BS-5: GOI decided to skip the standards and directly move to BS-6 standards by 2020.
● BS-6: It will be applicable throughout the country from April 2020 for all vehicles.
14. Differences in BS4 and BS6 Standards
● Sulphur amount: The main difference is the reduction in amount of Sulphur in fuel -> equip
vehicles with better catalytic converters.
● NOX emission: NOX emission from diesel is expected to come down by 70% and by 25% in
petrol vehicles.
● Lower limit for HC and NOx in diesel engine.
g/km Petrol g/km g/km g/km g/km Sulphur
Emission Norms CO HC NOx HC+ NOx PM
BS 3 2.3 0.2 0.15 - -
BS4 1.00 0.1 0.08 - - 50ppm
BS6 1.00 0.1 0.06 - 0.005 10ppm (10 mg/kg)
Diesel Emission CO HC NOx HC+NOx PM
Norms
BS3 0.64 - 0.50 0.56 0.05
BS4 0.50 0.25 0.30 0.025 50ppm
BS 6 0.50 0.06 0.17 0.005 10ppm
15. Others:
● Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are being
introduced with the roll-out of Bharat Stage VI norms.
● Real Driving Emission (RDE) will be introduced in India for the first time with the
implementation of Bharat Stage VI emission norms.
● Onboard Diagnostics (OD) has been made mandatory for all vehicles.
● Fuel Injection technology: Mandatory for two wheelers; first such norm in India, filter out PMs
and Nox etc.
● Sulphur conetnt: Sulphur traces in BS6 fuel is five times lower (10 ppm) as compared to
sulphur traces in BS4 fuel (50 ppm).
● Nitrogen oxide level for BS6-grade diesel engines and petrol engines will be brought down by
70% and 25%, respectively.
● Particulate matter: BS VI can bring PM in diesel cars down by 80%. The new norms will
bring down nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70% and in petroleum cars by 25%.
16. International Efforts
● Alliance for Clean Air: Part of WEF’s shaping the future of cities to create a shared set of
tools for analyzing the current situation and prioritizing actions.
o Clean Air Fund: It aims to harness $20 million in initial funding to provide targeted grants
to a range of organizations that are combating air pollution.
o The new Clean Air Fund aims to support projects that “democratize” air quality data,
making knowledge about air quality more widely accessible to large numbers of people in
cities.
● Climate and Clean air coalition: It aims to unite governments, civil society and private
sector, committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate by reducing short-lived
climate pollutants across sectors.
o Objective: To address short-lived climate pollutants.
o Initial focus: Methane, black carbon, and HFCs
o Initiated by the governments of Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden and the United
States, along with UNEP.
17. Government Initiatives
(Revision Notes)
● Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) : EPCA was constituted
with the objective of ‘protecting and improving’ the quality of the environment and ‘controlling
environmental pollution’ in the National Capital Region + The EPCA also assists the apex court
in various environment-related matters in the region + EPCA is Supreme Court mandated body
tasked with taking various measures to tackle air pollution in the National Capital Region + It
was notified in 1998 by Environment Ministry under Environment Protection Act, 1986.
● Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM): It replaced Environment Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority + formed by an ordinance in 2020 + It will be a statutory
authority + It will supersede bodies such as the central and state pollution control boards of
Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, UP and Rajasthan + To be chaired by a government official of the rank
of Secretary or Chief Secretary + The chairperson will hold the post for three years or until s/he
attains the age of 70 years + It will have members from several Ministries as well as
representatives from the stakeholder States + It will have experts from the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Civil Society.
o Powers and functions: Can issue directions to these state governments on issues pertaining
to air pollution + It will entertain complaints as it deems necessary for the purpose of
protecting and improving the quality of the air in the NCR and adjoining areas + lay down
parameters for control of air pollution.
● Air (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981: It was enacted to implement decisions
taken at Stockholm conference in 1972 + Aimed to improve quality of air and to prevent,
control, and abate air pollution + Expanded authority of the central and state boards
established under the Water act to include air pollution control.
Important Provisions
o Definitions of the terms: Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or
gaseous substance which may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants,
animals, or even damage property + It defines air pollution as presence of any dangerous
pollutant that makes the air unbreathable + 1987 amendment also added ‘noise’ to the list
of harmful substances.
o Demarcation of high pollution areas: Declaration of certain heavily polluted areas as Air
pollution control area and no industrial plant shall be operated in these areas without
prior consent of the State Pollution Control Board.
o Emission control: The State Government and the respective Boards may give instructions to
under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure emission standards for automobiles.
o Consent from state board: All industries operating within designated air pollution control
areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o Amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
o The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and
extended the Act to include noise pollution.
o Penalties: failure to comply with CPCB directives would result in imprisonment of 1 year
+ It is extendable to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of Rs 5000 per day.
● National Clean air program (NCAP)
o Launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019; first-ever effort in the country to frame a
national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target.
o It aims to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million Plus Cities) in
24 States by engaging all stakeholders.
(Revision Notes)
o NCAP envisages reduction by 20-30% in PM 10 concentration over baseline in year 2017 by

2024. Target has been revised to achieve reduction in PM10 level up to 40% or achievement
of national standards (60 µg/m3) by 2025-26.
o City Action Plans (CAPs) have been prepared by all 131 cities and being implemented by
Urban Local Bodies.
o The city specific clean air action plans target city specific air polluting sources like Soil &
Road Dust, Vehicles, Domestic Fuel, MSW Burning, Construction Material and Industries.
o Funding for implementation of CAPs is being mobilised through convergence of resources
from various schemes such as SBM (Urban), AMRUT, Smart City Mission, Sustainable
Alternative towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT), FAME-II, Nagar Van Yojna, etc.
o Public Grievance Redressal Portal (PGRP)/helpline have been developed by all 131 cities to
address public complaints of air pollution in timely manner.
● Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Formulated in 2016 and notified in 2017 for Delhi
NCR to take institutionalized measures when air quality deteriorates, hence works only as an
emergency measure + By Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change + The
Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has constituted a sub-committee for the
operationalization of the GRAP.
o Stage I – ‘Poor’ Air Quality (AQI ranging between 201-300): Enforce NGT / Hon’ble SC’s
order on over aged diesel / petrol vehicles.
o Stage II - 'Very Poor' (AQI 301-400): Rigorous actions to combat air pollution at identified
hotspots in the region.
o Stage III - 'Severe' (AQI 401-450): Impose strict restrictions on BS III petrol and BS
IV diesel four-wheelers in certain areas and may suspend physical classes in schools for
primary grade children up to Class 5.
o Stage IV - 'Severe Plus' (AQI greater than 450): When the AQI exceeds 450, four-wheelers
registered outside Delhi, except for electric vehicles, CNG vehicles, and BS-VI diesel
vehicles, will not be allowed to enter the city.
● National Air Quality Monitoring Programme: CPCB is executing body + Objectives are to
determine the status and trends of ambient air quality; To ascertain whether the prescribed
ambient air quality standards are violated; to obtain the knowledge and understanding
necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures.
o Under the NAMP, four air pollutants SOx, NOx, Suspended Particulate Material (SPM)
and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) have been identified for regular
monitoring at all the locations.
● National Ambient Air Quality Standards:12 pollutants are covered under it which are
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), PM 10, PM2.5, Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Ammonia (NH3), Lead, Benzene (C6H6), Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), Arsenic(As), Nickel
(Ni). The mandate provided to the CPCB under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
empowers it to set standards for the quality of air.
● National Air Quality Index: It is a number used by government agencies to communicate the
public how polluted the air quality is or how polluted it is forecasted to become.
o Launched in Sep 2014 as part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan by MoEFCC.
o Nodal Agency: CPCB is the nodal agency; developed color coded air-quality index to mark
hazardous levels for the public benefit.
o Six AQI categories: Good, Satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor and severe.
o 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, 03, NH3 and Pb.
o There are six categories of AQI, namely 'Good' (0-50), 'Satisfactory' (50-100), 'Moderately
polluted' (100-200), 'Poor' (200-300), 'Very Poor' (300-400), and 'Severe' (400-500).
(Revision Notes)
● Clean Air better life Initiative: It is a joint initiative by NITI Aayog and CII aimed at coming
up with a roadmap to solve Delhi’s air quality crisis.
● Sameer App: It provides hourly updates on the National Air Quality Index + Developed by
the CPCB provides information on air quality for more than 100 cities + Represents the listed
cities in a colour-coded format based on their AQI levels + Also be used to file or track
complaints related to garbage dumping, vehicular emissions in a particular area.
● SAFAR App: National initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to
measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the
location-specific air quality of the city.
o Indigenously developed by IITM, Pune and is operationalized by IMD.
o It gives out real-time air quality index on a 24x7 basis with color-coding and also
provides 72 hours advanced forecast.
o SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational
in Delhi.
o Parameters: Temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV radiation,
and solar radiation.
o Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
o The WMO has recognized SAFAR as a prototype activity on the basis of the high-quality
control and standards maintained in its implementation.
● Comprehensive Environment Pollution Index: It is an Environment assessment index
developed by CPCB and IIT Delhi; assess environment quality of identified industrial
clusters; help to plan individual pollution mitigation measures for air, water and soil in
respective industrial area.
● Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) has been launched as
an initiative to set up Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) production plants and make CBG available in
the market for use in automotive fuels.
● Ban on use of pet coke and furnace oil as fuel in NCR States since October 24, 2017 and ban
on use of imported pet coke in the country since July 26, 2018, with exception for use in
permitted processes.
● WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit)
o Developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and dense traffic zones.
o Indigenously developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI).
o It has capacity to purify the air in an area of the 500-meter square.
 Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) authority: Supreme court
mandated body to tackle air pollution in National Capital region; notified under EPA,
1986; mandated to improve quality of environment and implement Graded response
action plan in NCR; can take complaints suo motu or on the basis of a filed complaint.
18. International Efforts
● CLRTAP: It is an international convention on controlling Air Pollution + It came into force
in March 1983 and has 51 parties + Formed within the ECE, the UN Economic Commission
for Europe, United States and Canada + Aimed initially to reduce effects of acid rain through
control of the emissions of sulphur, later widened to include nitrogen pollutants, VOCs and
photochemical oxidants.
● Gothenburg Protocol: It is also known as Multi-effect protocol + It aims to abate
acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone + Adopted by the countries of UNECE
on 30 November 1999 + It is a part of the convention on long Range Transboundary Air
(Revision Notes)
Pollution + It sets emission ceilings for four pollutants Sulphur, NOx, VOCs and ammonia + By
July 2019, the revised protocol had finally been ratified by the needed eighteen Parties, and it
entered into force on 7 October 2019.
● World Air Quality Report by IQAir-> India was the eighth most polluted country in the world
in 2022, and Delhi was the most polluted capital city for the fourth consecutive year.
● WHO air quality guidelines
o WHO has released the Global Air Quality
Guidelines(AQGs).
o The new guidelines recommend air quality
levels for six pollutants -> PM 2.5 and PM 10,
ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
o The annual average concentrations of PM2.5
should not exceed 5 µg/m3, while 24-hour
average exposures should not exceed 15
µg/m3
o The highest levels of ozone pollution occur
during periods of sunny weather.
o PM10 are capable of penetrating deep into the
lungs but PM2.5 can even enter the
bloodstream
o Long-term exposure to ozone is linked to
aggravation of asthma, and is likely to be one of many causes of asthma development.
PLASTIC POLLUTION
1. Plastic pollution: India produces around 10 million tonnes of plastic per year of which around 5
million tonnes is rendered waste every year. Only 9% of the plastic gets recycled while 79% ends
up in landfills with 12% being incinerated.
● Effects of Plastic pollution
o Environment: Ingestion, choking and entanglement hazards to wildlife; eventually enter the
food chain for humans as well.
o Health: Toxic chemicals such as styrene and Benzene-> Carcinogenic; nervous, respiratory
and reproductive system; vector borne diseases like Malaria, dengue due to inadequate
SWM.
o Economic: Visual pollution-> affects tourism sector.
o Exacerbate disasters like floods by blocking the drains etc.
● Plastic waste management rules, 2016:
o Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40-50 microns; minimum
thickness of plastic sheets increased to 50 microns.
o Phasing out of non-reusable Multi-layered plastic
o Expanded the coverage even to rural areas
o Extended producer responsibility (EPR) for producers and generators
o Shopkeepers and vendors-> register with local authority and money collected should be
used for sustainable management of waste.
o Gainful usage of plastic waste promoted in rail construction and waste to oil conversion.
● Plastic waste management (Amendment) rules, 2022
(Revision Notes)
o Single-use plastic: The manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of it will be
prohibited with effect from the 1st July, 2022. Examples of single use plastics - drinking
straws, cutlery, plates, drink stirrers and cotton bud sticks.
o The ban will not apply to commodities made of compostable plastic.
o The permitted thickness of the plastic bags, currently 50 microns, will be increased to 75
microns from 30th September, 2021, and to 120 microns from the 31st December, 2022.
o EPR certificates: allow for sale and purchase of surplus extended producer responsibility
certificates.
o Centralized online portal: centralised online portal by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) for the registration as well as filing of annual returns by producers, importers and
brand-owners, plastic waste processors of plastic packaging waste by 31st March, 2022.
o For banning other plastic commodities-> government has given industry 10 years from the
date of notification for compliance.
o Environmental compensation: levied based upon polluter pays principle, with respect
to non-fulfilment of EPR targets by producers, importers and brand owners.
 Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage rules), 1999
o It was notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate the manufacture,
sale and use and recycling of plastic bags.
o Plastic carry bags should have a minimum thickness of 20 microns; carry bags or containers
made of recycled plastic shall not be used for packaging of food stuffs and recycling of
plastic waste in accordance with BIS specifications.
o Powers have been delegated to State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees
for taking action for violation of Rules of Environment(Protection) Act, 1986.
2. Types of Plastics
● Thermoplastics: Which can be melted when heated and hardened when cooled-> reheated,
reshaped and frozen repeatedly.
o Examples: Polyethylene Teraphtalate (PET), Low density polyethylene (LDPE) etc.
● Thermosets: After they are heated, these plastics cannot be re-melted and reformed.
o Examples: Polyurethane (PUR), Phenolic resins, Urea formaldehyde (UF) resins etc.
● Microplastics: Most plastics do not degrade; instead slowly breakdown into smaller fragments
known as microplastics.
● Microbeads: Microbeads are manufactured solid plastic particles of less than 5mm mostly made
from polyethylene and other petrochemical plastics such as polypropylene and polystyrene +
They are used in exfoliating personal care products, toothpastes and in biomedical and health-
science research + They can cause plastic particle water pollution and pose an environmental
hazard for aquatic animals in freshwater and ocean water + In marine environment microplastics
can both release and absorb toxins, which can then move throughout the foodchain.
(Revision Notes)
3. National and Global initiatives to fight plastic pollution

 India Plastics Pact -> collaboration with Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) + It is an ambitious, collaborative initiative that aims to bring
together businesses, governments and NGOs across the whole value chain to set time-bound
commitments to reduce plastics from their value chains.
 Project REPLAN: By Khadi and Village Industries Commission; to reduce consumption of
plastic bags by providing a more sustainable alternative
● Clean seas campaign: It is an initiative by UNEP launched in 2017 to reduce and eliminate use
of single use plastic, cosmetics and micro-plastic sources; engages governments, the general
public and the private sector in the fight against marine plastic pollution.
● India and Norway on sidelines of CMS COP-13 issued joint statement towards mitigating
marine plastic litter.
● World Environment Day, 2018 the world leaders vowed to “Beat Plastic Pollution” &
eliminate its use completely.
● Honolulu strategy: Framework for comprehensive and global collaborative effort to reduce
ecological, human health and economic impacts of marine debris worldwide.
● One Plastics Initiative consolidates all UNEP's plastic-related projects, activities, actions, and
results into a unified program, aiming to lead and implement a system-wide transformation
towards a circular economy of plastics.
● Global Tourism Plastics Initiative: Led by UNEP & the World Tourism Organization, in
collaboration with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation + Developed within the framework of the
‘One Planet Sustainable Tourism Programme’ + It enables businesses, governments, & other
tourism stakeholders to make a set of concrete & actionable commitments by 2025.
MERCURY POLLUTION
1. Mercury pollution: Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad uses
+ Mercury is a naturally occurring element that is found in air, water and soil. It is a dense, silvery-
white metal; only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
(Revision Notes)
● Sources of pollution: Element in earth’s crust, natural sources like volcanic eruptions and
emissions from ocean; anthropogenic
sources include coal burning power
plants, burning hazardous waste,
producing chlorine, breaking mercury
products and spilling mercury. Artisanal
gold mining currently contributes more
than 35 per cent of all global mercury
emissions created by people.
● Once it is released into the atmosphere,
mercury can travel hundreds of miles
with the wind before being deposited on
the earth's surface. Deposition can occur
in as little as five to fourteen days after
mercury is emitted to the air, or it can
take approximately one year – during
which time mercury can reside in the air
and be transported far around the globe.
Once deposited on the ground, mercury
can be carried by rain and snowmelt runoff to the state’s surface waters.
● Harmful effects: It is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public health
concern (WHO) + Bio-accumulates and bio-magnify in food chain + Methy mercury is
neurotoxin which impacts function and development of central nervous system + The
reproductive problems (fish have difficult schooling and decrease spawning success) + It
impairs mammals motor skills which affect their ability to hunt. Acute or chronic mercury
exposure can cause adverse effects during any period of development. Mercury is a highly toxic
element; there is no known safe level of exposure.
2. Minamata Convention: It is an international treaty signed in 2013 aimed to protect human health
and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds + It
also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste + It isagreed at
5th session of Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland and entered
into force in 2017 + More than 140 countries including India have ratified the convention.
● Major highlights of the convention:
o Ban on new mercury mines
o Phase-out of existing mercury mines
o Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, certain non-ferrous metals
production, cement production etc.
o Regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
o Phase out to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches,
pesticides etc.
o Provision for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness and research
and monitoring.
● Others: Convention gives five-year time to India to control and reduce emissions from new
power plants and 10 years-time for already existing power plants.
(Revision Notes)
NITROGEN POLLUTION
1. Nitrogen Pollution: Nitrous oxide (N2O) is three hundred times more potent green-house gas than
carbon dioxide + Nitrogen pollution is caused by emission of excess of Nitrogen from the use of
chemical fertilizers, livestock manure and burning fossil fuels etc.
2. Effects of Nitrogen
 Environment: When nitrogen in its active form, such as in fertiliser, is exposed to soil,
microbial reactions take place that release nitrous oxide. This gas is 300 times more potent at
warming the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. It also remains active in the atmosphere for more
than 100 years.
 Human health: Water containing elevated levels of nitrate – a form of nitrogen resulting from
animal waste, plant decomposition and fertiliser run-off – raises the risk of infants developing
methemoglobinemia, commonly referred to as “blue baby syndrome”. High levels of nitrate in
drinking water can also increase the risk of cancer in adults.
3. International Nitrogen Initiative: It is an international program set up in 2003 under sponsorship
of Scientific committee on problems of environment (SCOPE) and from International Geosphere-
Biosphere program (IGBP) + It aims at optimizing nitrogen’s beneficial role in sustainable food
production and minimize negative effects on health and environment resulting from food and energy
production.
4. Indian Nitrogen Assessment
 Nitrogen particles make up the largest fraction of PM2.5
 Agriculture remains the largest contributor to nitrogen emissions.
 Chemical fertilizers account for over 77% of all agricultural N2O emissions in India.
 Since 2002, N2O has replaced methane as the second largest Greenhouse Gas (GHG) from
Indian agriculture.
5. UNEP Colombo Declaration: It has been developed with technical support of International
Nitrogen Management System (INMS), a joint activity of the UNEP and the International Nitrogen
Initiative supported by Global Environmental Facility + It aims to halve nitrogen waste by 2030 + It
calls upon UN agencies, other international organizations, academic and civil society organizations
to support its implementation.
6. Miscellaneous
Disease Potential Sources/Cause and their effects
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust, asbestos
Byssinosis Byssinosis
Minamata Neurological disease caused by severe mercury poisoning
Blue Baby Syndrome It is a bluish discoloration of infants skin because of poorly oxygenated
blood due to Nitrate contamination in water.
(Revision Notes)
Itai-Itai Cadmium pollution causing softening of bones; lungs and liver cancer.
Skeletal Fluorosis Fluoride contamination causing teeth deformity, hardening of bones and
joint pains.
Trachoma Infectious eye disease caused by unclean water.
Black Foot disease Arsenic
 Other pollutants -
o DDT: It is used as a mosquito insecticide and pesticide on crops. Its impacts include
Hormone disrupter, Causes infertility in birds and animals, It is endocrine disrupter (Internal
organ disrupter) It is an carcinogen causes breast cancer.
o Endosulphan: It is a pesticide which causes cancer and mental and physical disorders.
o Strontium 90: It is a bioaccumulant and used for Irradiation of food for human space
mission packaged foods.
o Zinc Phosphide: it is a rodenticide & used in semiconductor industry and Photovoltaic cells.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 6: BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Definition: It refers to “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. This includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems; term popularized by socio-
biologist Edward Wilson.
2. Levels of Biodiversity
● Genetic diversity: Variations in genes within a
particular species.
o Features: Greater genetic diversity -> Better
chances of survival + allows species adapt to
changing environment + survival of species
ensures survival of population.
o Example: India has more than 70,000 genetically
different strains of rice.
● Species diversity: Diversity at species level. It is
ratio of one species population over total no. of
organisms across all species in the given biome.
(Zero= infinite biodiversity; one represents only
one species is present)
o Features: Species differ from one another, in
their genetic makeup, do not interbreed in
nature + Species diversity high in tropical rainforests and coastal zones + low in isolated
islands and polar regions.
● Ecosystem/Community diversity: Different types of habitats.
o Features: The variety of species in ecosystem influenced by nature of ecosystem.
o Example: India with its deserts, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries has a greater ecosystem than
a Scandinavian country like Norway.
3. Measurement of Biodiversity
● Species richness
o Alpha diversity: Diversity within particular ecosystem; expressed by number of species
i.e, species richness in that system.
o Beta diversity: Differences in species composition among ecosystems; metric of
dissimilarities between the sites.
o Gamma diversity: Measure of diversity of the entire landscape.
● Species Evenness: Measures proportion of species at a given site.
o Example: Low evenness indicate that only few species dominate the site.
4. Factors determining degree of Diversity
● Habitat stress: Low diversity in habitats under stress like harsh climate and pollution.
● Geographical Isolation: Diversity is less in isolated regions like islands and deserts.
● Availability of Ecological niches: Complex community-> Greater variety of niches-> greater
diversity.
● Edge effect: Greater diversity at ecotones or transition areas between the ecosystems.
● Geological history: Old and stable ecosystems – High diversity + Changing ecosystems – low
diversity as it does not allow species to establish themselves.
● Species diversity: It decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole + Tropics
harbor more species than temperate or polar areas-> Because of no glacial cycles, uniform
temperature and precipitation and consistent solar radiation.
(Revision Notes)
5. Key terms
● Endemic species: Found only in a specific geographical location and not found anywhere else.
For instance, Nilgiri Langur is endemic to Western Ghats.
● List of endemic species : Nilgiri Tahr , lion tailed macaques, Namdampha flying squirrel ,
Indian wild ass , Pygmy hog , Eld’s deer , Malabar civet , Hangul , jerdon’s corser.
● Keystone species: Species which have disproportionately large effect on the communities that
it occurs. Disappearance of keystone species could result in series of extinction of other species.
For instance, Wolves and Wild durian.
● Indicator species/Sentinel species: These are species whose presence, absence reflects a
specific environmental condition+ Sensitive indicators of environmental problem. For
example, Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 pollution.
● Flagship species: They act as an ambassador, icon for a defined habitat or environmental
cause. Achieving conservation of these species also help in improving the status of many other
species. For example, Bengal Tiger and Jerdon’s Courser.
● Priority species: It is a term used by WWF solely for purpose of planning and
communication. It is chosen to represent a region. Examples of priority species in India include
One Horned Rhino, Snow Leopard, Asian Elephant etc.
● Invasive species: A species is termed invasive if it is previously absent in that ecosystem and
has been introduced in that area from outside mostly by human intervention. For example,
African Catfish in Keoladeo National park.
● Biopiracy: Practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous
people is used by others for profit, without authorization to indigenous people themselves.
● Bioprospecting: Systematic and organized search for useful products from bio resources in
plants, microorganisms etc that can be developed further for commercialization and overall
benefits of the society.
● Biomining: Process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest
from rock ores or mine waste.
● Bioassay: A test in which organisms are used to detect presence or effects of any other physical
factor, chemical factor or any other type of ecological disturbance.
● Hopespots: Concept introduced by Dr.Sylvia Earle; these are special places that are critical to
the health of the Ocean + They allow us to plan for future and look beyond current Marine
protected areas + Anyone can nominate a spot that is special to him or her ,a site that gives a
HOPE + Important examples are Coral Triangle Hope Spots in Indo Pacific, Sargasso Sea Hope
Spots in Atlantic Ocean + Hope spot sites from India include Lakshadeep and Andaman Nicobar
Islands.
● SPECIATION is formation of new species due to genetic changes in an existing species they
are of two types - a. Allopatric Speciation- when one species becomes two different species
because they living in the separate environment. Example : Asiatic cheetah and African cheetah .
b. Sympatric Speciation- Refers to formation of new species from a common Ancaster in the
same geographical area. Ex Ass and Donkey.
6. Mega Diverse Countries: These are world’s top biodiversity rich countries identified by
Conservation International to promote awareness of biodiversity conservation.
● Criteria: The major criterion is Endemism at species level and at higher levels such as genus
and family. To qualify the countries must:
o Endemic plants: The country must have at least 5,000 of the world’s plants as endemics.
o Marine ecosystem: It should have marine ecosystem within its borders.
● Note: It complements the concept of Biodiversity hotspots and High-Biodiversity wilderness
areas to achieve coverage of world’s biological resources.
(Revision Notes)
Fig: Megadiverse Countries

7. Biodiversity Hotspots: These are regions having exceptional concentrations of plant endemism
and experiencing high rates of biodiversity loss. Norman Myers discussed about the concept in his
work “The Environmentalist” (1988).
● Total sites: Globally 35 sites have been identified as biodiversity hotspots for increased attention
towards the conservation.
● Criteria for Biodiversity hotspots
o Plant Endemism: It must contain at least 0.5% of the world’s total or 1500 species of
vascular plants as endemics.
o Habitat loss: It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
● Sites in India: There are total 4 sites in India:
o Eastern Himalayas, Nepal and India
o Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar
o Western Ghats, India
o Sundalands: It includes Nicobar group of islands and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei and Philippines.
8. High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas: These are large intact ecosystems of the world which have
significant levels of global biodiversity declared by Conservation International.
● 5 HBWAs sites: These include Amazonia, the Congo forest of Central Africa, New Guinea,
Miombo-Mopane woodlands of Southern Africa and the North American desert complex.
9. Modes of Conservation
● Ex-Situ conservation: It means the conservation of species outside their natural habitats.
Examples include Zoological parks and botanical gardens.
o Purpose: Rescuing threatened germplasm, produce material for reintroduction, translocation,
reinforcement, habitat, and management.
● In-Situ conservation: It is a method of conserving the animals and plants in their natural
habitats. Examples include national parks, sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, protected forests etc.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 7: INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE
1. Introduction: India is a Mega diverse country + It is ranked seventh in terms of species richness,
ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles and accounts for 7% of recorded species.
2. Biogeographic Realms: Large spatial regions in which ecosystems share a similar biota.
● Realms in India: The Himalayan region represented by Palearctic realm and rest of sub-
continent by Malayan realm.
3. Biomes: It is a large community of vegetation and wildlife adapted to a specific climate. There
are a total of five biomes in India:
● Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen forests
o Location: Found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm
and mean annual temperature above 22 degree celsius. Majorly found in western slope of
the Western Ghats, hills of north eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Characteristics: Well stratified, layers closer to ground & covered with shrubs and creepers
+ Height of trees is up to 60 m or above + No definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
o Species: Rosewood, Mahogony, Aini, Ebony, etc.
● Tropical Deciduous forests: Most widespread in India; also called monsoon forests. These are
found in regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
o Most deciduous: Rainfall between100 to 200 cms + It is found in the north eastern states
along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha.
▪ Species: Teak, sal, shisham, mahua, and sandalwood etc.
o Dry deciduous: Rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm; found in rainier areas of the Peninsula
and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
▪ Species: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, etc.
● Tropical Thorn forests
o Location: Rainfall less than 50 cm. It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
o Characteristics: Plants are leafless for most part of year and gives expression of scrub
vegetation.
o Species: Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khejri, palas, etc.
● Montane Forests: Classified into two types, the northern and the southern mountain forests.
o Montane temperate: Located in Northern middle Himalayas ranges and Southern
Niligiri higher Mountain ranges. Some significant trees of montane temperate forest are
Rhododendrons, ferns, oak, maple, juniper, deodar.
o Montane Subtropical: Located in Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, etc. mountain ranges of
western Ghats are also abode of these types' forests. Major plant species are poonspar,
cinnamon, rhododendron, sal, sandan, laburnum, pomegranate, olive, oleander, etc.
● Littoral and Swamp Forests: Consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
Highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal.
4. Ten Bio-geographic zones of India
● Trans-Himalayas: Extension of Tibetan plateau, harboring cold desert in Ladakh and Lahaul
spiti.
o Species: Presence of Snow Leopard and the migratory Black-necked Crane etc.
● Himalayas: Entire mountain running chain running from north-western to northeastern India.
o Species: Important habitat for endangered species of bovids such as Bharal, Ibex, Markhor,
Himalayan Tahr. Other rare and endangered species include Hangul and Musk Deer.
● Deserts: It includes the Thar and Kutch deserts; constitutes 6.9% of the country’s landmass.
(Revision Notes)
o Species: Several endangered species of mammals such as Caracal, Desert Cat and birds
such as Houbara Bustard and the Great Indian Bustard.
● Semi-arid: It is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats.
o Species: The cervid species of Sambar and Chital are restricted to the better wooded hills
and moister valley areas respectively. The Lion, Caracal Jackal are some of the endangered
species that are characteristic of this region.
● Western Ghats: The hill ranges running along western coastline covering an extremely diverse
range of biotic provinces and biomes.
o Species: Nilgiri Langur, Lion Tailed Macaque, Grizzled Giant Squirrel, Malabar Civet,
Nilgiri Tahr and Malabar Grey Hornbill.
● Deccan Peninsula: India’s largest biogeographic region makes 42% of total geographical area.
o Species: Chital, Sambar, Nilgai and Chousingha and Gaur, Elephant, Wild buffalo etc.
● Gangetic plain: Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homogenous.
o Species: The characterstic fauna of this region include Rhino, Elephant, Buffalo, Swamp
Deer, Hog-Deer and Hispid Hare.
● North East India: Represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and
Indo-Chinese bio-geographical regions as well as being a meeting point of the Himalayan
mountains and peninsular India.
o Species: Northeast India is very rich in faunal diversity. There are 15 species of non-human
primates like hoolock gibbon, stumptied macaque, pigtailed macaque, golden langur etc.
● Islands: One of three tropical moist evergreen forests zones in India. These islands are centres
of high endemism and contain some of India’s finest evergreen forests and support a wide
diversity of corals.
o Example: Narcondam hornbill, South Andaman krait etc.
● Coastal region: It constitutes 2.5 per cent of the total geographical area with sandy beaches,
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine angiosperm pastures. Lakshadweep islands are
included in this with percent area being negligible.
5. Fauna classification
● Vertebrates: Animals with backbones and spinal columns; most advanced organisms. It
includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
● Invertebrates: Do not have backbones. 98% of animal species in the world are invertebrates.
o Annelids: Body into segments; well-developed internal organs; no limbs. Examples
include earthworms, roundworms etc.
o Mollusks: Soft, skin-like organ covered with hard outside shell. Example osier, mussel etc
o Echinoderms: Marine animals that live in ocean; arms and spines radiate from center of
their body. Examples are sea star, sand dollar and sea cucumber.
o Protozoa: Single celled, smallest of all animals. Examples: amoebas and flagellates etc.
o Arthropods: Have limbs with joints; exoskeleton. These include crustaceans and insects.
o Arachnids: Do not have antennae; 2 body parts and four pair of legs.
6. Floral Diversity
● Bryophytes: Amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are
dependent on water for sexual reproduction. These include the various mosses, marchantia and
liverworts that are found commonly growing in damp, humid and shaded localities.
● Pteridophytes: The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves and has specialized
tissue for the conduction of water from one part of the plant body to another. Some examples
are marsilea, ferns and horse-tails.
● Gymnosperms: These are a group of plants which produce seeds that are not contained within
an ovary. The seeds are open to air and are directly fertilized by pollination.
(Revision Notes)
● Angiosperms: These are plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds in fruits. They are
the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom Plantae, with about 300,000 species.
Examples include Mango, Apple, Banana, Peach, Cherry trees. List of state symbols. :
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 8: ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972

● Definition of wildlife: It include any animals, bees, butterflies, fish and moths; and aquatic
or land vegetation which form part of any habitat.
● Jurisdiction: The act extends to whole of India. After enactment of Jammu & Kashmir
Reorganization Act, 2019, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 also became applicable to the Union
territory of Jammu & Kashmir.
● Five types of protected areas: National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, community reserves,
conservation reserves and tiger reserves.
● Key provisions: Prohibition of hunting, protection and management of wildlife habitats,
establishment of protected areas, management of zoos etc.
● Prohibition of Hunting
o Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal specified in Schedules
I, II, III and IV of the act.
▪ Exception: A wild animal listed under these schedules can be hunted only after getting
permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state if it becomes dangerous to
human life or to property or is disabled or suffering from a disease that is beyond
recovery.
● Six schedules
o Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II: It provides for absolute protection-> highest
penalties.
o Schedule 3 and 4: The penalties for offences under these schedules are less and these
animals are protected.
o Schedule 5: Vermins includes animals which can be hunted. For instance, common crow,
mice and rats.
o Schedule 6: Plants which are prohibited from cultivation and planting. These mainly
include medicinal plants such as Beddomes cyad, Blue vanda, Kutch, Ladies slippers
orchids, pitcher plant, red vanda.
▪ The schedule 6 has been added to include specified plants species to be protected by
Wildlife (Protection) amendment act of 1991.
● Authorities appointed under act
o Director of wildlife preservation: The Central Government appoints the Director of
Wildlife Preservation and assistant directors and other officers subordinate to the Director.
o Chief wildlife warden: The State Governments appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden
(CWLW) who heads the Wildlife Wing of the department and exercises complete
administrative control over Protected Areas within a state.
● Amendment act of 1991: The state governments are not empowered to declare any wild animal
as vermin. Further, immunization of livestock within a radius of 5km from a national park or
sanctuary has been made compulsory.
● Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2022
o It seeks to increase the species protected under the law, and implement the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
o Reduces number of schedules from 6(currently) to 4 now: Currently, there are six schedules:
protected plants (one), specially protected animals (four), and vermin species (one).
o It removes the schedule for vermin species (Vermin refers to small animals that carry
diseases and destroy food e.g. Monkeys, Nilgai).
(Revision Notes)
o The Act provides for Central govt to designate a Management Authority- The authority
grants export or import permits for trade of specimens; Scientific Authority- The authority
gives advice on aspects related to impact on the survival of the specimens being traded
o It empowers the Central government to regulate or prohibit the import, trade, possession or
proliferation of invasive alien species.
o It provides for any person to voluntarily surrender any captive animals or animal products to
the Chief Wild Life Warden. No compensation will be paid to the person for surrendering
such items. The surrendered items become property of the State government.
o As per the act, Elephants may be used for "religious or other purposes."
o For offences involving both generally and specifically protected animals, the penalties have
also been enhanced.
o New Schedules
Schedule I Animal species that will enjoy the highest level of protection
Schedule II Animal species that will be subject to a lesser degree of protection
Schedule III Protected Plant species
Schedule IV Specimens listed in Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens)
2. Environment Protection act, 1986
● Objective: It was enacted with objective of providing for protection and improvement of the
environment.
● Enabling act: It empowers Central Government to establish authorities with the mandate of
preventing environmental pollution in all its forms.
● Evidence for offences: The central government or any other person authorized empowered to
collect air, water etc. samples as evidences for offences under EPA,1986.
● Relaxation of Locus standi: Even a common citizen can approach court provided he has given
notice of sixty days of the alleged offence.
● Debars civil courts: The act debars civil courts to entertain any suit in respect of an action, order
issued by central government or other statutory authority.
3. Indian Forest act, 1927
● Objective: To consolidate the then existing laws of forests and duties that can be levied on forest
products.
o Reserved Forest: Notified by states on any forest land to which government has ownership
rights.
o Protected Forest: The state government can declare any portion of protected forest as
closed for a term not exceeding 30 years during which rights of private persons can be
suspended.
o Village Forest: The State government may assign to any village community the rights of
Government to any land which has been constituted as reserve forest.
● Powers to Central Government: It gives power to central government to regulate timber
production and its transportation.
4. Forest Conservation act, 1980
● Objective: The act was enacted to help conserve the country’s forests.
● Provisions of the act
o It prohibits the felling of forests for any “non-forestry” use without prior clearance by the
central government.
o The clearance process includes seeking consent from local forest rights holders and from
wildlife authorities.
● The act also covers
(Revision Notes)
o Requirement for declaring an area as a protected forest, wildlife sanctuary or a national

park.
o Maintenance of water supply in springs, rivers and tanks.
● Forest Conservation Division: Mandated to regulate diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purposes through effective implementation.
● Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022 :
o Formation of Committees: It constituted an Advisory Committee, a regional empowered
committee at each of the integrated regional offices and a screening committee at
State/Union Territory (UT) government-level.
o Advisory Committee : The role of the Advisory Committee is restricted to advise or
recommend with regards to grant of approval under relevant sections in respect of proposals
referred to it and any matter connected with the conservation of forests referred to it by the
Central government.
o Project Screening Committee: In each state/UT for an initial review of proposals involving
diversion of forest land + The five-member committee will meet at least twice every month
and will advise the state governments on projects in a time bound manner.
● Proposed Amendments
o Exemption for national security projects: It allows exempting agencies involved in
national security projects and border infrastructure projects from obtaining prior forest
clearance from the Centre.
o Private plantations: Facilitate private plantations for harvesting and exploration of oil
and natural gas deep beneath forest land by drilling holes from outside the forest areas.
o Building in forests: To ease the grievances of the individuals whose land fall in state
specific private forests act, it proposed to allow them the right to construct structures for
bonafide purposes including forest protection measures and residential units up to an
area of 250 sq mtr as onetime relaxation.
o Punishments: It proposes to make offences under the modified Act punishable with simple
imprisonment for a period which may extend to one year and make it cognizable and non-
bailable.
 Forest Conservation Amendment act 2023
o It reduces legal protections for many forests, particularly that converted for non-forest use
after 1996, and applies only to areas categorized under the 1927 Forest Act or designated
after October 25, 1980, excluding others from its scope.
o The government can construct security measures in forest areas, especially within 100
kilometers of international borders.
o It exempts certain types of land from the provisions of the Act, such as forest land along a
rail line or a public road maintained by the government.
o The requirement for tribal consent for altering forests for non-forest purposes has been
removed.
o Provides for afforestation or reforestation by private entities, without specific guidelines on
tree types.
5. National Forest Policy, 1988
● Aim: To ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance including
atmospheric equilibrium, vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animal and plant.
● Objectives
o Environment stability: Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation
and, where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed.
(Revision Notes)
o Natural heritage: Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the
remaining natural forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the
remarkable biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.
o Soil erosion: Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers, lakes,
reservoirs in the “interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts.
o Forest cover: Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive
afforestation and social forestry programmes.
o Creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these
objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.
6. Biological Diversity act, 2002
● Objectives: Conservation, sustainable utilization and fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of use of biological resources and associated knowledge.
● Three tier structure
o National Biodiversity Authority (at central level)
o State Biodiversity Boards (at state level)
o Biodiversity management committees (at local level)
● National Biodiversity authority: It is autonomous body that performs facilitative, regulatory
and advisory function for Govt of India on issue of Conservation of biological resources.
o Functions of NBA
▪ Procedure and Guidelines: It lays down procedure and guidelines to govern activities
for obtaining biological resource, for transferring the results of any research, certain
collaborative research projects exempted.
▪ Advising the government: To advise the Central government on specific areas such as:
 Notification of threatened species
 Designated institutions as repositories for different biological resources.
 Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodity.
● Recognition to contribution of indigenous local communities: Companies using the
indigenous local resources is required to share 0.5% of the sales post tax to the Indigenous local
communities whose turnover is more than 3 crores.
● Biological Diversity (Amendment) Bill, 2021
o Access to biological resources: The Bill modifies the classification of entities and activities
that require intimation, while also introducing exemptions to certain cases.
o Medicinal plants: It seeks to reduce the pressure on wild medicinal plants by encouraging
the cultivation of medicinal plants.
o Exemption to AYUSH practitioners: It proposes to exempt AYUSH practitioners from
intimating biodiversity boards for accessing biological resources or knowledge.
o Benefit sharing: The Bill removes the applicability of benefit sharing requirements from
research, bio-survey, and bio-utilisation.
o Research activities: The Bill also facilitates fast-tracking of research, simplify the patent
application process, decriminalises certain offences.
o Foreign investments: It seeks to attract more foreign investments in biological resources,
research, patent and commercial utilisation, without compromising the national interest.
o State Biodiversity boards: It has strengthened the role of state biodiversity boards.
o Penalties: The 2002 Act imposes criminal penalties, including imprisonment, for offenses
such as not obtaining approval or intimation for specific activities. The Bill decriminalizes
these offenses and introduces fines ranging from one lakh to fifty lakh rupees instead.
7. Forest Rights act, 2006
(Revision Notes)
● Objective: It provides for restitution of deprived forest rights across India, including both
individual rights to cultivated land in forestland and community resources over common
property resources.
● Nodal Agency: Ministry of Tribal affairs
● National parks and sanctuaries included along with reserve forest, protected forests for
recognition of rights.
● Definition of Minor Forest produce: It includes all non-timber forest produce of plant
origin, including bamboo, brush, wood, stumps, tendu, kendu leaves etc.
● Four types of rights
o Title rights
▪ It gives Forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers the right to
ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4
hectares.
▪ Ownership is restricted for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family
and no new lands will be granted.
o Use rights
▪ The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, to
pastoralist routes, etc.
o Relief and development rights
▪ To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement, subject to
restrictions for forest protection.
o Forest management rights
▪ Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource
which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
● Nature of rights: The rights under the act shall be heritable but not alienable or
transferrable.
● Competent authority: The Gram Sabha has been designated as competent authority for
initiating process of determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest
rights that may be given to forest dwelling scheduled tribes.
● Important fact: Baigas, the vulnerable tribe in Madhya Pradesh is the first to get habitat
rights in India.
8. Compensatory Afforestation Fund act, 2016
● Objective: It seeks to provide an appropriate institutional mechanism to ensure expeditious
utilization in the efficient and transparent manner of amounts released in lieu of forest land
diverted for the non-forest purpose.
● Important Provisions
o It seeks to establish National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under Public Account of
India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under Public Account of each state.
o It provides legal backing to centre and state funds and regulates utilization of this money.
o Major sources of the Fund
▪ Payment for compensatory afforestation
▪ Payment for loss of forest ecosystem at net present value
▪ Payment for violation and diversion of forest land guidelines
▪ Additional payment for specific projects.
o As per the rules, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the states while 10% is to be
retained by the Centre.
o Usage of Fund: The funds can be used for the treatment of catchment areas, assisted
natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation
(Revision Notes)
of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and

awareness generation, the supply of wood saving devices, and allied activities.
o Auditing: Provides for annual audit of account by Comptroller and Auditor General
9. Protection of Plant varieties and Farmer’s right act, 2001
● Introduction: It was enacted by India in 2001 to grant IPRs to plant breeders, researchers
and farmers who developed any new or extant plant species. It is in conformity with
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 1978.
● Rights under the Act
o Breeders Rights: They will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute,
import or export the protected variety. Breeder can appoint licensee and may exercise for
civil remedy in case of infringement of rights.
o Researchers Rights: Researcher can use any registered variety under the Act for conducting
experiment or research. It includes use as an initial source of variety for the purpose of
developing another variety but repeated use needs prior permission of registered breeder.
o Farmers Rights
▪ A farmer who has evolved or developed a new variety is entitled for registration and
protection in like manner as a breeder of a variety. Farmers variety can also be
registered as an extant variety.
▪ Right to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell his farm produce including
seed of a variety protected under the act in the same manner as he was entitled before the
coming into force of this Act provided farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seed
of a variety protected under the PPV&FR Act, 2001.
▪ Farmers are eligible for recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic
Resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants.
▪ Compensation: There is also a provision for compensation to the farmers for non-
performance of variety under Section 39 (2) of the Act, 2001.
▪ Farmer shall not be liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the Authority or
Registrar or the Tribunal or the High Court under the Act.
4. Central pollution control board (CPCB): It is a statutory body constituted under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; entrusted with the powers and functions under
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; serves as field formation and provide
technical services to MoEF&CC of provisions of EPA,1986; coordinates activities of SPCBs;
promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different States; improve the quality of air and to
prevent or abate air pollution in the country.
5. National Board of wildlife: It is a statutory body constituted under WPA, 1972; advises central
government on measures for conservation of wildlife; its role is advisory in nature; has power to
review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and
sanctuaries; no alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done
without approval of the NBWL.
● Composition
o Chairman: NBWL is chaired by Prime Minister and responsible for promotion of
conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
o Members: It has 47 members including the Prime Minister. Among these, 19 members are
ex-officio members. Other members include three Members of Parliament, five NGOs and 10
eminent ecologists, conservationists and environmentalists.
o Standing committee: approves all the projects falling within protected wildlife areas or
within 10 km; chaired by Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate change.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 9: PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA
1. Classification of the Plants

● Herb: Plant whose stem is green + Tender with height not more than 1 meter.
● Shrub: Woody perennial plant, woody stem, low stature and branching from the base.
● Tree: Large woody perennial plant, single well defined stem, definite crown.
● Parasites: Organism that draws its nourishment from other living organism + It grow on
some living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots called haustoria into host.
● Epiphyte: Plant grow on host plant but not nourished by host plant + It take help of host plant
only in getting access to light.
● Climbers: Herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees by twining round them by
trendrills, hocks, aerial roots etc.
2. Effect of Abiotic components on Plants
● Intensity of light: Extremely high intensity favours root growth-> increased transpiration,
short stem, smaller thicker leaves + Low intensity-> retards growth, flowering and fruiting
+Only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis.
● Frost action: Killing of young plants + It leads to death of plants due to damage to cells,
formation of canker.
● Snow: Act as blanket, prevents further drop in temperature->protect seedlings from excessive
cold + It also shortens period from excessive cold and frost.
● Temperature: High temperature leads to death of plant due to coagulation of protoplasmic
proteins + It causes desiccation of plant tissues and depletion of moisture.
● Die back: Progressive dying usually backwards from tip of any portion of the plant
(adaptive mechanism to avoid adverse conditions) + The roots remain alive for years but shoots
die. Example include Sal, Red sanders, tomentosa etc.
o Causes: Dense over-head canopy, dense week canopy, frost, drought, grazing.
3. Insectivorous/Carnivorous plants: Derive most of their nutrients from consuming animals,
insects and others + They are adopted to grow in areas which lack nutrients like swamps + These
plants extract water and minerals from soil + They have chlorophyll and also do photosynthesis.
● Active Insectivorous: Use movements to trap the insect. Example: Venus fly trap.
● Passive Insectivorous: Use pitfall mechanism to trap the insects.
● Conservation Status: The Endangered species of carnivorous plants in India are Drosera
Peltata, Aldrovendavesiculosa and Nepenthese Khasiana.
● Threats: Gardening trading for medicinal properties, Habitat destruction, pollution caused by
the effluents.
4. Major Insectivorous plants
● Nepenthes: Also known as pitcher plant + It is found generally in Asia, Sri Lanka, and
Australia + The insects attracted by odour of the plant + It relies on pool of water to trap its
prey + It feed on mice and frogs too + The Plant start secrete digestive liquid.
Fig: Nepenthes Khasiana Fig: Drosera
(Revision Notes)
● Drosera: It has long tentacles on its leaves + It inhabit wet infertile soils or marshy places + It is
commonly known as sundews (tentacles secrete liquid that shines in sun like dewdrops) + The
insects stick to leaves and leaves coil around their prey to slowly digest it + It is majorly found
in region poor in nitrogen and phosphorous.
● Pinguicula: Also known as Butterworts + It is grown for pretty orchard like flowers + The
leaves emits faint fungal scent that attracts prey which gets struck to glandular surface +
Pinguiculais absent in India.
Fig: Pinguicula Fig: Bladderworts

● Utricularia/Bladderworts: Largest genus of carnivorous plant, more than 200 species
occurring globally + The plant festooned with utricles + It mostly prey on worms, frogs, scuds.
● Aldrovanda: Free floating, rootless aquatic plant, only species found in India + Itoccurs in
salt marshes of Sunderbans.
Fig: Aldrovanda Fig: Genlisea

● Genlisea: Also known as the corkscrew plant commonly grown in wet terrestrial to the semi-
aquatic environment + It contains Lobster pot trap that has small hair lined at the entrance.
5. Invasive plant species: These are species that occur outside the natural range and threaten
native plants and animals or other aspects of biodiversity.
● Important Invasive species in India
o Prosopis Julifora/Angreji Babool: Native to Mexico, South America and become an
invasive weed in Africa, Asia and Australia + It is an aggressive colonizer distributed
throughout the country + It is awater-greedy plant that depletes ground water + It is one of
the world’s top 100 least wanted plants + It is also affecting wild ass population in Kutch,
Gujarat + It is also used to erect fences.
o Black Mimosa: Woody invasive shrub originates from tropical America, now widespread
throughout tropics + It forms dense, thorny, impenetrable thickets in wet areas + It is
distributed throughout India + It is abundant especially in still or slow floating waters.
o Parthenium hysterophorus (Carrot Grass): Annual herb native to American Tropics + It
is invasive species in India + It is also known as Congress grass or Gajar Ghans + It
produces allelopathic chemicals that suppress crop and pasture lands that affects humans
and livestock.
o Lantana Camara: Also known as red sage and tickberry + It is native to American tropics
+ It outcompetes more desirable species + It spread from native Central and South
America to 50 different countries.
(Revision Notes)
o Prosopis Chilensis = Prosopis chilensis, an alien invasive plant, is threatening to pulverize

native vegetation across 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR),
Tamil Nadu, an avian distribution study has revealed + Prosopis Chilensis is a drought-
resistant plant. It is native to the arid regions of four South American countries such as
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru + It is also known as Chilean mesquite.
o Ludwigia Peruviana = Recently, wildlife scientist said that Ludwigia Peruviana , an
invasive weed threatening the elephant habitats and foraging areas in Valparai, Tamil Nadu +
It is popularly called primrose willow, Ludwigia Peruviana, is a native of Central and South
America + It is an aquatic plant, which is now challenging the existence of local vegetation
in various swampy areas around the world + It is among the 22 priority invasive plants in
Tamil Nadu.
o Conocarpus Tree = Invasive mangrove species + flowering plant (Trees of this species
flower in winter and spread pollen in nearby areas) + It has been used by various public
authorities in India as landscaping for road medians, along roads, and in public gardens +
Countries in the Arabian Peninsula have used the plant to block sand from desert storms and
to control pollution + It is native to parts of North and South America, as well as parts of
Africa + Recently, the Gujarat state government banned Conocarpus tree plantation in forest
or non-forest areas, underlining its “adverse impacts on environment and human health”.
o Siam weed: Common invasive species of kerala, locally known as Communist pacha as it
spread all over the state within a short span of time just like Communism + Siam weed is
native to South America.
o Senna Spectabilis: Plant species of legume family + It is an invasive species in India caused
threat to wildlife habitat in the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve + They are also known as
Golden wonder tree, American cassia, Popcorn tree, Cassia excelsa, Golden shower tree or
Archibald's cassia + The thick foliage of the tree arrests the growth of other indigenous tree
and grass species. Hence, it causes food shortages for the wildlife population, especially
herbivores.
o Needle Bush: Native to tropical south America + It is distributed throughout India + It is
found occasional in thorny scrub and dry degraded forests.
o Black Wattle(Acacia) : It is native to South East Australia + It is primarily present in
Western Ghats + It is introduced for afforestation in Western Ghats + It regenerates rapidly
after fire and forms dense thickets.
o Goat Weed: Native to tropical America + It is distributed throughout India + It is
aggressive colonizer + It is considered astroublesome weed in gardens and forests.
o Prickly Poppy: Native to tropical central and South America + It isdistributed in
throughout India + It is aggressive colonizer and fringes of forests.
o Water Hyacinth: Native to Tropical America + It is an aggressive colonizer + It isabundant
in still or slow floating waters.
o Impatiens, Balasam: It is native to Tropical America, distributed throughout India + It is
common along streams of moist forests and occasionally along railway tracks + It also runs
wild in gardens.
o Touch Me Not, Sleeping Grass: It is native to Brazil + It is distributed throughout India +
It is acommon weed of cultivated fields, scrub lands and degraded forests.
o Eucalyptus. : it results in reduction of ground water levels.
o Hemp : It originated in the Central Asia .
6. Important Medicinal Plants
● BeddomesCyad: Found in Eastern peninsular India + Themale cones of the plant used for
curing rheumatoid arthritis and muscle pains.
(Revision Notes)
● Jamun: The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar which is carminative and diuretic,
and has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling diabetes.
● Arjun: The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate blood pressure.
● Babool: Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
● Neem: Neem is a natural herb that comes from the neem tree, other names for which include
Azadirachta indica and Indian lilac + Neem is known for its pesticidal and insecticidal
properties; it has been patented by India for its use as biofertilizer, biopesticide and antifertility
compound as contraceptive + Neem seeds are used in manufacture of biofuels, hospital
detergents and pharmaceutical industry.
● Kachnar: Used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for digestive problems
● Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana): Parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh + A
chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree
Used to treat some cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world.
The species is under great threat due to over-exploitation.
● Bor Thekera = A medicinal plant commonly called 'Bor Thekera' in the Assamese language,
traditionally forbidden for raw consumption, has been found to protect from heart diseases +
Garcinia pedunculata popularly known as Bor Thekera in Assamese, is an evergreen tree related
to the more familiar purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) + The tree is endemic to the
south-eastern regions of Asia such as parts of Myanmar and north-eastern parts of India + Uses:
The sun-dried slices of the Bor Thekera are used for culinary and medicinal purposes and are
known to have therapeutic properties like anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, antibacterial,
antifungal, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, nephroprotective, and even neuroprotective activity.
● Fish Mint = It is an herbal plant full of medicinal properties and grown on the ground with wide
leaves + It has many names, such as Bishop’s Weed, Chinese Lizard Tail, Fish Wort, Fish Leaf,
Rainbow Plant and Chameleon Plant + Despite being called “fish mint”, it’s not a member of the
mint family. It does, however, spread aggressively like mint + Its native range extends from the
Himalayan foothills through Southeast Asia, China, Korea and Japan + It is used to treat
digestive issues, insect bites, fevers, coughs, influenza, kidney ailments and a host of other
ailments + The medicinal properties and benefits of fish mint have been documented in ancient
texts of traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine, as well as Ayurveda and Siddha.
● Blue Vanda: It is distributed across Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and
Nagaland + It is also known as Autumn Ladies Tresses orchids + The blue flowers produce
interspecific and intergeneric hybrids.
● Ladies Slipper Orchid: Used as a component of formulas intended to treat anxiety + It is also
sometimes used topically as a poultice or plaster for relief of muscular pain.
● Sarpagandha: Rauvolfia roots used for treating various central nervous system disorders + It
has a depressant action on central nervous system produces sedation and lower blood pressure +
The root extracts used for treating intestinal disorders, cholera + The juice of the leaves used
as a remedy for opacity of the cornea.
● Cycads: It is a Gymnosperm tree also known as living fossil + It is distributed across Western
Ghats, North East India, Eastern Ghats and Andaman &Nicobar Islands + The regular
consumption of starch from cycads is factor for development of Lytico-Bodig disease + Major
threats are over harvesting, deforestation and forest fire.
● Aryogyapacha: Highly potent medicinal plant endemic to Agasthya hills + It is used by Kani
Tribal community to combat fatigue + It has varied spectrum of pharmacological properties
such as anti-oxidant, aphrodisiac, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, immunemodulatory,
anti-tumor, anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective and anti-diabetic.
7. Parts of a Tree
(Revision Notes)
● Roots: Keep tree from tipping over; collect water and nutrients from soil + The conduction of
absorbed water and nutrients to stem + storage of food + vegetative reproduction and
competition with other plants.
● Crown: It is made up of leaves and branches at top of tree + It collects energy from the sun
(photosynthesis) and allows tree to remove extra water to keep it cool.
● Leaves: Converts energy into food (sugar) + They are the food factories of a tree + They
contain chlorophyll which is an important biomolecule used in photosynthesis + They use sun
energy to convert CO2 from atmosphere and water from soil into sugar and oxygen.
● Branches: They provide support to distribute leaves + They act as conduits for water and
nutrients and as storage for extra sugar.
● Trunk: It provide its shape and support + It transport water and nutrients from the soil and
sugar from the leaves.
o Annual rings: New ring added for each year of tree’s life + Used to calculate Dendro-
Chronology (Age of a tree) + The size of growth ring determined by temperature, water
availability.
o Bark: Inner layer made up of living cells + The outer layer made of dead cells + The inner
layer carry sap full of sugar from leaves to rest of tree + The items such as latex,
cinnamon, poisons are made from the bark.
o Cambium: Makes new cells allowing tree to grow wider each year.
o Sapwood (Xylem): Brings water and nutrients up from the roots to the branches, twigs
and leaves.
o Heartwood: Dead sapwood in center of trunk + It is the hardest wood of tree + It isdark in
colour than sapwood.
o Pith: Tiny dark spot in center of tree trunk + It is the most protected from damage by
insects, wind or animals.
● Root types
o Taproot: Descending root formed by direct prolongation of radicle of embryo.
o Lateral root: Arise from tap root and spread laterally to support tree.
o Buttresses: Out growths formed vertically above lateral roots and thus connect base of
stem with roots.
o Prop roots: Produced from branches of tree + It is suspended in air till they reach ground.
o Stilt roots: Adventitious roots emerged from butt of a tree above ground level. Example:
Rhizphora species of mangroves.
o Pneumatophore: Spike like projection of roots of mangrove tree above ground + It helps
submerged roots to obtain oxygen. Example: Heretieraspp
o Haustorial roots: Roots of parasitic plants + It absorb water and nutrients. Example
Mistletoe and dodder.
o Storage roots: Modified roots for storage of food + It include taproots and tuberous roots.
● Etiolation: Absence of adequate light-> plants become pale yellow.
● Autumn tints: Leaves undergo change in colour before falling from tree.
8. Naturalized exotic plant species: Common Guava (native to Mexico and Central Asia) + Lantana
camara (invasive, replaces undergrowth and prevents native plant from surviving) + Siam weed
(native to South America) etc.
● Tamilnadu (331) has highest number of naturalized plants followed by Kerala; Lakshadweep
(17) has least number of exotic naturalized plant species.
o Native plants: Originated in the geographical area without any external factors . Examples :
sugarcane , bamboo , cotton
o Non native plants: Introduced from other geographical area , like potato , tea , coffee .
(Revision Notes)
9. Important Parasitic plants of India

● GleadoviaKonyakianorum: It is found in Nagaland + It is a holoparasite (complete parasite)
+ It has no chlorophyll of its own + It is named in honour of Knoyak tribe of Nagaland +
Conservation status: Data deficient.
● Broomrape: Parasitic weed affecting tobacco cultivation + It completely lack chlorophyll + It
bear yellow, white or blue snapdragon like flower + It is totally dependent on other plants for
nutrients; recorded as principal weed in India + It affects tomato, eggplant, sunflower etc.
● Common stem parasites in India: Loranthus so, Mango trees and Cuscatareflexa.
● Root parasites: Sapriahimalayana (rare holoparasitic plant found in Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya)
10. Important Plant species in news
 Cycas Pectinata = Cycas pectinata, listed as vulnerable in the International Union for
Conservation of Nature’s Red List, is the only cycad species found in Bhutan + It is an
evergreen, palm-like plant + Recently, a new study by five botanists has revealed that the Cycas
pectinata plant’s existence in the Himalayan country of Bhutan is threatened by overcollection as
an ornamental plant and habitat destruction.
 Pedicularis Revealiana = New Plant Species + Sikkim + Recently, scientists from the Botanical
Survey of India (BSI) Prayagraj Centre have discovered a new plant species Pedicularis
Revealiana, in the state of Sikkim + It is stout and woody stems, bears minute flowers of pinkish-
purple colour + It is a hemiparasitic plant species + perennial herb.
 Ludwigia Peruviana = Recently, wildlife scientist said that Ludwigia Peruviana , an invasive
weed threatening the elephant habitats and foraging areas in Valparai, Tamil Nadu + It is
popularly called primrose willow, Ludwigia Peruviana, is a native of Central and South America
+ It is an aquatic plant, which is now challenging the existence of local vegetation in various
swampy areas around the world + It is among the 22 priority invasive plants in Tamil Nadu.
 Desiccation-Tolerant Vascular (DT) Plants = New study discovered 62 desiccation-tolerant
vascular plant species in India's Western Ghats, having applications in agriculture + DT Plants
are plants that are capable to withstand extreme dehydration, losing up to 95% of their water
content, and they revive themselves once water is available again + Plants resistant to desiccation
are commonly known as “resurrection plants” (vascular and nonvascular plants) + In tropical
regions, they are the predominant occupants of rock outcrops + Rock outcrops are visible
exposures of bedrock or other geologic formations at the surface of the Earth.
 Sea Grasses = Seagrasses are flowering plants that grow submerged in shallow marine waters
like bays and lagoons + They have roots, stems and leaves, and produce flowers and seeds +
They are considered to be ‘Ecosystem Engineers’ + They inhabit all types of substrates (layers)
from mud to rock and they are found extensively in muddy and sandy substrates + Seagrass
reproduce through both sexual and asexual methods + Seagrass reproduce through both sexual
and asexual methods + It occurs all along the coastal areas of India and are abundant in the Palk
Strait and Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, however threatened now + They are found on all
continents except Antarctica
 Silver Cockscomb = It is a short-lived 50-60 cm-tall plant considered as a weed + Also known
as lagos spinach which belongs to the Amaranthaceae family, which includes economically
important plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea), beetroot and quinoa + The plant is known as
Celosia argentea, kurdu in Marathi and pannai keerai in Tamil + It grows well even on fallow
land and in drought-like conditions + Soliga tribal community uses silver cockscomb, which is
often considered to be a weed but has been discovered to have advantages + Soliga are an
indigenous tribe of Karnataka. They reside in the peripheral forest areas near Biligiri Rangana
Hills and Male Mahadeshwara in the Chamarajnagar district of Karnataka. They are the first
(Revision Notes)
tribal community living inside the core area of a tiger reserve in India to get their forest rights
officially recognised by a court of law.
 Curcuma Kakchingense = It is a new flowering plant species discovered in Manipur + It is a
member of the angiospermic family Zingiberaceae, which includes well-known plants like
Curcuma (turmeric), gingers, and cardamom.
● Fimbristylissunilii: Found in western ghats + It is Data deficient under IUCN red list + It is
collected from the grasslands of Ponmudi hills + It is named after plant taxonomist C.N. Sunil.
● NeanotisPrabhuii: It is a prostrate perennial herb, discovered in Chembra Peak grasslands of
Wayanad + It grows on high-altitude grasslands + It grows up to 70 cm in length and is many-
flowered with the petals pale pink in colour + It is Data deficient under IUCN red list.
● Pyrostrialaljii: It is a new species belongs to genus of coffee family + It is discovered from the
Andaman Islands + It is usually found in Madagascar + The conservation status is Critically
endangered + It has umbellate inflorescence with 8 to 12 flowers + It is also located in Tirur
forest near Jarawa reserve forest in A&N islands.
● New genus Septemeranthus: It grows on the plant species Horsfieldiaglabra (Blume)Warb +
It is discovered from the Nicobar group of islands + It have a modified root structure spread on
the stem of the tree + It is anchored inside the bark of the host tree + It derives nutrients from its
hosts has green leaves capable of photosynthesis + It is endemic only to Nicobar islands.
● SymplocosMohananii: Discovered in Ponmudi hills, kerala + It carries white flowers that
usually bloom in night + It is very endemic in nature + It is spotted from a hill which was about
3000 feet above sea level + It is used to treat skin diseases by tribals and also for dye-making.
● Eugenia sphaerocarpa: Grow in the Kakkayam area of the Malabar wildlife sanctuary in
Kerala above 800m
● Goniothalamaussericeus: Found in Kanyakumari wildlife sanctuaryat an altitude of 1400m +
It is greenish-yellow to beige petals which are fragrant while the fruits are very showy and an
attractive golden yellow in colour.
● New Bamboo species: India is birthplace of Asian Bamboo + New species are
Bambusiculmustirapensis and B.makumensis, found in Tirap mine, Makum coalfield, Assam
● Living root bridge: Aerial bridges built by weaving roots of Indian rubber tree(FicusElastica) +
They act as connectors for generations in Meghalaya for Khasi and Jaintia people + Some root
bridges also found in Nagaland + They spans between 15 and 250feet + They are primarily a
means to cross streams & rivers.
● Dracaena Cambodiana: India’s first true dragon tree species + It is discovered in West
Karbi angling region of Assam + It yield’s dragon blood used as medicine, body oil, dye + It
has anti-fungal and anti-bacterial compounds, anti-oxidants etc.
● Red sanders: Categorized as Endangered under IUCN red list + It is an endemic tree species
restricted to Eastern Ghats + It usually grow in rocky, degraded and fallow lands with Red
Soil and hot and dry climate + The threats include illicit felling for smuggling + It is known for
their rich hue and therapeutic properties + It is high in demand across Asia, particularly in
China and Japan, for use in cosmetics and medicinal products as well as for making furniture,
woodcraft and musical instruments + It is listed in Appendix 2 under CITES & Schedule 2
under Wildlife protection act, 1972.
● Neelakurinji: Found in shola forests of Western Ghats + It got their name from purplish blue
flowers of Neelkurinji that blossoms every 12 years (monocarpic plant).
● Balsams: Commonly known as Balsams/jewel seeds + They are succulent plants with high
endemism + They are found in North Eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim),
eastern Ghats, western ghats, Sri Lanka., South East Asia etc + They are sensitive to the
climate change and act as indicators.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 10: MARINE ORGANISMS
1. Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like
crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton).
● Holoplankton: Organism planktonic for their entire life cycle; Examples include radiolarians,
amphipods, krills, copepods etc.
● Meroplankton: Organisms planktonic for only a part of their life cycle; Examples include
larvae of echinoderms, crustaceans etc. + After some time graduates into nekton or adopt a
benthic lifestyle on seafloor.
2. Phytoplankton: These are tiny microscopic floating plants found in water bodies like rivers, lakes
and oceans; chlorophyll to capture sunlight and use photosynthesis to turn it into chemical energy.
● Importance: Half of oxygen in environment; reduce global warming; base of ocean food
chain + They act as bio-indicators regulating life in oceans.
● Factors affecting Phytoplanktons: Light (Mostly limited to upper layers of ocean where light
sufficient for photosynthesis), nutrients, temperature, salinity (dinoflagellates reproduce actively
at lower salinities), grazing by zooplankton.
3. Zooplankton: Vital role in food web, nutrient recycling + They are abundant within mangrove
water-ways + They determine quantum of fish stock + They are found in deeper ocean beds
where sunlight does not reach; mostly translucent + Examples include Meroplankton,
holoplankton, crustaceans such as krill, protozoans.
4. Sea-Grass: Flowering plants; grow submerged in shallow marine waters like bays and lagoons +
They require sunlight for photosynthesis + They are only group of higher plants adapted to life in
salt water + They occur along South east coast of Tamil Nadu and in lagoons of Lakshadweep
islands-> due to high salinity, clarity of water and sandy substratum.
● Importance: Reduce wave and current energy + Stabilize bottom sediments to control erosion
+ They act as nutrient sinks and provide chemical inputs to marine environment + Ecosystem
Engineers known for many ecosystem services; also called ‘the lungs of the sea’ + They help
maintain water quality by trapping fine sediment + They provide ideal nursery sites for
commercial marine life like squids and cuttlefish.
● Threats: Eutrophication, siltation, trawling, coastal engineering constructions etc.
● Others: Chilika lake has 22% of India’s sea grass area
5. Sea weeds: Primitive, marine non-flowering marine algae without root, stem and leaves + Large
seaweeds form dense underwater forests known as kelp forests-> act as underwater nurseries for
fish, snails; grow in shallow coastal waters.
● Location: Mostly in the intertidal region, in shallow and deep waters of the sea and also in
estuaries and backwaters + Southern Gulf of Mannar’s rocky intertidal have rich populations.
● Ecological importance: Bioindicators (absorb the excess nutrients and balance out i.e
ecosystem); iron sequestrator; oxygen and nutrient supplier; enhances ocean productivity.
● Climate mitigation: By afforesting 9% of the ocean with seaweed-> sequester 53 billion tons of
carbon dioxide annually.
● Others: Used as fertilizers to increase aquaculture production; methane emission from
cattle may be reduced; combat beach erosion; ingredient in preparing toothpaste, cosmetics
and pain.
6. Seaweeds Mission: launched for commercial farming of seaweeds and its processing for value
addition towards boosting the national economy.
● Establishing model demonstration farms over one hectare for cultivation of seaweeds in
nearshore and onshore along the Indian coast.
● Establishment of seaweed nurseries for supplying seed material for large scale farming
(Revision Notes)
● Demonstration of processing technologies for edible seaweeds in line with consumer

acceptability.
● An activity on seaweed cluster development including value chain development.
7. Seaweed production: Out of the global seaweed production of ~ 32 million tons. China produces
~57 %, Indonesia ~28% followed by South Korea. India have a mere share of ~0.01-0.02%. +
Budget 2021 had proposed India's first multi-purpose seaweed park to be set up in Tamil Nadu as
part of promoting seaweed cultivation
8. Sea cucumbers : They are marine invertebrates that live on the seafloor found generally in tropical
regions + They're named for their unusual oblong shape that resembles a fat cucumber + There are
about 1,250 species of sea cucumber, all of which belong to the taxonomic class Holothuroidea +
They act like garbage collectors of the ocean world, and they recycle nutrients playing an important
role in keeping coral reefs in good condition + IUCN Red List: Brown Sea Cucumber (Endangered),
Blackspotted Sea Cucumber (Least Concern), Blue Sea Cucumber (Data Deficient), etc + Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + In 2020, the Lakshadweep Islands administration created the
world’s first conservation area - 239 sq. km - for sea cucumbers.
9. Diatoms: A diatom is any member of a large group comprising several genera of algae, specifically
microalgae, found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms make up a
significant portion of the Earth's biomass: they generate about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen
produced on the planet each year.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 11: PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS
1. In-Situ conservation: It is on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant

or animal species.
2. Ex-Situ conservation: Threatened animals taken out from natural habitat and placed in special
setting where they can be protected and given special care.
3. Conservation reserves and Community reserves: They are protected areas, act as buffer zones and
migration corridors to established NPs, WLS and protected forests + These are the outcome of
amendment to WPA in 2003 + They provide recognition and legal backing to community initiated
efforts in wildlife protection + They roughly correspond to IUCN Category V (conservation
reserves) and VI (community reserves) protected areas.
● Conservation reserves
o It is owned by state govt and managed by Conservation reserve management committee.
o State government may, after having consultations with local communities declare any area
owned by government as conservation reserve.
o Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve is the first conservation reserve in India.
o There are 115 existing Conservation Reserves in India covering an area of 5548.75 km2,
which is 0.17% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database Centre,
Nov. 2023).
● Community reserve
o Managed by Community reserve management committee.
o State government notifies any community land/private land as community reserve provided
that members of community are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting fauna and flora,
as well as their traditions, cultures and practices.
o After a forest has been made into a community reserve, people cannot hunt there, nor can
they use it for agricultural practices, leave alone jhum cultivation.
o The people of such areas are allowed to collect non-timber forest produce.
4. Marine Protected Areas: It involves protective management of natural areas so as to keep them
in their natural state; conserved for economic resources, biodiversity conservation and species
protection; created by delineating zones with permitted and non-permitted uses within that zone;
every MPA also designated as sanctuary, national park or community reserves; Many MPAs allow
people to use the area in ways that do not damage the environment. Some ban fishing, a few do not
allow people to enter the area at all + There are 24 MPAs in peninsular India and over 100 MPAs in
the country's islands, covering a total area of 8214 km.
 Category 1: It covers NPs and sanctuaries having entire areas in intertidal or mangroves, coral
reefs, seagrass, estuaries, lagoons. Example: Gulf of Kacchh region.
 Category 2: Include Islands, which have major parts in marine ecosystem.
 Category 3A: Include sandy beaches beyond inter-tidal line.
(Revision Notes)
 Category 3B: Include evergreen or semi evergreen forests of islands.

Name of MPA State Category Year of Establishment
Marine (Gulf of Kutch) Gujarat National park 1995
Bhitarkanika Odisha National park 1998
Gulf of Mannar marine TN National park 1980
Sundarbans WB National park 1984
Wandoor A&N islands National park 1983
 Important MPAs in India
5. 5th International Marine Protected Areas Congress (IMPAC5) = Recently concluded in

Vancouver, Canada + IMPAC5 is a global forum that brings together ocean conservation
professionals and high-level officials to inform, inspire and act on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) +
It aims to protect 30 percent of global ocean by 2030 + It supported Kunming-Montreal Global
Biodiversity Framework, “Our Ocean, Our Future, Our Responsibility” Call for Action and Ocean
Conservation Pledge + It was jointly hosted by Host First Nations (Musqueam, Squamish and Tsleil-
Waututh) together with International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Canadian Parks and
Wilderness Society (CPWS) and Province of British Columbia.
6. Global Marine protected areas
 Only 6% of the ocean is under Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) currently while Countries have
set a target of protecting 30% of the planet's land and oceans by 2030 at the COP15 to the CBD.
 Nearly 4% of the 6% of the ocean under MPAs is fully and highly protected, while 3.6% is
highly protected.
 India has supported the proposal of European Union for creation of two marine protected areas
(MPAs) in the Antarctic - East Antarctic and Weddell Sea.
7. Reserved Forests: Most restricted forests and are constituted by India Forest Act or the State Forest
Acts on any forest land or wasteland. In reserved forests, local people are prohibited, unless
specifically allowed. These forests are under the direct supervision of the government and no
public entry is allowed for collection of timber or grazing of cattle. About 53% of the total forest
area falls in this category. In India, Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forest
(75% of the total forest area).
● Important reserve forests: Kurkail reserve forests (UP), Bhavnagar Amreli forests (Gujarat;
Asiatic lion), vandalur reserve forests, Tikarpada reserve forests.
8. Protected Forests: Protected areas are notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972; looked
after by the government, but the local people are allowed to collect fuel-wood/timber and graze their
cattle without causing serious damage to the forests; occupy about 29% of the total forest area of the
(Revision Notes)
country. In India, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan have the bulk of
their forest, under-protected forest.
9. Sacred Groves of India: These are patches of forests or natural vegetation that are usually
dedicated to local folk deities; protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and
traditional rituals. The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government
protection to community held lands, which include sacred groves. Among the largest sacred groves
of India are the ones in Hariyali, near Gauchar in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, and the Deodar
grove in Shipin near Shimla in Himachal Pradesh.
10. Sacred Groves of North-East India in news

 Dzukou Valley Sacred Grove, Nagaland: It is located on the border of Nagaland and Manipur.
It is considered to be a sacred grove of the Angami Naga tribe and is known for its breathtaking
beauty, with rolling hills, lush green forests, and meandering streams
 Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary Sacred Grove, Assam: It is known for its population of one-
horned rhinoceroses. It is also home to a sacred grove that is believed to be a sanctuary for the
goddess Durga.
 Dehing Patkai Sacred Grove, Assam: It is located in the Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary in
Assam. It is believed to be a sacred grove of the Tai Ahom community and is home to several
rare and endangered species of flora and fauna, including the Hoolock Gibbon.
 Mawphlang Sacred Grove, Meghalaya: It is located near the town of Shillong in Meghalaya. It
is believed to be one of the oldest and largest sacred groves in the region and is considered to be
a living museum of the Khasi people's culture and tradition.
 Thangbuli Sacred Grove, Manipur: It is located near the town of Tamenglong in Manipur. It is
believed to be a sacred grove of the Zeliangrong tribe, and is home to several rare and
endangered species of plants and animals.
(Revision Notes)
11. Eco-sensitive zones: These are buffer zones around

protected areas (NP, WLS etc) where only regulated
activities for specialized eco-system are allowed; shock
absorbers. As per National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-
2016), land within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks
and wildlife sanctuaries is to be notified as ESZ. But its size
can vary as per specific needs of the protected area; ESZs
are designated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests
and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) (under
the Environment Protection Act, 1986).
● Criteria for declaration of ESZ: The MoEFCC
approves a comprehensive set of guidelines laying forth
standards and criteria for declaring ESZs on a regular
basis. These include –
o Species Based (Endemism, Rarity etc)
o Ecosystem Based (sacred groves, frontier forests etc)
o Geo-morphologic feature based (uninhabited islands,
origins of rivers etc)
● Activities prohibited
o Commercial mining, setting up of saw mills and industries causing pollution and major
hydropower projects are prohibited.
● Activities restricted with safeguards
o Felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture system and commercial use of natural water
resources, including ground water harvesting and setting up of hotels and resorts.
● Activities permitted: Ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities,
rainwater harvesting, use of renewable energy sources etc.
● Supreme court judgement on Eco-sensitive zones (April 2023)
o ESZ cannot be uniform across the country and has to be “protected area-specific”.
o No mining is allowed, either within national parks and sanctuaries or in a 1 km radius.
o Any developmental activities undertaken within ESZs should follow the MoEF&CC 2011
guidelines and provisions of the 2022 Office Memorandum by MoEF&CC.
o Exceptions: Where national parks and sanctuaries are located on inter-state borders or share
common boundaries.
12. Madhav Gadgil committee recommendations
● Entire western ghat (1,29,037sqkm) should be designated as Ecologically sensitive area (ESA).
● Classified Western Ghats boundary into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 2 and 3.
● ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all developmental activities (mining, thermal power
plants etc.) were restricted in it.
● No new dams based on large-scale storage be permitted in ESZ 1.
● Constitution of a Western Ghats Ecology Authority (WGEA), as a statutory authority under
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, with the powers under Section 3 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 for protection of the region.
13. Kasturirangan committee recommendations
● Only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total area of Western Ghats be brought under ESA.
● Complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in ESA.
● Distinguished between cultural (58% occupied in Western Ghats by it like human settlements,
agricultural fields and plantations) and natural landscape (90% of it should come under ESA).
(Revision Notes)
● Current mining areas in the ESA should be phased out within the next five years, or at the
time of expiry of mining lease, whichever is earlier.
● No thermal power be allowed and hydropower projects are allowed only after detailed study.
● Red industries i.e. which are highly polluting be strictly banned in these areas.
14. Biodiversity Heritage Sites: Unique, ecologically fragile ecosystem (terrestrial, coastal and inland
waters and marine) having rich
biodiversity comprising (declared
under Biodiversity Act, 2002):
● Richness of wild & domesticated
species or intra-specific categories
● High endemism
● Presence of rare and threatened
species, keystone species, species
of evolutionary significance, wild
ancestors of domestic species or
their varieties.
● Past preeminence of biological
components represented by fossil
beds having significant cultural,
ethical or aesthetic values;
important for the maintenance of
cultural diversity.
● Declaration of an area as BHS does
not put any restriction on the
prevailing practices and usages of
the local communities [Purpose of
BHS is to enhance the quality of
life of the local communities through conservation measures].
● There are total 36 biodiversity heritage sites in India [May 2023].
Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) District/State
Nallur Tamarind Grove Bangalore, Karnataka
Hogrekan Chikmagalur, Karnataka
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru Karnataka
Ambaraguda Karnataka
Glory of Allapalli Maharashtra
Tonglu BHS & Dhotrey BHS under Darjeeling Forest Division Darjeeling, West Bengal
Mandasaru Odisha
Dialong Village Manipur
Ameenpur lake Telangana
Majuli Assam
Gharial Rehabilitation Centre Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Chilkigarh Kanak Durga West Bengal
Purvatali Rai Goa
Naro Hills Madhya Pradesh
Asramam Kerala
15. Biodiversity heritage sites in news
(Revision Notes)
 Arittapatti Biodiversity heritage site: Recently, the Tamil Nadu Government issued a
notification declaring Arittapatti in Melur block, Madurai district, a Biodiversity Heritage Site
(BHS) + It is Tamil Nadu’s first BHS. It has presence of around 250 bird species including 3
flagship Raptor species: Laggar Falcon (NT), Shaheen Falcon (LC), Bonelli’s Eagle (LC) and
wildlife like Indian Pangolin (EN), and Slender Loris (NT).
 Amboli: The Maharashtra government declared an area at Amboli in Western ghats, where a
rare freshwater fish species Schistura Hiranyakeshi was discovered, as a biodiversity heritage
site.
 Ameenpur lake- Telangana: It is the first water body in India to be designated as a BHS and 1st
biodiversity site to be approved in an urban area.
 Gandhamardan hill: Odisha declares Gandhamardan Hill as biodiversity heritage site
 The Bengal government has notified Char Balidanga (Nadia), Namthing Pokhari
(Darjeeling), Amkhoi Wood Fossil Park (Birbhum) and State Horticulture Research and
Development Station (Nadia) as the four latest biodiversity heritage parks taking the number in
the state to eight.
16. Coastal Regulation Zone: These are declared by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
change under the Environment Protection Act 1986 + Implemented by state governments through
their Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
● CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas like Mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes, turtle nesting
grounds etc., no construction is allowed except activities for atomic power plants, defense.
● CRZ-II: It includes areas which are developed up to or close to the shoreline and falling within
municipal limits. Construction activities are allowed on the landward side only.
● CRZ-III: It includes areas that fall neither in CRZ 1 nor CRZ 2 and also include rural and urban
areas that are substantially developed + No new construction of buildings allowed in this zone
except repairing of the existing ones + However, constructions of dwelling units in the plot area
lying between 200-500m of the high tide line is allowed.
● CRZ-IV: It includes the water area covered between Low Tide Line and 12 nautical miles
seaward. Except for fishing and related activities, all actions impugning on the sea and tidal
water will be regulated in this zone.
(Revision Notes)
● The Shailesh Nayak Committee was constituted in 2014 with the mandate of examining the
issues of the coastal states and union territories of the country with respect to the Coastal
Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2011
● New reforms under coastal regulation zone notification 2018 & 2019 are as follows:
o A No Development Zone (NDZ) of 20 meters has been stipulated for all Islands.
o New CRZ Categories: For CRZ-III (Rural) areas, two separate categories have now been
created for improved management: CRZ-III A and CRZ-III B
o CRZ-III A: Rural Areas that are densely populated with a population density of 2161/km2.
They will have an NDZ of 50 meters from HTL. Earlier it was 200m from HTL according to
the CRZ Notification of 2011.
o CRZ-III B: Rural Areas that are densely populated with a population density of 2161/km2.
They will have an NDZ of 200m from HTL.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 12: NATIONAL PARKS, TIGER RESERVES AND ELEPHANT RESERVES IN

INDIA
1. Introduction: India has a network of 987 Protected Areas including 106 National Parks, 564
Wildlife Sanctuaries, 99 Conservation Reserves and 218 Community Reserves covering a total
of 5.26% of geographical area of the country.
2. National Park: WPA, 1972 provides for declaration of NP by state governments of areas which are
of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological importance; In
some cases, Central government can also declare an area as NP; boundaries are fixed and defined;
main objective is to protect natural environment and biodiversity conservation.
● Important Facts: First National Park Jim Corbett National Park + Largest National Park
Hemis National Park + Smallest National Park South Button National Park.
● States with highest number of NP
o Madhya Pradesh (9)
o Andaman and Nicobar Island (9)
● Human activities
o Settlement and private ownership of land not permitted.
o Grazing and fuel wood collection also prohibited
o Only those human activities which are allowed by Chief Wildlife warden of state
permitted inside NP.
o Species mentioned in the Schedules of WPA not allowed to be hunted or captured.
o cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.
● No alteration of the boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed
by State Legislature.
● Important National Parks in India
o UT of Ladakh
▪ Hemis National Park: It is only NP of India north of Himalayas; largest protected area
of India; largest national park in India and also in South Asia; bound in the north by
banks of Indus river; second largest contiguous protected area after Nanda Devi
Biosphere reserve.
 Flora: Dry forests of Juniper, Populus-salix forests, sub-alpne dry birch present at
lower altitudes.
 Fauna: Snow leopard (highest density in world), Tibetan Wolf, Eurasian brown
bear and red fox, Argali (Great Tibetan Sheep), Bharal (Blue Sheep)(Least concern)
, Shapu (Ladakhi Urial)
o Jammu and Kashmir
▪ Dachigam National Park: Located high in its interiors is the Marsar lake from which
flows the river Dagwan; 22 kms from Srinagar district.
 Flora: coniferous forest of broad leaf species; rich in Apricot, Walnut, Chestnut,
Oak, willow, Poplar, Chinar, Birch, Pine and Elm.
 Fauna: Hangul (last viable population in world)(Critically endangered) , Musk
deer(endangered) ,Brown bear, Leopards, Himalayan black bear, yellow throated
marten, wild goat like the Markhor and ibex.
 Rare birds: Cinnamon sparrows, Himalayan Monals, Kashmir Flycatcher, Black
Bulbuls, and Colourful pheasants including crimson tragopan, iridescent monal
pheasant, blood pheasant and the koklass pheasant.
▪ Salim Ali National Park: Situated in Srinigar dist, J&K named after famous
ornithologist Salim Ali; Flagship species is Himalayan monal.
(Revision Notes)
 Flora: Coniferous Alpine type; major species are deodara, Cedrus, Brachypodium
spp etc.
 Fauna: Hangul, Musk deer, Himalayan black deer, leopard, Himalayan serow;
important birds are Himalayan monal, paradise flycatcher, Himalayan snowcock.
▪ Kishtawar National park: lies in the central crystalline belt of the Himalayas; Kiar,
Nath and Kibar rivers flow from north to south-west direction, which merge into the
Marwar River, and finally joins the Chenab river; Flagship animal is Himalayan
snowcock and the brown bear.
 Flora: coniferous alpine type; plant species such as Cedrus, deodara, etc.
 Fauna: Snow leopard, Markhor, Musk deer, Brown bear, Himalayan black bear;
avifauna include Bearded vulture, Golden oriole, White cheeked bulbul, Griffon
vulture etc.
▪ Kazinag National park: situated on the North bank of Jhelum river close to Line of
Control in Baramulla district; part of proposal for a trans-karakoram peace park with
Pakistan.
 Fauna: Markhor, Himalayan Musk Deer and is home of 120 species of birds and 20
species of mammals.
o Himachal Pradesh
▪ Great Himalayan National park: located in kullu region of Himachal Pradesh; added to
UNESCO’S list of World Heritage sites under “outstanding significance of biodiversity
conservation”
 Flora: home to rarest Himalayan blue poppy, western Tragopan.
 Fauna: Snow leopard, blue sheep, Himalayan Brown bear, Himalayan Tahr, musk
deer etc; three globally threatened birds Western tragopan, koklas, cheer
pheasants.
▪ Pin valley National park (Lahul and Spiti): situated in the desert of the Spiti Valley
which lies within the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve.
 Flora: Major plant species are Juniper & Birch trees, Populus Spp, etc.
 Fauna: leopard, snow leopard, Siberian ibex, bharal, red fox, marten.
▪ Khirganga National Park: located in Kullu and is known to be one of the most
beautiful national parks in the country; species like wild bear are found here.
▪ Simbalbara National park: Established in 1958 as the Simbalbara Wildlife
Sanctuary; became a national park in 2010.
 Flora: Simbalbara thick Sal forests alongwith grassy undergrowth.
 Fauna: Goral, Chittal, Himalayan black bear, Sambhar, Spotted Deer, Hanuman
langurs etc.
▪ Inderkilla national park: located in the Kullu district and established in 2010; leopards,
deers and rare birds of the summer season.
o Uttarakhand
▪ Valley of Flowers National park: Located in chamoli region; known for its meadows of
endemic alpine flowers and variety of flora.
 Fauna: Musk deer, snow leopard, brown bear, blue sheep Red giant flying squirrel,
Himalayan black bear, Himalayan weasel etc.
 Flora: Flowers found are mostly orchids, poppies, primulas etc.
▪ Nanda Devi national park: Declared World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988;
Valley of flowers and Nanda Devi are encompassed in Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve.
 Flora: Meadows of alpine flowers, fir, birch, rhodendron and juniper.
(Revision Notes)
 Fauna: Himalayan Musk deer, serow, Himalayan tahr, snow leopard, Himalayan
black bear.
▪ Gangotri National park: Fourth largest NP in the country with total area of 2390km2;
situated in the upper catchment of Bhagirathi River; forms a continuity between
Govind National Park and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary.
 Flora: Common vegetation include Chir pine, Deodar, Fir, Spruce etc.
 Fauna: Snow leopard, Tiger, Himalayan Snowcock, Himalayan Thar, musk deer,
Ibex; birds include Bulbul, Doves, Parakeet, patridges etc.
▪ Rajaji National Park: Nestled between Shivalik ranges and Indo-Gangetic plains;
second tiger reserve of Uttarakhand; Ganga and Song river flows through the park.
 Flora: Major vegetation is broadleaved deciduous forests, scrubland, grasslands
and pine forests; Examples include Sal, Palash, Rohini and Arjun.
 Fauna: Renowned for its elephants(endangered), Sambar, barking deer, hog
deers etc. Tiger and Leopards are prime predators of the park.
▪ Jim Corbett National park: It is the first national park in India; established in 1936 as
Hailey national park to protect Bengal Tiger; first park under Project Tiger initiative.
 Flora: Dense moist deciduous forest mainly consists of Sal, Haldu, peepal, rohini;
Forest covers 73% area of the park and 10% of the area consists of grasslands.
 Fauna: It is well known for its tiger richness; Major animals are Elephants,
Leopards(Vulnerable) , barking deer, hog deer, Chital, Indian Grey Mangoose.
o Uttar Pradesh:
▪ Dudhwa tiger reserve: protected area that stretches across Lakhimpur Kheri, district and
comprise of Dudhwa national park, Kishanpur WLS and Kataranighat WLS.
 Fauna: well-known sanctuary of the swamp deer and is home to tigers, leopards,
varieties of deer, antelopes, elephants, jackal, hyena etc
 Flora: The park has some of the best forests of 'Sal' tree in the world, amongst
other flora.
o Bihar:
▪ Valmiki National Park: Located on Indo-Nepal border in West Champaran district; on
the banks of river Gandak; only national park in Bihar.
 Fauna: Bengal tiger(endangered) , Indian rhinoceros, black bear, Indian sloth
bear(vulnerable) , otter, Indian leopard, wild dog, buffalo, and boar; Also Indian
flying foxes can be sighted here.
 Tharu, a scheduled tribe, is the dominant community in the landscape.
o Jharkhand
▪ Betla National park: Located on Chota Nagpur plateau in Latehar district of Jharkhand;
consist of Palmau tiger reserve and Mahauadar wolf sanctuary.
 Flora: Sal and Bamboo are the major floral components.
 Fauna: Elephant, Sloth Bear, Panther, Wolf, Jack etc.
o Sikkim
▪ Khangchendzonga National park: Includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys,
spectacular snow-capped mountains covered with forests; falls in Himalayan Global
biodiversity hotspots; UNESCO World heritage site (first mixed heritage site in
India); recently included in MAB program.
 Important Fauna: Musk deer, Snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, red panda, Himalayan
black bear etc.
 Others: Lepcha tribal settlements; Tholung monastery located in the park’s buffer
zone.
(Revision Notes)
o Assam (Recently added National parks)

▪ Raimona National Park: part of a contiguous forest patch covering the northern part of
the notified Ripu Reserve Forest, which forms the westernmost buffer to Manas Tiger
Reserve; shares contiguous forest patches of Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Jigme
Singye Wangchuck National Park of Bhutan.
 Bounded on west by the Sonkosh river and the Saralbhanga river on the east.
 Fauna: Famous for Golden Langur(endangered) , Asian Elephant, Royal Bengal
tiger, clouded leopard(vulnerable) , Indian gaur, Wild water buffalo, Spotted deer,
Hornbill.
▪ Dehing Patkai National park: located within the larger Dehing Patkai Elephant
Reserve, which spreads across the coal- and oil-rich districts of Upper Assam (Dibrugarh
and Tinsukia districts); also known as the Jeypore Rainforest; ideal site for non-
human primates.
 Fauna: Chinese pangolin, flying fox, wild pig, sambar, barking deer, gaur, serow;
only sanctuary in India which is home to seven different species of wild cats -
tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, leopard cat, golden cat, jungle cat and marbled cat;
highest concentration of the rare endangered White Winged Wood Duck.
▪ Manas National park: UNESCO World Heritage Site, an elephant reserve and
a biosphere reserve; located in the Himalayan foothills in Assam; contiguous with
the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.
 Fauna: known for its rare and endangered endemic wildlife such as the One-horned
Rhino(vulnerable ) , Manipur bush quail, Assam roofed turtle, hispid hare, golden
langur pygmy hog and wild water buffalo.
▪ Kaziranga National Park: It is situated in Golaghat district of Assam; important Bird
area by Birdlife International; also a World Heritage Site; situated on the banks of river
Brahmaputra.
 Fauna: Great one-horned rhino (hosts 2/3rd of the world’s one-horned rhino
population; one of the highest density of tigers; Elephant, wild water buffalo, swamp
deer and Golden Langur, Eastern Swamp deer (Barasinga)(vulnerable) .
▪ Orang National park: Located on the northern bank of Brahmaputra; also known as
Mini Kaziranga National Park.
 Fauna: Great Indian one-horned rhino, Pigmy hog, Elephants, wild buffaloes;
Bengal Florican is flagship species of the park.
▪ Dibru Saikhowa National park: Bounded by Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers in the north
and Dibru river in South; it was created to protect White winged duck.
 Fauna: White winged duck (endangered), water buffalo, Black breasted parrotbill,
tiger and capped langur.
o Arunachal Pradesh
▪ Namdapha National park: Protected area in Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh;
crossed by Noa Dihing river; located on Indo-Myanmar border.
 Fauna: Namdapha Flying squirrel (CR) is endemic to this park, Dhole, Red Panda,
Red fox etc. are other important mammals.
 Others: Important tribal groups include Lisu, Chakma, Tangsa and Singhpo.
o Meghalaya
▪ Nokrek National park, Cherrapunji: Core area of Nokrek biosphere reserve located in
west Garo hills of Meghalaya; became a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 2009; important
bird area.
(Revision Notes)
 Flora and Fauna: Important habitat of the Asian elephants, Red panda, Elephant;
wild varieties of citrus fruits that provide a gene-pool for commercially produced
citrus.
▪ Balphakram National park: National park near Garo hills in Meghalaya; located in
extreme south of Garo hills.
 Fauna: Red panda, tiger, elephant etc.
o Manipur
▪ Keibul Lamjao National park: Located in Bishnupur district of Manipur; world’s
largest floating park; integral component of Loktak lake (largest freshwater lake of NE
India).
 Features: Characterized by many floating decomposed plant materials called
Phumdis; declared as Ramsar wetland site.
 Fauna: Natural refuge of Endangered Manipur Eld’s deer or Sangai deer, brow
antlered deer (flagship species), Hog deer etc.
o West Bengal
▪ Sundarban National park: part of Sundarbans in Ganga delta and adjacent to
Sundarbans reserve forest in BD.
 Flora: Mangrove forests (Sundari trees)
 Fauna: One of the largest reserves for Bengal tiger, Salt water crocodile(least
concern) , fishing cats(vulnerable CITES appendix 2) , leopards, Pangolin, chital.
 Threatened species such as Royal Bengal tiger, river terrapin, olive ridley turtle
(vulnerable) etc.
▪ Gorumara National park: Located in northern West Bengal in the Terai region of
Himalayan foot hills; located on flood plains of Murti river and Raidak river;
significant watershed area between the Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems.
 Fauna: rich in large herbivores including Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant,
sloth bear, chital, and sambar deer. Small herbivores include barking deer, hog deer
and wild boar; Submontane forest birds like scarlet minivet, Asian paradise
suncatcher etc.
▪ Jaldapara National park: located at the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas in
Alipurduar district of northern West Bengal and on the banks of the Torsa river.
 Fauna: home to Indian leopard, Indian elephants, sambar, barking deer, spotted
deer, Bengal florican( critically endangered) , hog deer, wild boars, gaur, etc.;
second largest rhino population.
 Avi-fauna: Crested eagle, Pallas's fish eagle, shikra, Finn's weaver, jungle fowl,
peafowl (peacock), partridge, and lesser pied hornbill.
o Rajasthan
▪ Ranthambore national park: Declared as NP in 1980; adjacent forests declared Sawai
Man Singh sanctuary and keladevi sanctuaries.
 Fauna: northernmost limit of the distribution range of Bengal tiger, Indian leopard,
nilgai, wild boar, sambar, striped hyena, sloth bear, gray langur, mugger crocodile
and chital.
 Flora: Largest banyan tree in India; mostly dry deciduous with abundance of
a tree species locally known as Dhak that is capable of withstanding long periods of
drought.
▪ Sariska National park: Located in the Aravalli Ranges denuded over centuries, it
consists of small hills and rocky landscape.
(Revision Notes)
 Fauna: Famous for its Bengal tigers; Other important species are leopard, sambar
deer, chital, hyena, jackal etc.
 Flora: vegetation found is mainly dry deciduous forest along with scrub thorn
forest.
▪ Keoladeo Ghana national park: Lies at the confluence of Gambhir and Banganga
rivers; sanctuary hosts thousands of birds; man-made and man-managed wetland; listed
on Montreux record under Ramsar convention; UNESCO World heritage site.
 Flora: vegetation of this wetland is mostly kadam, babul, kair, ber etc.
 Fauna: world’s most important breeding areas for birds; other species are cranes,
pelican, Eagles, Flycatchers, Demoiselle cranes, falcons, jackals, chital, Nilgai,
hyenas, porcupine etc.
▪ Desert National park: Situated in Western Rajasthan; second largest national park of
India; became UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
 Flora and Fauna: Great Indian Bustard (CR) is native to the park; oriental
white backed vulture and Long billed Gyps; only place where Rajasthan State
Bird (Great Indian Bustard) and State tree (Khejri) and State flower
(Rohida) are found.
o Gujarat
▪ Gir National park: Located in Saurashtra peninsula; one of the 7 protected areas
selected through the Eco-Development Project funded by the GEF and implemented
by the WB.
 Flora: Dry deciduous forest; important species found here are Teak , Dudhlo,
Khair, Ber, Desi babul, Dhavdo, Hermo, Sadad etc.
 Fauna: only place in the world where Asian Lions occur in the natural forest + Some
of important species found here are Lion (Asiatic Lion) (endangered) , Leopard,
Hyena, Chital, Sambar, Bule bull, Chaushinga, Chinkara, Wild Boar, Crocodile,
Langur etc.
 Others: Maldharies community of tribals are integral part of Gir national park.
▪ Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch: First Marine NP, and Sanctuary (MNPS)
established in India in the year 1982 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; some
of the best known islands are Pirotan, Karubhar, Narara and Poshitra.
 Flora: Mangroves, herbs, grasses and herbs.
 Fauna: Colourful sponges and corals, Sea anemones, Jellyfishes, Sea horse,
Octopus, Lobster, Crabs, Prawns, Sea turtles, Dolphin, Dugong( vulnerable) ,
Porpoise, Shark.
o Madhya Pradesh
▪ Kanha National park: Largest NP of Madhya Pradesh and one of important tiger
reserves of India; declared as a national park in 1955.
 Flora: lush green forests of Kanha, composed majorly of Sal (Shorea Robusta) and
other mixed forest trees
 Fauna: Tiger, Hard ground Barasingha, Gaurs, Leopard, Dhole, Indian python etc.
▪ Panna National Park: Located in Vindhya Hill in northern Madhya Pradesh; Ken
river flows through it; Vindhyas hill runs in North-East to South West Direction through
panna national park.
 Fauna: Tiger, leopard, hyaena, wild dog, Sloth bear, White necked stork, chital
and chowsingha, sambar the largest of Indian deers, Blue Bull and chinkara.
 Flora: Dominant vegetation is Dry Deciduous forest with tall grasses and thorny
woodlands.
(Revision Notes)
▪ Pench National park: It is in Seoni and Chhindwara districts of MP; Pench river flows
through the park from north to south.
 Flora: Teak, mahua, palash, plum, tendu, moyan, sajja etc.
 Fauna: Tiger, leopard, jackal, fox, wolf, Gaur, nilgai, Sambhar, chital, chinkara,
wild dogs; various migratory birds such as Pintail, ruddy shelduck, whistling teal
etc.
o Odisha
▪ Simlipal National park: Situated in Mayurbhanj district; part of Simlipal-Kuldiha-
Hadgarh elephant reserve; listed under UNESCO World network of Biosphere reserve.
 Flora: It has 1,076 flowering species and 96 species of orchids; tropical semi-
evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous hill forests, high
level sal forests and sprawling meadows.
 Fauna: Gaurs (Indian bison), chausingha, orchidarium etc.
 Tribes: Erenga Kharias and the Mankirdias, inhabit the reserve’s forests and
practise traditional agricultural activities
▪ Bhitarkanika National park: Located in kendrapara district of Odisha; second largest
mangrove ecosystem in the country, also a Ramsar site; inundated by rivers like
Brahmani, Baitrani and Pathsala.
 Fauna: Salt water crocodile, Olive ridley turtles, Indian python, black ibis etc.
 Flora: Mangroves (Sundari and thespian); grasses like Indigo, bush etc.
o Maharastra
▪ Tadoba National park: It is Maharastra’s oldest and largest national park; located
in Chandrapur district.
 Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian leopards, Sloth bears, guar, nilgai, Indian civet etc.
 Flora: Southern tropical dry deciduous and Teak is the most common tree.
o Karnataka
▪ Bandipur National park: Established in 1974 as a tiger reserve located in Mysore
district of Karnataka; known for its wildlife and part of Nilgiri biosphere reserve.
 Flora: Teak, rosewood, sandalwood etc.
 Fauna: Tiger, elephant, Gaur, Sambhar, Muggers, jackals, Indian giant squirrels,
chital etc.
▪ Nagarhole national park: Located in Kodagu and Mysore district of Karnataka; part of
Nilgiri biosphere reserve; also an important bird area (IBA).
 Fauna: Tigers, Gaurs, Indian elephants etc.
 Tribes: Jenu kurubas are primary inhabitants.
▪ Kudremukh national park: It is located in Dakshin kannada district of Karnataka.
 Flora: large scale plantations of eucalyptus, casuarinas etc.
 Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, wild dog, Malabar giant squirrel, common langur, sloth bear,
barking deer etc.
o Kerala
▪ Silent valley national park: It forms core of Nilgiri international biosphere reserve and
part of Western Ghat world heritage site recognized by UNESCO; river kunthi traverses
through valley.
 Fauna: Lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Malabar Giant squirrel, Nilgri tahr etc.
▪ Periyar National park: Declared as a national park in 1982; forms major watershed of
two important rivers periyar and pamba.
 Fauna: Tiger, Elephant, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Tahr; birds such as Darters,
Cormorants, Kingfishers, the great Malabar Hornbill and racket-tailed Drongos etc.
(Revision Notes)
 Flora: comprises tropical evergreen, semi evergreen, moist deciduous forests and
grasslands; Some are endemic to the region like Syzygium periyarensis (a tree),
Habenaria periyarensis (an orchid) and Mucuna pruriense thekkadiensis (a climber)
etc.
o Tamil Nadu
▪ Mukurthi national park: Located in western corner of Nilgiri plateau part of Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO World Heritage Site) along with Mudumalai Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park, Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary and Silent Valley.
 Fauna: Keystone species is Nilgiri Tahr; other fauna includes tiger, elephant,
Nilgiri marten, Nilgiri langur etc.
 Flora: Characterized by montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with
sholas.
 Peaks: The Park is also home to Mukurthi Peak, one of the highest peaks in the
Nilgiri Hills.
 Tribes: Todas are a pastoral tribe of the Nilgiri Hills.
▪ Mudumalai National park: It is part of Nilgiri biosphere reserves; Moyar river
separates Bandipur and Madumalai.
 Flora: tall grasses, commonly referred to as Elephant Grass; Bamboo of the giant
variety, valuable timber species like Teak, Rosewood, etc.
 Fauna: Flagship Species are Tiger and Asian Elephant; Other species are Indian
Gaur, Spotted Deer, Common Langur, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Wild Dog, Jungle
Cat among others; rare birds like Malabar grey hornbill, Malabar pied hornbill,
Malabar laughing thrush among others.
National Parks in News

India
 Kalesar national park: Located in Yamunanagar District of Haryana + Situated in the foothills
of the Shiwalik ranges of the Himalayas + River Yamuna lies to its east + Rajaji National Park,
which is located in Uttrakhand, lies to the northeast of the park + Morni Hills lies to the west +
Kalesar Mahadev temple located inside the premise of the park + Flora: tall and dense sal trees;
Semul, Bahera, Amaltas, Shisham, Khair, Sain, Chhal and Jhingan + Fauna: It houses many
threatened animals like leopards, Ghoral, Barking deer, Sambar, Chital, Python, King Cobra,
Monitor lizard etc.
 Eravikulam National Park = It is located in the High Ranges (Kannan Devan Hills) of the
Southern Western Ghats in Kerala + It hosts South India's highest peak, Anamudi (2695 m) +
Three major types of plant communities found in the park are: Grasslands, Shrub Land and Shola
Forests + It houses the special Neelakurinji flowers (Strobilantheskunthianam) that bloom once
every 12 years and the next sighting is expected to be in 2030 + The park holds the largest viable
population of the endangered Nilgiri Tahr.
 Bannerghatta National Park = Karnataka + In 2002 a portion of the park became a biological
reserve, the Bannerghatta Biological Park. It is the first biological park in India to have a fenced
forested elephant sanctuary + In 2006, India's first butterfly enclosure was inaugurated at the
park + Suvarnamukhi stream, the main source of water for the animals of the park, runs through
the centre of the park + There are three types of vegetation that can be found: Dry Deciduous
Scrub Forests, Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests and Southern Tropical Moist Mixed
Forests.
(Revision Notes)
 Bandhavgarh National Park = Madhya Pradesh + It is spread over the Vindhya hills + It was
declared a national park in 1968 and then became Tiger Reserve in 1993 + It is known for the
Royal Bengal Tigers. The density of the tiger population at Bandhavgarh is the highest known in
India as well as in the world + It is mostly of dry deciduous type + Archaeologists have recently
uncovered several archaeological treasures from the Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya
Pradesh.
 Kanger Valley National Park = Chhattisgarh + The National Park derives its name from the
Kanger River, which flows centrally from the Northwest to the Southeast direction + Tirathgarh
Waterfall is located in Kanger Valley National Park + A rare Indian mouse deer or spotted
Chevrotain was recently spotted in the Kanger Valley National Park in Chhattisgarh.
 Kishtwar High Altitude National Park = Kishtwar district of union territory of Jammu and
Kashmir + Recently, the research team of the Department of Wildlife Protection has confirmed
the presence of snow leopard in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park through camera trap
photographs + The area lies in the central crystalline belt of the great Himalayas and the tract is
situated on the high altitudes i.e., sub-alpine and alpine zone + The National Park encompasses
the catchment area of Kiber, Nanth and Kiyar Nallas, all of which drain south-west into Marwah
River (locally called Mariv Sudir) which later joins Chenab.
 Anamudi Shola National Park = Kerala + It is surrounded by Eravikulam National Park,
Pampadum Shola National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary and Mathikettan Shola Park + It
consists of southern subtropical hill forests, southern montane wet temperate forests and moist
deciduous forests.
 Singalila national park = It is the highest protected area, located on the Singalila Ridge, in the
Darjeeling district of West Bengal + The park was initially a wildlife sanctuary + In 1992 it was
converted into a national park. In 1994, it was declared a major wild habitat for the red panda.
World
 Yellowstone national park: First national park in the US and is also widely held to be the first
national park in the world + The park is known for its Old Faithful geyser + The subalpine forest
is the most abundant + It is part of the South-Central Rockies forests ecoregion + Yellowstone
Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the
Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcanic on the continent.
 Yasuni national park: Located in Ecuador between the Napo and Curaray Rivers in Napo,
Pastaza, and Orellana Provinces in Amazonian Ecuador + Lies within the Napo moist forests
ecoregion and is primarily rain forest + Designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1989 + It
is within the claimed ancestral territory of the Waorani indigenous people + home to two
uncontacted indigenous tribes, the Tagaeri and the Taromenane.
 Chitwan national park: First-ever national park set up in Nepal. It was founded in 1973 as the
Royal Chitwan National Park + It became a World Heritage Site in 1984. This park encompasses
a massive area of 952.63 km2 (367.81 sq mi) + It is located in the subtropical Inner Terai
lowlands of south-central Nepal + Threats such as illegal fishing and sand mining are causing
major threats to the mugger crocodile of the Rapti River that flows along the Chitwan National
Park (CNP).
(Revision Notes)
(Revision Notes)
3. Important Tiger Reserves

● Pakhui (Pakke tiger reserve): It is located in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh +
Bounded by Kameng river in west and north and by Pakke river in the east + Habitat types are
lowland semi-evergreen, evergreen and Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf forests + It adjoins reserve
forests and Assam’s Nameri national park.
● Kaziranga tiger reserve (Assam): It is located on the edge of Eastern Himalaya biodiversity
hotspot + It is famous for Great one-horned rhinoceros + It is an elephant reserve, national park
and Biodiversity hotspot + It is also a world heritage site by UNESCO.
● Manas tiger reserve (Assam): It is a national park, UNESCO heritage site, tiger reserve and an
elephant reserve + It is contiguous to Royal Manas national park in Bhutan + It is famous for
Assam roof turtle, hispid hare, golden langur, pygmy hog and wild water buffalo.
● Dampa tiger reserve (Mizoram): It is located in Lushai hills + As per the latest tiger census, it
has no tiger found in this reserve + It consists of rare florals species such as Hemiorchis
pantlingii and Globba spathulata.
● Rajaji tiger reserve (Uttarakhand): It is nestled between Shivalik ranges and Indo-Gangetic
plains + Ganga and Song rivers passes through the reserve + Major animals which are found here
are Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Leopard, Jungle etc.
● Jim Corbett tiger reserve (Uttarakhand): It is the oldest national park created in India in 1936
+ It encompasses the Patli Dun valley formed by Ramganga river + It is the first tiger reserve to
come under Project Tiger initiative + It is covered under WWF for Nature under their Terai Arc
landscape.
● Dudhawa (Uttar Pradesh) : In the Terai belt of marshy grasslands of (Lakhimpur Kheri
district) northern Uttar Pradesh + Fauna : Swamp deer, Sambar deer, barking deer, spotted deer,
hog deer, sloth beer, ratel, jackal, civets, jungle cats, fishing cat, leopard cat + It is the only place
in U.P. where both Tigers and Rhinos can be spotted together
● Valmiki tiger reserve (Bihar): It is located at the India-Nepal border + It is surrounded by river
Gandak and encompasses foothills ranges of Himalayan Sivaliks with mosaic of cliffs + Major
animals in the reserve are barking deer, spotted deer, sambar, spotted hyena etc.
● Sunderbans tiger reserve (West Bengal): It is located in the Ganges delta + It is a national
park, tiger reserve, biosphere reserve and Ramsar site + It is the only mangrove forest in the
world inhabited by tigers + It is a UNESCO World heritage site.
● Simlipal tiger reserve (Odisha): It is part of Mayurbhanj elephant reserve and part of World
network of biosphere reserves + It is famous for waterfalls such as Joranda and Barehipani falls.
● Satkosia tiger reserve (Odisha): It comprises of Satkosia Gorge wildlife sanctuary and
Baisipalli wildlife sanctuary + Mahanadi river passes through the reserve + It is considered as
Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion.
● Ranthambore (Rajasthan) : Included Sawai Man Singh Sanctuary and Keladevi Sanctuary +
Fauna : Indian leopard, Nilgai, Wild boar, Sambar, Striped hyena, Sloth bear + Rivers : Banas
and Chambal rivers + The forest type is mainly tropical dry deciduous with ‘dhak’ (Butea
monsoperma), a species of tree capable of withstanding long periods of drought, being the
commonest + This tree is also called as ‘Flame of forest’.
● Sariska (Rajasthan) : Sariska Tiger Reserve is located in Aravali hills and forms a part of
the Alwar District of Rajasthan + Popular for copper and marble mining + Fauna : Indian
leopard, jungle cat, caracal, striped hyena, golden jackal, chital, sambar deer, nilgai + All tigers
in Sariska became extinct in 2005 + The Sanctuary houses ruined temples, forts, pavilions, and a
palace.
● Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan) : It was notified in the Year 1982 + Ramgarh
Vishdhari WLS acts as a buffer for Ranthambore National Park + The sanctuary is covered
(Revision Notes)
with deciduous forests + Its flora consists of Dhok, Khair, Salar, Khirni trees with some Mango
and Ber trees + The Fauna consists of birds and animals like Leopard, Sambhar, Wild boar,
Chinkara, Sloth bear, Indian Wolf, Hyena, Jackal, Fox, deer, and Crocodile
● Kanha tiger reserve (Madhya Pradesh): It is the largest national park of Madhya Pradesh and
Central India + It is the first tiger reserve to have a mascot Bhoorsingh, the Barasingha + It is
predominantly inhabited by the Baiga tribe + Major animal life in the reserve are Royal Bengal
tiger, Indian leopards, Sloth bear, Barasingha and Indian wild dog.
● Guru Ghasidas Tiger Reserve (Chhattisgarh): National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA) has designated the combined areas of the Guru Ghasidas National Park (Sanjay
National Park) and Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary as a Tiger Reserve + It is located in
the northern part of Chhattisgarh, bordering Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand + Fourth Tiger
Reserve in Chhattisgarh, after the Udanti-Sitanadi, Achanakmar, and Indravati Reserves + Last
known habitat of the Asiatic cheetah in the country + Flora: The vegetation consists mainly of
mixed deciduous forest with teak, sal and bamboo trees + Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Chital,
Nilgai, Chinkara, Jackal, Sambar, Four-horned Antelope etc.
● Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kerala) : Sabrimala temple + Periyar and Pamba rivers + Cardamom
hills and Pandalam hills + Mullaperiyar dam + Six tribal communities nestled inside the reserve
such as Mannans, Paliyans, Malayarayans, Mala Pandarams, Uralis, and Ulladans + Fauna :
Tiger, Elephant, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Tahr, etc.
● Nagarhole Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) : It is also known as Rajiv Gandhi National Park + The
Park lies in the Western Ghats and is a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve + Fauna : Tiger,
Gaur, Elephant, Indian Leopard, Deer + Brahmagiri hills + Kabini reservoir separates Bandipore
and Nagarhole + Nagarahole River flows through the park, which joins the Kabini River which
also is a boundary between Nagarahole and Bandipur National Park.
● Amrabad Tiger Reserve = Amrabad Tiger Reserve lies in Nallamala hills of Telangana + It is
India’s second-largest tiger reserve, next only to Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve
(Andhra Pradesh and Telangana) + It has a large presence of the Chenchu tribe + It contains
ruins of the ancient Nagarjuna Viswa Vidyalayam run by the great Buddhist scholar
Nagarjunacharya (150 AD) + The reserve was notified as a sanctuary in the year 1983 and after
the bifurcation of Telugu States in 2014, it was declared as Amrabad Tiger Reserve + It lies in
the three forest divisions of Amarabad, Achampet in Nagarkurnool district, and Nagarjuna Sagar
division in Nalgonda district + Major reservoirs like the Srisailam Dam and Nagarjuna Sagar
Dam are fed by the river Krishna and its several perennial streams that originate in the Tiger
Reserve + (Chenchu Tribe = The Chenchus are a Scheduled Tribe in the Indian states of Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Odisha. Many Chenchus live in the dense Nallamala forest
of Andhra Pradesh + They are an aboriginal tribe whose traditional way of life has been based on
hunting and gathering + The Chenchus speak the Chenchu language, a member of the Dravidian
language family + Chenchu's relationship with non-tribal people has been largely symbiotic)
● Kawal Tiger Reserve = Telangana + This sanctuary is catchment for the rivers Godavari and
Kadam + The sanctuary is one of the richest teak forests in the state, with dense pristine areas
free of human disturbance + It is a central Indian Tiger Landscape having – a southern Tropical
Dry Deciduous Forest.
● Kalakkad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) = Location in Tirunelveli & Kanyakumari
Districts, Tamil Nadu + It was declared as the “First Tiger Reserve of Tamil Nadu” and the 17th
Tiger Reserve of the country + It consists of the Kanyakumari Wildlife sanctuary in the south
and the Nellai Wildlife Sanctuary in the North + The river Thamirabarani originates from this
tiger reserve + The reserve is also known as the “River Sanctuary” with as many as 14 rivers
originating from this Tiger Reserve.
(Revision Notes)
● Namdapha Tiger Reserve = Arunachal Pradesh + Namdapha is the name of a river which
originates from Daphabum and meets the Noa-Dehing river + This river flows right across in a
North-South direction of the National Park and hence the name Namdapha has been given + This
protected area is wedged between the Dapha Bum ridge of Mishmi Hills, of North Eastern
Himalayas and the Patkai Ranges.
● Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve = Madhya Pradesh + It is situated in the northeastern part of the
state of MP and is bordered by the Guru Ghasidas National Park on the south + It consists of
Sanjay National Park and Dubri Sanctuary, along with buffer areas taken from Sidhi and Shahdol
districts + The reserve is part of the Bandhavgarh-Sanjay-Guru Ghasidas-Palamau landscape +
Rivers: Banas, Gopad, Mawai, Mahan, Kodmar, Umrari and others + Forest comprises of North
Indian moist deciduous peninsular sal and North Indian dry deciduous peninsular sal. Forests in
Dubri sanctuary range from dense to open sal forests with remains of degraded bamboo stumps.
● Nagarjunasagar - Srisailam Tiger Reserve = The Tiger reserve is spread over 5 districts in
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The area consists mostly of the Nallamala Hills + This is the
largest tiger reserve in the country spreading over an area of 5937 Sq. Km + The multipurpose
reservoirs: Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar are located in the reserve + The Krishna river cuts the
basin of this reserve + According to the 5th cycle of Management Effectiveness Evaluation
(MEE) carried out by the Centre the MEE rating of Nagarjunasagar- Srisailam Tiger Reserve
improves from ‘Good’ to ‘Very Good’
● Parambikulam Tiger Reserve = It also includes erstwhile Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. It
is a protected area in Palakkad district of Kerala. It was established in 1973 + The sanctuary lies
in Sungam range of hills in between Anaimalai Hills and Nelliampathy Hills + Parambikulam
Wildlife Sanctuarywas declared a part of Parambikulam Tiger Reserve in 2010 + The reserve is
credited with first scientifically managed teak plantation in world which was later merged with
the forest land + It has world’s largest and oldest teak tree named “Kannimara” + It is home to
four different tribes of indigenous peoples including Kadar, Malasar, Muduvar and Mala Malasar
+ The Western Ghats, Anamalai Sub-Cluster, including all of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
has been declared by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee as a World Heritage Site.
● Biligiri Ranganathaswamy Temple (BRT) Tiger Reserve = Karnataka State + This unique
Bio-geographical habitat is in the middle of the bridge between Western and Eastern ghats in
South India + The tiger reserve derives its name from 'BILIGIRI ', the white rocky cliff which
has a temple of Lord 'VISHNU' locally known as ‘Rangaswamy’ + The major forest types of the
reserve are: Southern Tropical Evergreen forests, Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen forests and
Southern Tropical Moist deciduous forests.
● Kali Tiger Reserve = Karnataka + earlier known as Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve + It is a part
of the Western Ghats + The Tiger Reserve comprises of two important protected areas of the
region viz., Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary and Anshi National Park + Kali River, which forms the
major source of water for Uttara Kannada, flows through the tiger reserve and hence the name +
Forests are primarily moist deciduous and semi-evergreen, with excellent patches of evergreen
forests in the westernmost parts as well as in deep valleys + It is known for housing many tigers,
black panthers and elephants.
● Amangarh Tiger Reserve = Uttar Pradesh + It was originally part of the Jim Corbett National
Park, and after the state of Uttarakhand was carved out of Uttar Pradesh, Jim Corbett went to
Uttarakhandand Amangarh remained in Uttar Pradesh.
● Kanger Valley National Park = Chhattisgarh + The National Park derives its name from the
Kanger River, which flows centrally from the Northwest to the Southeast direction + Tirathgarh
Waterfall is located in Kanger Valley National Park + A rare Indian mouse deer or spotted
Chevrotain was recently spotted in the Kanger Valley National Park in Chhattisgarh
(Revision Notes)
● Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR) = It is located in the Sahyadri Ranges of Western Ghats in
Maharashtra + It combines the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary and the Chandoli National Park in the
southern part of Maharashtra + The region of the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve includes the area
around the Koyna Dam, Warna River and many other small rivers and streams originating from
the Western Ghats and flowing to the east + Vegetation: Evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist
deciduous forests + The habitat of Sahyadri is composed of woodlands, grasslands and plateau,
latter locally referred to as “Sadaa”, which are lateritic in nature with considerable habitat value.
● Katepurna Wildlife Sanctuary = Maharashtra + The sanctuary derives its name from the
Katepurna River, which flows south to Northward almost through the central part of the
sanctuary + Vegetation: Southern tropical dry deciduous forest + The main species are Ain,
Dhawada, Kalamb, Salai, Haldu, Medshing, Tendu etc. Trees of Vad, Umber, Arjun, and
Kalamb are found in moist areas.
● Nawegaon Nagzira Tiger Reserve (NNTR) = Maharashtra + It comprises Nawegaon National
Park, Nawegaon Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagzira Wildlife Sanctuary, New Nagzira Wildlife
Sanctuary and Koka Wildlife Sanctuary.
● Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve = popularly known as Darrah Wildlife Sanctuary + Rajasthan +
The park is situated in a valley formed by two parallel mountains viz. Mukundra and Gargola +
It consists of three wildlife sanctuaries: Darrah wildlife sanctuary, Chambal wildlife sanctuary
and Jaswant Sagar wildlife sanctuary + It is located on the eastern bank of the Chambal River
and is drained by its tributaries + Vegetation: Dry Deciduous Forest + Anogeissus pendula (Kala
Dhok or Kaladhi) is the predominant species, along with Khair (Acacia catechu), Ber (Zizyphus
mauratiana), Kakan (Flacourtia indica), Raunj (Acacia lecofolia) etc.
● Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve = It was notified as tiger reserve in 2022 + Bundi District,
Rajasthan + It is in continuation with the buffer area of Ranthambore tiger reserve on the North-
eastern side and Mukundara Hills tiger reserve on the southern side + Mez, a tributary of the
Chambal River, passes through the tiger reserve + Vegetation: Dry Deciduous Forest.
● Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR) = It is spread across the districts of Theni,
Virudhunagar and Madurai in Tamil Nadu + It lies in the Western Ghats region + It was formed
in 2021 by combining Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary and Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
● Kamlang Tiger Reserve = Arunachal Pradesh + It is named after Kamlang River, which flows
through the reserve and joins Brahmaputra + It is spread between Namdapha National Park on its
south and Lang River on its north + The local inhabitants are Hishmi, Digaru and Mizo.
● Melghat Tiger Reserve (MTR) = Maharashtra + It is located on the southern offshoot of the
Satpura Hill Range in Central India, called Gavilgarh Hill + It was established as a wildlife
sanctuary in 1967 and was declared a tiger reserve in 1974 + The reserve is a catchment area for
five major rivers: the Khandu, Khapra, Sipna, Gadga, and Dolar, all are tributaries of the river
Tapti + Tribes: The Korkus are the largest tribal community in Melghat. Other communities
include the Gawli community, the Gond tribe, and several other smaller tribal communities.
● Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve = Tamil Nadu + This reserve is a mixture of three
main sanctuaries: Kalakad Sanctuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, and a part of Kanyakumari
Sanctuary + The reserve is also known as the “River Sanctuary”, with as many as 14 rivers
originating from this Tiger Reserve.
● Kamlang Tiger Reserve = Arunachal Pradesh + Kamlang is contiguous to the Namdapha Tiger
Reserve, which is better known than Kamlang + It is a home to the Mishmi communities + It is
also home to all four big cats (tiger, leopard, clouded leopard and snow leopard) + It hosts
several species of hornbills such as Rufousnecked hornbills are common and Wreathed hornbills
visit in the winters + Other Places in Arunachal Pradesh.
(Revision Notes)
In News
1. Lemru Elephant Reserve = natural elephant habitat in Chhattisgarh + Last year, state govt has
proposed to decrease its area to 450sqkm + Area proposed under reserve is part of Hasdeo
Aranya forests, a very diverse biozone that is also rich in coal deposits + Other Protected Areas
in State: Achanakmar TR, Indravati TR, Sitanadi-Udanti TR, Kanger Valley NP and Badalkhol
Tamor Pingla Elephant Reserve + Recently, Union Coal Ministry said that Coal India Limited’s
(CIL) 40 coal blocks in and around Lemru Elephant Corridor (LEC) will not be auctioned at
request of Chhattisgarh govt.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 13: MAJOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA
Wildlife sanctuary: WPA act of 1972 provided for declaration of certain areas by state government as
wildlife sanctuaries if area was thought to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural
significance; more than 500 WLS in India.
● Human activities: Some restricted human activities are allowed in WLS as specified in the
Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
● Highest number of wildlife sanctuaries located in Andaman& Nicobar Islands (96).
National Park Wildlife sanctuaries
Commercial exploitation of forest produce not Commercial exploitation of forest produced not
allowed. allowed.
Comparatively Greater protection Hunting is prohibited without permission.
Activities like hunting, grazing and human Grazing and movement of cattle are permitted.
settlement are prohibited.
They are broad in nature. WLS can be created for a particular species.
WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN NEWS
1. Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary: Declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 2004, located within the
larger Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve, which spreads across the coal rich districts of Upper Assam.
● Fauna: Chinese pangolin, flying fox, wild pig, sambar, barking deer and Malayan giant
squirrels; only sanctuary home to seven different species of wild cats - tiger, leopard, clouded
leopard, leopard cat, golden cat, jungle cat and marbled cat.
● Flora: Deciduous rainforest interspersed with semi-evergreen and lush green flora.
2. Malai Mahadeshwara Hills Wildlife Sanctuary: Contiguous to Biligiri Ranganathaswamy Temple
Tiger Reserve and Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu + Declared as a WLS in 2013.
● Flora: Mainly of dry deciduous type degrading to scrub forests in fringe areas and interspersed
with patches of moist deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests.
● Fauna: Abundance of species like gaur, sambar, chital, four-horned antelope, wild boar,
honey badger and grizzled giant squirrel.
3. Karlapat Wildlife Sanctuary: It is a wildlife sanctuary located in the Kalahandi district in
Odisha; famous for the lush green dry deciduous forest + Waterfalls located are Phurlijharan,
Ghusrigudi, Koyirupa, Kuang, and Raja Rani.
● Fauna: leopard, gaur, sambar, nilgai, barking deer, mouse deer, soft claws ottawa and wide
variety of birds.
● Flora: Sal, Bija, Asan, Harida and Bamboo and varieties of medicinal plants.
4. Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary: located on foothills of Western Ghats and contains in it
Mollem National Park (MNP); home to famous Dudhsagar waterfall and the Devil’s Canyon.
● Flora: Primary species of trees found include Terminalia, Lagerstroemia (crepe myrtle), Xylia
and Dalbergia (timber trees).
● Fauna: Deer, sambar, spotted deer, hog, mouse deer and barking deer, tiger, leopard cat,
panther, lesser Indian civet, giant squirrel, flying squirrel etc.
5. Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary: only sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh with Asian elephants.
● Flora: covered by southern tropical dry deciduous and thorn forests; important flora
includes Albizia amara, Acacia, Lagerstroemia, Ficus, bamboo.
● Fauna: Elephant, Sloth bear, chowsingha, sambar, jackal, starred tortoise & slender loris.
(Revision Notes)
6. Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary: Located in Ri Bhoi district of Meghalaya, one of the best
protected areas in the Northeast; falls in the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot + It is drained
by rivers and streams like Umran, Umming and Umpurthih.
● Fauna: Royal Bengal Tiger, Clouded Leopard, Indian Bison, and Himalayan Black Bear, etc.
● Avifauna: Manipur Bush Quail, Rufous Necked Hornbill and Brown Hornbill.
7. Bhindwas Wildlife sanctuary: Located in Jhajjar, it is largest in Haryana + Important part of the
ecological corridor along the route of Sahibi River which traverses from Aravalli hills in Rajasthan
to the Yamuna.
● Fauna: major wildlife supported here are neelgai, geedar, langur and Bandar, blue peafowl,
rufous treepie, greater coucal, Indian grey hornbill, barbet, etc.
8. Thol lake wildlife sanctuary: situated in Gujarat; lies on the Central Asian Flyway; declared as a
wildlife sanctuary in 1988.
● Bird species: The lake supports more than 30 threatened waterbird species like White-
rumped Vulture & Sociable Lapwing; and vulnerable Sarus Crane and Common Pochard.
9. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary: It is located in Assam and often called ‘Mini Kaziranga’ due to
similar landscape and vegetation; highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and second
highest concentration in Assam after Kaziranga National Park.
● Fauna: home to endangered one-horned rhinoceros and the other mammals such as Leopard,
Leopard cat, Fishing cat, Jungle cat, Feral Buffalo, Wild pigs, Chinese pangolins, etc.
● Flora: wet savannah of Arundo donax and Saccharum; Water hyacinth (an invasive aquatic
plant) is a major problem to the area
10. Wayanad wildlife sanctuary: It is second largest wildlife sanctuary in Kerala; formed in 1973
and was brought under Project Elephant in 1991–92; integral part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
● Flora: contains species of Moist deciduous forest consists of maruthi, karimaruthi, rosewood,
venteak, vengal, chadachi, mazhukanjiram, bamboos.
● Fauna: Elephants, tigers, panthers, jungle cats, civet cats, monkeys, wild dogs, bisons, deer,
bears, monitor lizards and a variety of snakes are seen also Peacocks, babblers, cuckoos, owls,
woodpeckers and jungle fowls.
11. Barnadi wildlife sanctuary: located in northern Assam’s Baksa and Udalguri districts bordering
Bhutan; bordered by the Barnadi river and Nalapara river to the west and east respectively.
● Fauna: Established specifically to protect the Pygmy Hog, Hispid Hare, Asian Elephant, Tiger
and Gaur Bos frontalis.
● Flora: commercial plantations of Bombax ceiba, Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus thatch grasses.
12. Tamor pingla wildlife sanctuary: located in the Surajpur district of Chhattisgarh. It is named
after Tamor hill and Pingla Nalla.
● Flora: Mixed deciduous forests dominate the sanctuary. Sal and bamboo forests are seen.
● Fauna: Tigers, Elephants, leopards, bears, sambar deer, blue bulls, chital and bison.
13. Khijadiya wildlife sanctuary:part of the Central Asian Flyway, fourth wetland of Gujarat to get
the Ramsar tag; freshwater wetland near the coast of the Gulf of Kutch; now part of Marine
National Park, Jamnagar, the first marine national park in the country.
14. Kajoijana Bamuni Hill Wildlife Sanctuary: located in Assam and Kakoijana Wildlife Sanctuary is
home to the endangered species of Golden Langur.
● Fauna: Home to endangered species like Binturong, Jungle Fowl, Pangolin, Porcupine, Leopard,
Hornbill, Python, Stork, Lesser Adjutant, Monitor Lizard, Flying Squirrel, Civets.
15. Askot wildlife sanctuary: Established in 1986 to protect the endangered Musk Deer and its habitat;
known as ‘Green Paradise on the Earth’.
● Fauna: snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep, serow loong,
monal, kalij pheasant besides musk deer.
(Revision Notes)
16. Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary: The Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary is located in the little Rann of Kutch
in Gujarat, India, and covers an area of 4954 square KMs + This establishment is also known as the
Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary and was built in 1972 under the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act + The
establishment acts as the only home to the endangered Indian Wild Ass and is centred towards
preserving the species.
17. Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary: It is located about 12 km from Jaipur + The sanctuary has been
named Nahar, because it falls under Nahar Village (Nahad village) + It encompasses a large area of
720 hectares and is situated under the Aravalli range + It is home to 285 species of birds, Asiatic
lions, Bengal tigers, sloth bear, hyenas, panthers, deer, crocodiles etc + Nahargarh Biological Park
(NBP) is famous for the lion safaris + It has now become a convenient breeding centre of lions.
18. Bhitarkanika National Park: It is located in Kendrapara district in Odisha + The area has been
designated as second Ramsar site of the State after the Chilika Lake + It is surrounded by
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary. Gahirmatha Beach and Marine Sanctuary are to the east, separating
swamp region and mangroves from the Bay of Bengal + The national park and wildlife sanctuary is
inundated by the rivers Brahmani, Baitarani, Dhamra, Pathsala + It is the second largest mangrove
ecosystem in India.
19. Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary : It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2003 + It is in the
suburbs of Mumbai + Tungareshwar is a mountain plateau situated between Virar and Vasai +
Spread over 85 sq.km, it forms a corridor between Sanjay Gandhi National Park (also known as
Borivali National Park) and Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary + There are three different types of forests –
Dry Deciduous, Moist Deciduous and Semi Evergreen + Fauna : Oriental dwarf kingfisher (a
migrant bird known as the Jewel of the forest), the Leopard, Wild Boar, Barking Deer, Langur,
Bonnet and Rhesus Macaque, and Black-naped Hare, as well as a multitude of birds, including the
Crested Serpent-eagle, Jungle Owlet, White-eyed Buzzard, Oriental Honey-buzzard, Emerald Dove
and Heart-spotted Woodpecker
20. Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary : Located in Churu district of Shekhawati region of Rajasthan,
Tal Chappar Wildlife Sanctuary is famous for blackbucks and variety of birds. The sanctuary is
named after the Chhapar village and its open grasslands scattered with trees give it the appearance of
a savannah + Tal Chappar is a flat saline depression locally known as a "tal" that has a unique
ecosystem in the heart of the Thar Desert.
21. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary : It is a wildlife sanctuary in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala,
India. It consists of the catchment area of the Karamana River, which originates from
Chemmunjimottai, the tallest hill within the sanctuary. The sanctuary is named after the Peppara
Dam. The area of the sanctuary is 75 km with tropical moist evergreen forests and myristica
swamps.
22. The Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary : It is in the southern state of Kerala in India is spread over the
southeast corner of the Western Ghats, This is the drainage basin for the Neyyar River and its
tributaries - Mullayar and Kallar. The towering peak of Agasthyamalai at an elevation of 1868
meters is a very prominent landmark.
23. Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary : Andhra Pradesh + It is the second largest stretch of mangrove forests
in India with 24 mangrove tree species and more than 120 bird species + It is home to the critically
endangered white- backed vulture and the long billed vulture + The sanctuary is a part of + the
Godavari estuary and has extensive mangrove and dry deciduous tropical forest + About half of the
area is the backwater.
24. Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary = The Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, 200 km from Lucknow,
is a part of the Dudhwa tiger reserve + It covers an area in Terai belt of Bahraich district in Uttar
Pradesh + It is part of Dudhwa Tiger Reserve Lakhimpur kheri + In 1987, it was brought under the
purview of the 'Project Tiger' + It provides strategic connectivity between tiger habitats of Dudhwa
(Revision Notes)
and Kishanpur in India and the Bardia National Park in Nepal + Katarniaghat is home to a wide
range of endangered species, including the rhino, Gangetic dolphin, gharial, swamp deer, tiger,
white-backed and long-billed vultures and Hispid hare.
25. Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary = West Bengal + Established in 1977 Ballavpur WS is also known
as Deer Park + The sanctuary has a deer conservation park which is home to a large number of deer
including Cheethals (Spotted Deer) and the Blackbucks + The water bodies, three large lakes, of the
sanctuary are important sites for migratory water birds, including Lesser Whistlings, Pintails, and
Teals + The sanctuary has dense local vegetation of Sal, Akashmoni, Sishoo, Cashewnut, Amlaki,
Bahera and Haritaki.
26. Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary = Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area in the
Western Ghats, India, located in Kollam district of Kerala + It comes under the control of
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve + The first eco-tourism project in India, Thenmala Eco-tourism
Project has been formulated in and around Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary +This Sanctuary derives
its name from Chenkurinji (Gluta travancorica), a species endemic to this region + Tropical
evergreen and semi-evergreen forests cover a major area of the sanctuary + Recently, nearly 450
species of birds, odonates, butterflies, arachnids and mammals were documented during the annual
faunal survey held recently in Shendurney wildlife sanctuary. Many species were recorded for the
first time in the protected area to enhance its faunal diversity.
27. Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary = protected area in the Indian state of Goa in the Western Ghats of
South India + There are a number of waterfalls within the sanctuary like Vazra Sakla Falls and the
Virdi Falls + The sanctuary is thickly forested with moist deciduous vegetation and some evergreen
species too. The sanctuary is particularly well-known for its sacred groves that protect rare and
indigenous trees.
28. Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary = Ladakh + This sanctuary extends to Pangong Tso, Tso Moriri
and Tso Kar Lake + The Korzok Monastery located in this sanctuary is a major tourist attraction + It
is home to important species like the rare snow leopard, black-necked stork and kiang or wild ass +
The Dark Sky Reserve in Ladakh is a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary + Recently, the
Standing committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) has cleared the setting up of a new
Indian Air Force base in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary in Eastern Ladakh.
29. Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary = Assam + It comprises three Reserve forests-Khanapara, Amchang,
and South Amchang + It stretches from the Brahmaputra River in the north to the hilly forests of
Meghalaya in the south, forming a continuous forest belt through Meghalaya's Maradakdola Reserve
Forests.
30. Sunabeda Wildlife Sanctuary = Odisha + It adjoins the Sitanadi and Udanti sanctuaries of
Chhattisgarh + It also forms the catchment area of the Jonk River, over which a dam has been
constructed to facilitate irrigation + The important vegetation of this sanctuary comprises dry
deciduous tropical forests.
31. Barda Wildlife Sanctuary = Located in Gujarat + It is characteristically abundant in floral
diversity, which consists of a good number of medicinal plants + Gujarat government has proposed a
second home for Asiatic lions in Gujarat at Barda Wildlife Sanctuary, about 100km away from their
present home at Gir National Park. A report on “Lion@2047: A vision for Amrutkal”, prepared by
the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) for the Gujarat government, has identified Barda as a potential
site where a population of 40 adult and sub-adult lions can be accommodated in the larger landscape
of Barda-Alech hills and coastal forests.
32. Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary = Goa + one of the vital corridors of the Western Ghats + Netravali
or Neturli is an important tributary of River Zuari, which originates in the sanctuary + Forests mostly
consist of moist deciduous vegetation interspersed with evergreen and semi-evergreen habitat; there
(Revision Notes)
are also two all-season waterfalls in the sanctuary + Netravali WLS has two all-season waterfalls,
namely Savri and Mainapi.
33. Satkosia Wildlife Sanctuary = situated on the banks of the Mahanadi River in the state of Odisha +
The sanctuary has been recognized as a critical tiger habitat by the National Tiger Conservation
Authority (NTCA) + Recently, breeding of Indian Skimmers has been recorded for the first time at
Satkosia wildlife sanctuary + (Indian Skimmer = Indian Skimmer (Rynchops albicollis) is a
waterbird species + It occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent
marshes and, in the non-breeding season, in estuaries and coasts + In India, the species can be
sighted near the Chambal river in Central India, in a few parts of Odisha and in Andhra Pradesh +
IUCN: Endangered)
34. Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary = It is situated in northwestern Madhya Pradesh, with one of its
boundaries running along the border of Rajasthan + River Chambal flows through the sanctuary,
dividing it into two parts + Vegetation: Northern tropical dry deciduous forest, Northern tropical dry
mixed deciduous forest and Dry deciduous scrub + The sanctuary has many places of historical,
archeological and religious importance such as Chaurasigarh, Chaturbhujnath temple, Bhadkaji rock
paintings, Narsinghjhar Hinglajgarh fort, Taxakeshwar temple.
35. Sukhna Wildlife Sanctuary = Chandigarh + It forms the part of Sukhna Lake catchment area
falling in Shivalik hills.
36. Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary = Arunachal Pradesh + It is set to become a tiger reserve, according to
the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) + The announcement has caused concern among
the Idu Mishmi people who believe that the reserve would restrict their access to the forest + Idu
Mishmis are a sub-tribe of the Mishmi group (the other two Mishmi groups are Digaru and Miju) in
Arunachal Pradesh and have a strong connection to the region’s flora and fauna.
37. Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary = Andhra Pradesh + This Sanctuary comes under Project elephant -
It is the only sanctuary in the whole state housing Asian elephants + River Kaigal and River
Kaundinya flow through this sanctuary and is characterized by high hills, deep valleys.
38. Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary = Andhra Pradesh + The sanctuary has been under the Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department since 1970 + It is considerably hilly with steep slopes + Recently, the
first-ever sighting of the elusive Barkudia limbless skink has been reported within the
Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary boundaries in Visakhapatnam + Visakhapatnam limbless skink
(Barkudiamelanosticta) a small reptile renowned for its unique limbless body and extraordinary
adaptations, has long eluded scientific observation. It is believed to be endemic to this region.
39. Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary = Located in the Western Ghats, Karnataka + It shares its boundary
with the north of Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary, north-west of the Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and
Mollem National Park, north of Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary and east of Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
+ Sanctuary forms the headwaters of a number of rivers like Tillari, Malaprabha and Mhadei and
several perennial streams + Vegetation: Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.
40. Son Ghadiyal Wildlife Sanctuary = Madhya Pradesh + It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1981
by the State government to protect and preserve the faunal diversity of the river, specifically the
critically endangered Gharial and the vulnerable Marsh Crocodile.
41. Katepurna Wildlife Sanctuary = Maharashtra + It derives its name from the Katepurna River,
which flows south to Northward almost through the central part of the sanctuary + Vegetation:
Southern tropical dry deciduous forest + The main species are Ain, Dhawada, Kalamb, Salai, Haldu,
Medshing, Tendu etc. Trees of Vad, Umber, Arjun, and Kalamb are found in moist areas.
42. Burachapori Wildlife Sanctuary = Assam + Located on southern bank of river Brahmaputra + It is
actually a part of the Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary. Though these two wildlife sanctuaries in Assam
have two different names, they are ecologically and geographically a singular entity + It comprises
of a mosaic of wet alluvial grassland, riparian and semi-evergreen forests dotted by wetland and
(Revision Notes)
river systems + A unique vegetation of this sanctuary is abundance of freshwater mangrove trees + It
is well known for Bengal Florican and One-horned Rhinoceros that was once on verge of extinction.
43. Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary = Odisha + near Hirakud dam (Mahanadi River) + It finds a special
mention because of noted freedom fighter Veer Surendra Sai. During his rebellion, his base at
‘Barapathara” was located within the sanctuary + Vegetation: Dry deciduous mixed forests.
44. Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary = Madhya Pradesh + It runs parallel to northern side of Narmada
River. Kolar River forms western boundary + The Sanctuary has Bhimbetika, "a group of rock
shelters and rock paintings," which is one of the '' World Heritage Sites'' declared by UNESCO.
45. Nauradehi and Durgavati Wildlife Sanctuaries = ‘Tiger State’ Madhya Pradesh is poised to get
its 7th tiger reserve with the state government going forward with the notification of Nauradehi and
Durgavati Wildlife Sanctuaries as a combined protected area + It is the largest wildlife sanctuary in
Madhya Pradesh + It is classified under Deccan peninsula biogeographic region + Three fourth of
sanctuary falls in the Yamuna, and one-fourth of the sanctuary falls in the Naramada basin.
46. Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary = Assam + It comprises three Reserve forests-Khanapara, Amchang,
and South Amchang + It stretches from the Brahmaputra River in the north to the hilly forests of
Meghalaya in the south, forming a continuous forest belt through Meghalaya's Maradakdola Reserve
Forests + Please Note: Tree yellow butterflies (gancana harina) are found at the Amchang wildlife
sanctuary which is indigenous to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and northeast India.
47. Sohagi Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary = Uttar Pradesh + On the northern side, the Sanctuary shares the
international boundary with Nepal, and on the eastern border is Bihar’s Valmiki Tiger Reserve + It is
drained by the great Gandak, the little Gandak, Pyas and Rohin rivers.
48. Bura Chapori Wildlife Sanctuary = Located on the southern bank of river Brahmaputra in Assam
+ It is a part of the Laokhowa-Burachapori eco-system + It comprises of a mosaic of wet alluvial
grassland, riparian and semi-evergreen forests dotted by wetland and river systems + It is home to
the Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, wild buffalo, hog deer, wild pig, and
elephants. It includes the highly endangered Bengal Florican.
49. Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary = Odisha + It is spread across the Chota Nagpur Plateau region + It is
connected with Simlipal Reserve via Nato and Sukhupada Hill ranges.
50. Jambughoda Wildlife Sanctuary = Gujarat
51. Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary = Darjeeling district, West Bengal + It is located on the foothills
of the Himalayas and in between the Teesta and the Mahananda rivers + In 1959, it got the status of
a sanctuary mainly to protect the Indian Bison and Royal Bengal Tiger.
52. Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary = Rajsamand, Rajasthan + It acts as a dividing line between
Mewar and Marwar, two different parts of Rajasthan + The wildlife sanctuary encompasses the
historic Kumbhalgarh Fort and is also named after the fort + It lie across the Aravalli ranges + River
Banas also graces the sanctuary and is the primary source of water. The rainwater on the western
slopes flows as small rivers such as Sukdi, Mithdi, Sumer and Kot, all of which are the tributaries of
River Luni that ultimately merge into the Arabian Sea.
53. Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary = Bihar is all set to get its second tiger reserve in Kaimur district by
end of 2023 or early 2024 + It primarily comprises two landscapes — hills, known as Kaimur
plateau, and plains on west. Plains are flanked by rivers Karmanasa and Durgavati + Karmanasa is a
tributary of Ganges. It originates in Kaimur district of Bihar and flows through UP and Bihar (along
their boundary). Durgavati is a tributary of Karmanasa river.
54. Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary = Maharashtra + There are three different types of forests – Dry
Deciduous, Moist Deciduous and Semi Evergreen + Several ancient temples are within its
boundaries. The most famous of these temples is Tungareshwar Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
55. Chincholi Wildlife Sanctuary = Kalaburagi district, Karnataka + It is the first dry land Wildlife
Sanctuary in South India + he Sanctuary has good dry deciduous and Moist deciduous forest in the
(Revision Notes)
core with Acacia and Teak plantations on the fringes + Chincholi is also home to Lambani Tandas, a
protected tribal community that lives in the forests in harmony with nature.
56. Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary = Chhattisgarh + It is named after the famous 11 th century
Bhoramdeo Temple situated near the Sanctuary + It shares a border with Kanha National Park in
Madhya Pradesh, making it an important tiger habitat in central India.
57. D. Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary = Arunachal Pradesh + It is named after the pioneer of
modern Arunachal, the late Daying Ering, who was a famed Indian politician + It is located in a
unique ecosystem that comprises tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous forests.
58. Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary = Tamil Nadu + It is flanked by the Bay of Bengal in the east
and Palk Strait in the south + It is designated as a Ramsar site + It primarily focuses on the
protection and conservation of the black antelopes, an endangered and endemic species that are
found in this region + It has mangroves, tropical evergreen forests, and grassland ecosystems +
Fauna: Wild boar, macaque, black buck, chital, Great flamingo, Painted Stork, Little Stint,seagull,l
and Brown-headed gull are normally found in the sanctuary.
59. Ralamandal Wildlife Sanctuary = Located in Indore, MP + Rare species of butterflies recently
found here: Red Flash, Plains Royal Blue, Tri-coloured Pied Flat, Painted Lady and Rice Swift.
60. Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary = Arunachal Pradesh + The sanctuary lies in the Indo-Chinese
transition zone. The flora and fauna of this region is highly endemic and significant + Some
endangered species are the Mishmi takin (the takin is the national animal of Bhutan), the Asiatic
black bear, Musk deer and the Blyth’s tragopan + Kman Mishmi, one of the 26 indigenous tribes in
Arunachal Pradesh resides here.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 14: RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA
RAMSAR CONVENTION
1. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
2. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.
3. Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
● Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
● Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of international importance (the “ramsar
list”) and ensure their effective management;
● Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared
species.
FACTS
1. Global sites: Ramsar List is the world’s largest network of protected areas. There are over 2,400
Ramsar Sites on the territories of 171 Convention Contracting Parties across the world, covering
more than 2.5 million square kilometres.
2. India: There are 75 Ramsar sites in India.
● Maximum sites: Tamil Nadu has a maximum no. of Ramsar sites. Total 14 Sites.
● Largest: Sundarbans Wetland, West Bengal
● Smallest: Renuka Wetland, Himachal Pradesh
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION PARTNERS
● BirdLife International
● International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
● International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
● Wetlands International
● WWF International
● Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
BODIES ESTABLISHED BY CONVENTION
● Conference of the Contracting Parties: Governing bod consisting of all governments that have
ratified the treaty. It reviews progress under the convention, identifies new priorities, and sets work
plans for members.
● Standing Committee: It is the intersessional executive body which represents the COP between its
triennial meetings, within the framework of the decisions made by the COP. Members are elected in
each meeting of the COP to serve for 3 years.
● The scientific and Technical Review Panel: It provides scientific and technical guidance to the
Conference of Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Ramsar Secretariat.
● The Secretariat: It carries out the day-to-day coordination of the convention's activities. It is based
at the headquarters of the IUCN in Gland, Switzerland.
CRITERION FOR DESIGNATING A SITE AS RAMSAR SITE

Group Sub-Group Criterion
A: Sites containing Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally
representative, rare important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique
(Revision Notes)
or unique wetland example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found

types within the appropriate biogeographic region.
B: Sites of Criteria Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally
international based on important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically
importance for species and endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
conserving ecological Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally
biological diversity communities important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal
species important for maintaining the biological diversity of
a particular biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally
important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a
critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during
adverse conditions.
Specific Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally
criteria based important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
on Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally
waterbirds important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a
population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
criteria based important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous
on fish fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,
species interactions and/or populations that are
representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby
contributes to global biological diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally
important if it is an important source of food for fishes,
spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which
fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
criteria based important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a
on other taxa population of one species or subspecies of wetland-
dependent non-avian animal species.
RECENTLY ADDED RAMSAR SITES
1. Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh: It is a freshwater marsh and is the largest natural
floodplain wetland of eastern Uttar Pradesh + Established in 1980 and is protected under the
Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and also an “eco-sensitive zone” + It serves as a natural habitat for
the state bird Sarus + It provides wintering ground for migratory species such as endangered
Egyptian vulture, the vulnerable greater spotted eagle + It also support fish species such as
vulnerable European carp, catfish Wallago attu, and near-threatened Gangetic ailia and silver carp.
2. Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat: It is a freshwater wetland near the coast of the Gulf of
Kutch + It is located at the watershed of Ruparel river and Kalindri at the North East coastal
region of Jamnagar district in the Gulf of Kutch + It is part of Marine National Park, Jamnagar,
the first marine national park+ Critically endangered Indian bdellium-tree is found.
3. Bhindwas Wildlife Sanctuary, Haryana: It is the largest wetland in Haryana + Human-made
freshwater wetland + It is an important part of the ecological corridor along the route of Sahibi
River which traverses from Aravalli hills in Rajasthan to the Yamuna.
(Revision Notes)
4. Sultanpur National park: It is a bird paradise for bird watchers + It is famous for its migratory as
well as resident birds; important fauna include Blackbuck, Nilgai, Hog deer, Sambar, Leopard +
Birds include Siberian Cranes, Greater Flamingo, Demoiselle Crane etc.
5. Thol lake wildlife sanctuary, Gujarat: Artificial lake at Thol village, Gujarat + It is located on the
Central Asian Flyway and almost 320 bird species are found here. + It hosts more than 30 threatened
waterbird species, like the critically endangered White-rumped Vulture and Sociable Lapwing,
vulnerable sarus Crane, Common Pochard and Lesser White-fronted Goose.
6. Wadhwana wetland, Gujarat: Internationally important for its birdlife as it provides wintering
ground to migratory waterbirds, that migrate on the Central Asian Flyway + It include
endangered Pallas’s fish-Eagle, the vulnerable Common Pochard + near-threatened Dalmatian
Pelican, Grey-headed Fish-eagle and Ferruginous Duck.
7. Haiderpur wetland: Located on the Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor border between the Ganges and the
Solani River within Hastinapur Wildlife sanctuary + It has numerous species of dolphins, turtles,
alligators, crocodiles, butterflies, and deer.
8. Tampara Lake : Tampara Lake is among the most prominent freshwater lakes in the State of
Odisha situated in Ganjam district + The depression on the ground gradually filled with rainwater
from catchment flow and was called “Tamp” by the British and subsequently termed “Tampra” by
the locals + The wetland is an important habitat for vulnerable species such as Cyprinus carpio,
common pochard (Aythya ferina), and river tern (Sterna aurantia).
9. Hirakud Reservoir : Hirakud Reservoir, the largest earthen dam in Odisha started operating in 1957
+ Out of the known 54 species of fish from the reservoir, one has been classed as being endangered,
six near threatened and 21 fish species of economic importance.
10. Ansupa Lake : Ansupa Lake is the largest freshwater lake of Odisha situated in Banki subdivision
of Cuttack district and has been famous from time immemorial for its scenic beauty, biodiversity,
and natural resources + The wetland is an oxbow lake formed by River Mahanadi.
11. Yashwant Sagar: It is one of the two Important Bird Areas (IBA) in Indore region as well as one of
the most important birding sites in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh + Presently it is mainly used
for water supply to the city of Indore and is also being used for fish culture on a commercial scale.
12. Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary: It is locally known as "Chitrangudi Kanmoli", located in
Ramanathapuram district in Tamil Nadu + It is an ideal habitat for winter migratory birds.
13. Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex : Suchindrum Theroor Wetland complex is part of the
Suchindrum-Theroor Manakudi Conservation Reserve + It is declared an Important Bird Area and
lies at the southern tip of the Central Asian flyway of migratory birds.
14. Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary : It is a large human-made irrigation tank and shelter for migratory birds
as it provides a suitable environment for food, shelter, and breeding ground + These tanks have the
potential to harbor good populations of resident and wintering water birds.
15. Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary: Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary is a Protected area near
Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu + It is notable as a nesting site for several
migratory heron species that roost in the prominent growth of babul trees there.
16. Thane Creek: It is located in Maharashtra, India. There are several sources of fresh water to creek,
of which Ulhas River is largest, followed by many drainage channels from various suburban areas of
Mumbai, Navi Mumbai & Thane + It has been declared as Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary.
17. Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve: Hygam Wetland falls within the River Jhelum basin and
plays a significant role as a flood absorption basin, biodiversity conservation site, eco-tourism site,
and livelihood security for the local communities + It serves as an abode to many residents and
migratory bird species + It is also recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA).
18. Shallbugh Wetland Conservation Reserve: Shallabug Wetland Conservation Reserve is located in
the District Srinagar, UT of J&K + It serves as an abode to more than four lakh resident and
(Revision Notes)
migratory birds of at least 21 species + Shallabugh Wetland plays a major role in the natural control,
amelioration or prevention of flooding, It is also important for seasonal water retention for wetlands
or other areas of conservation importance downstream.
RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

State Site Fauna Other information
Ladakh Tsomoriri Black-necked crane, ● A freshwater to brackish lake lying at
Bar Headed Geese, 4,595m above sea level, with wet meadows
Great Tibetan Sheep and borax-laden wetlands along the shores.
or Argali and Tibetan ● The site is said to represent the only
Wild Ass breeding ground outside of China for the
black-necked crane, and the only breeding
ground for bar-headed geese in India.
● Barley fields at Korzok have been
described as the highest cultivated land in
world.
● Considered sacred by local Buddhist
communities and water is not used by
them.
● Local community dedicated Tsomoriri as
WWF Sacred Gift for Living Planet in
recognition of WWF-India's project work
there.
● Endorheic basin due to the fact that it is a
closed drainage basin that retains water and
permits no outflow to different bodies of
water reminiscent of rivers or oceans.
Tso Kar Black necked crane, ● Found at more than 4,500 metres above sea
Asiatic wild dog, level in Changthang region of Ladakh
snow leopard, saker ● It includes two connected lakes, the
falcon, Great Crested freshwater Startsapuk Tso and the larger
Grebe, Ruddy hypersaline Tso Kar.
Shelduck, Lesser ● Tso Kar refers to white salt efflorescence
Sand-Plover, Brown- on the margins of the lake caused by the
headed Gull evaporation of the saline waters.
● Stopover ground for migratory birds along
Central Asian Flyway and an Important
Bird Area as per Bird Life International.
Jammu Hokera Large egret, great ● A natural perennial wetland contiguous to
and crested grebe, little the Jhelum basin
Kashmir cormorant, common ● Only site with remaining reedbeds of
shelduck, tufted duck Kashmir & path of 68 waterfowl species
and endangered ● important source of food, spawning ground
white-eyed pochard and nursery for fishes
● Sustainable exploitation of fish, fodder,
fuel
● Potential threats: Housing facilities, littered
garbage, and demand for increasing tourist
(Revision Notes)
facilities
Surinsar- Lissemys punctata, ● Freshwater composite lake in semi-arid
Mansar Aspideretes Panjab Plains, adjoining the Jhelum Basin
gangeticus, and ● Surinsar is rain-fed without permanent
Mansariella lacustris discharge, and Mansar is primarily fed by
Migratory waterfowls surface run-off and partially by mineralised
like Fulica atra, water through paddy fields, with inflow
Gallinula chloropus, increasing in rainy season.
Podiceps nigricollis, ● This composite lake is high in micro
Aythya fuligula, and nutrients
various Anas species.
Wular Black-eared kite, ● The largest freshwater lake in India with
Lake Eurasian extensive marshes of emergent and floating
sparrowhawk, short- vegetation, particularly water chestnut
toed eagle, ● The lake basin was formed as a result of
Himalayan golden tectonic activity and is fed by the Jhelum
eagle, Himalayan River.
monal, chukar ● Its size varies seasonally.
partridge, alpine
swift, Indian roller,
Himalayan
woodpecker
Himachal Chandra Snow leopard, the ● A high-altitude lake on the upper Chandra
Pradesh Taal snowcock, chukor, valley flowing to the Chenab River of the
black ring stilt, Western Himalayas (4,337 m asl) near the
kestrel, golden eagle, Kunzam pass joining the Himalayan and
chough, red fox, Pir Panjal ranges.
Himalayan ibex, and ● 65% of the catchment area is degraded
blue sheep. forest while other 35% is grasslands.
● The Spiti Forest Department is the
custodian and the State Council of Science,
Technology and Environment coordinats
conservation management.
Pong Dam northern lapwing, ● Also called Maharana Pratap Sagar
Lake common teal, Indian ● A water storage reservoir created in 1975
spot-billed duck, on the Beas River
Eurasian coot, red- ● Located on the trans-Himalayan flyway
necked grebe, black- ● A nature conservation education centre is
headed gulls, black found on the island of Ransar or Ramsar
stork, water-fowl
Renuka Crimson-breasted ● A natural wetland with freshwater springs
Lake barbets, mynas, and inland subterranean karst formations,
herons bulbuls, egrets fed by a small stream flowing from the
pheasants, mallards lower Himalayas out to the Giri river.
and lapwings. Among ● The site is managed by the Shimla Forest
ungulates, sambar, Department, Himachal Pradesh
barking deer and
ghorals
(Revision Notes)
Punjab Beas only Indian habitat of ● A 185-kilometre stretch of Beas River

Conserva- the functionally blind located primarily in north-west of Punjab.
tion mammal, Indus ● In 2017, a program was initiated to re-
Reserve Dophin introduce critically endangered gharial
mahseer, hog deer, (Gavialis gangeticus) with 47 individuals
smooth-coated otter released in river 30 years after their
disappearance.
● Department of Forest and Wildlife, Punjab,
conducts scientific management of
wetland.
Harike Eurasian coot, ● A shallow water reservoir with thirteen
Greylag goose, islands, at confluence of two rivers [Beas
Gadwall and the and Sutlej]. It is man-made and riverine
northern shoveler reservoir.
● Dense floating vegetation covers 70% of
lake
● The entire lake is leased on an annual basis
to commercial fishery organizations.
● Wetland was declared bird sanctuary in
1982 and named Harike Pattan Bird
Sanctuary
Kanjli migratory birds of ● It is a man-made Wetland, created in 1870
various species - by constructing the headworks across the
goose, white-eyed perennial Bien River, a tributary of the
pochard, wigeon, Beas River to provide irrigation facilities.
tufted pochard, ● The invasive water hyacinth is present;
common teal, large increasing pollution levels, deforestation in
whistling teal, pintail, the catchment area, and excessive grazing
mallard and are seen as potential threats.
shoveller. ● The stream is considered to be the most
significant in the state from the religious
point of view, as it is associated with the
first guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak.
Keshopur- common pochard, ● It is a mosaic of natural marshes,
Miani spotted pond turtle aquaculture ponds and agricultural
Commu- wetlands maintained by rainfall runoff.
nity ● Located in middle of Ravi and Beas river.
Reserve ● It is heavily human influenced, and
includes a series of managed fishponds and
cultivated crops such lotus and chestnut.
● The site is an example of wise use of a
community-managed wetland, which
provides food for people and supports local
biodiversity.
● The Department of Forest and Wildlife,
Punjab, forms the management committee.
Nangal Indian pangolin, ● Located in the Sivalik Hills of Punjab.
Wildlife Egyptian vulture, ● It occupies a human-made reservoir
(Revision Notes)
Sanctuary leopard constructed as part of the Bhakra-Nangal

Project in 1961.
● Historic importance: Indian and Chinese
prime ministers formalized Five Principles
of Peaceful Coexistence there in 1954.
● The Department of Forest and Wildlife
(Rupnagar Wildlife Division), Punjab is
responsible for managing the sanctuary.
Ropar smooth-coated otter, ● A humanmade wetland of lake and river
hog deer, sambar, formed by the 1952 construction of a
several reptiles, and barrage for diversion of water from the
the endangered Sutlej River for drinking and irrigation.
Indian pangolin ● Local fisheries are economically
significant, and wheat, rice, sugar cane, and
sorghum are cultivated in surrounding area.
● Threat: Deforested local hills leading to
siltation, and increasing industrialization
causing inflow of pollutants, invasive
weeds
Uttara- Asan red-headed vulture, ● It is a 444-hectare stretch of the Asan River
khand Conserva- white-rumped running down to its confluence with the
tion vulture, Baer's Yamuna River in Dehradun district.
Reserve pochard, red-crested ● The damming of the river by the Asan
pochard, ruddy Barrage in 1967 resulted in siltation above
shelduck. the dam wall, which helped to create some
of the site's bird-friendly habitats.
Fishes: mahseer ● More than 1% of the populations of two
waterbird species [red-crested pochard and
ruddy shelduck] have been recorded here.
● The site's role in maintaining hydrological
regimes is important.
Uttar Nawabganj Egyptian vulture, ● A shallow marshland 45 kilometres
Pradesh Bird Pallas's fish eagle, from Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh.
Sanctuary lesser adjutant, ● Monsoon rains feed this diverse wetland
woolly-necked stork while Sarda Canal supplies additional
water.
golden jackal, jungle ● Threat: invasive common water hyacinth,
cat removal of timber from the forests.
● State forest officers along with the Office
of the Conservator of Forest (Wildlife)
jointly manage the sanctuary.
Parvati white-rumped ● A permanent freshwater environment
Aranga vulture, Indian consisting of two oxbow lakes.
Bird vulture, Egyptian ● It is also critical in the maintenance of
Sanctuary vulture hydrological regimes, ensuring
groundwater recharge and discharge.
Meanwhile, ancient temples around the
lakes provide religious significance and
(Revision Notes)
encourage tourism.
● Threat: Invasive species such as the
common water hyacinth, development of
roads and railways.
● Uttar Pradesh divisional forest officer and
chief conservator of forests along with
sanctuary officers share management
duties.
Saman Sarus crane, greater ● A seasonal oxbow lake on the Ganges
Bird spotted eagle, greylag floodplain.
Sanctuary goose [more than 1% ● It is heavily reliant on the south-westerly
of the South Asian monsoon, which provides the vast majority
population present of annual rainfall.
during winter] ● The sanctuary regularly provides refuge to
several waterbirds and is particularly
important as a wintering site for many
migrants.
● The Office of the Conservator of Forest
(Wildlife) oversees the site's management.
Samaspur Egyptian vulture, ● A perennial lowland marsh typical of the
Bird Pallas's fish eagle, Indo-Gangetic Plain in Raebareli district.
Sanctuary Common pochard ● Its six connected lakes are heavily relevant
[more than 1% of the on monsoon rains.
South Asian ● Annual counts regularly find more than
population] 75,000 birds present, with over 250
resident and migrant species documented.
● The site provides food products and
agricultural fodder, as well as maintaining
biodiversity.
● Threat: Invasive species threaten its
ecological character, with over 40% of
documented floral species being exotic.
● The Office of the Conservator of Forests
(Wildlife) and state forest officers
undertake joint management of the
sanctuary.
Sandi Bird common teal [over ● A freshwater marsh, the wetland is typical
Sanctuary 1% of the South of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and receives
Asian populations], most of its water from monsoon rains.
ferruginous duck, ● Rich in aquatic plants, the site provides a
red-crested pochard, productive habitat for waterfowl with over
sarus crane 40,000 individuals counted in 2018.
● It is an Important Bird Area by BirdLife
International.
● Threat: Drought - the sanctuary dried out
leading to a subsequent collapse in
waterbird populations from 2014 to 2015.
(Revision Notes)
manages the site in conjunction with local

forest and wildlife officers.
Sarsai sarus crane [largest ● A permanent marsh in the Etawah district,
Nawar flock in the region], this typical wetland of the Indo-Gangetic
Jheel white-rumped Plain is fed by the southwest monsoon
vulture, woolly- rains.
necked stork ● It is an example of co-habitation of humans
and wildlife; farming practices across most
of the site play important roles in
sustaining the waterbird habitats.
● The site's name is derived from sarus crane,
the large non-migratory crane.
● It is a site of spiritual and religious
significance with nearby Hajari Mahadev
Temple
● It is recognized by BirdLife International as
an Important Bird Area.
● Threat: Droughts along with drainage
Upper Ganges river dolphin, ● A shallow river stretch of great Ganges
Ganga gharial, crocodile, six with intermittent small stretches of deep-
River species of turtles, water pools reservoirs upstream from
(Brijghat to otters barrages.
Narora ● Major plant species [some with medicinal
Stretch) value]: Dalbergia sissoo, Saraca indica,
Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus benghalensis,
Dendrocalamus strictus, Tectona grandis,
Azadirachta indica and aquatic Eichhornia.
● It has religious importance for thousands of
Hindu pilgrims and is used for cremation
and holy baths for spiritual purification.
● Threats : sewage discharge, agricultural
runoff, and intensive fishing.
Sur Greater spotted eagle, ● Originally created to supply water to the
Sarovar sarun crane, wallago city of Agra in the summer, the wetland
catfish, greylag goose soon became an important and rich
[Over 1% of the ecosystem.
South Asian regional ● The site's patchwork of habitat types
population] provides refuge to resident and migratory
birds, and fishes.
● The site is important for bird species that
migrate on the Central Asian Flyway.
Bihar Kanwar 5 critically ● Also known as Kanwar Jheel,
Taal or endangered species ● The site is one of 18 wetlands within an
Kabar Taal including 3 vultures – extensive floodplain complex; it floods
Lake red-headed, white- during the monsoon season which is,
rumped and Indian absorption of floodwaters is a vital service
vulture – and 2 in Bihar. During dry season, areas of
waterbirds, sociable marshland dry out and are used for
(Revision Notes)
lapwing Baer's agriculture.

pochard. ● Important stopover in Central Asian
Flyway.
● Threats: Water management activities such
as drainage, water abstraction, damming
and canalization.
Assam Deepor Spot-billed pelican, ● A permanent freshwater lake in a former
Beel lesser and greater channel of the Brahmaputra River.
adjutant stork, Baer's ● It is of great biological importance and is
pochard the only major storm water storage basin
for Guwahati.
● The beel is a staging site on migratory
flyways and some of the largest
concentrations of aquatic birds in Assam
can be seen, especially in winter.
● Potential threats: fishing and hunting
pressure upon waterbirds, pollution from
pesticides and fertilizers, and infestation by
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes).
Manipur Loktak Brow-antlered deer ● The largest freshwater lake in the north-
Lake eastern region of the country, which is
famous for the phumdis (heterogeneous
mass of vegetation, soil, and organic
matters at various stages of decomposition)
floating over it.
● Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national
park in the world, floats over it. It is the
last natural refuge of the endangered sangai
situated in the southeastern shores of this
lake and is the largest of all the phumdis in
the lake
Tripura Rudra- Three-striped roofed ● A lowland sedimentation reservoir in the
sagar Lake turtle northeast hills, fed by three perennial
Fishes: Botia, streams discharging to the Gomti River.
Notopterus, Chitala, ● Wetland is regularly flooded with 4-5 times
Mystus and the annually,assisting in groundwater recharge.
species Ompok ● Threat: Increasing silt loads due to
pabda, Labeo bata, deforestation, expansion of agricultural
and freshwater land and intensive farming, and land
scampi conversion for population pressure.
West East ● The wetland forms an urban facility for
Bengal Kolkata treating the Kolkata's waste water and
Wetlands utilizing the treated water for pisciculture
and agriculture, and act as solar reactors.
● It is described as one of the rare examples
of environmental protection and
development management.
● Threat: Unauthorized use of the waste
(Revision Notes)
water outfall channels by industries which

add metals to the canal sludge and threaten
the edible quality of the fish and
vegetables.
Sundar- Northern River ● Located within largest mangrove forest in
bans Terrapin, Irrawaddy the world, in the delta of the rivers Ganges
Dolphin, Bengal and Brahmaputra on the Bay of Bengal.
Tiger ● Indian Sundarban, constitutes over 60% of
the country's total mangrove forest and
includes 90% of Indian mangrove species.
● They serve as nurseries to shellfish and
finfish and sustain the fisheries of the entire
eastern coast.
Odisha Bhitar- Salt water crocodiles, ● The core area of the sanctuary was declared
kanika olive ridley sea turtle. Bhitarkanika National Park in Sept 1998.
Mangroves ● Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary,
bounds Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary to
the east, was created in September 1997.
Chilika White-bellied sea ● 1981- It was designated the first Indian
Lake eagles, greylag geese, wetland under Ramsar Convention.
purple moorhen, ● Brackish water lagoon, spread over Puri,
jacana, flamingos, Khordha and Ganjam at the mouth of the
egrets, grey and Daya River, flowing into the Bay of
purple herons, Indian Bengal.
roller, storks, white ● It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and
ibis, spoonbills, the second largest lagoon in the world.
brahminy ducks, ● Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake
shovellers, pintails Baikal, the Aral Sea and other remote parts
of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia,
Irrawaddy dolphin Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh and
Himalayas come here.
● In 2002, the Ramsar Wetland Conservation
Award was presented to the Chilika
Development Authority for outstanding
achievements in the field of restoration and
wise use of wetlands and effective
participation of local communities.
● Nalbana Island is the core area of the
Ramsar designated wetlands of Chilika
Lake. It was notified in 1987 and declared
a bird sanctuary in 1973.
Andhra Kolleru grey pelican, ● A natural eutrophic lake, situated between
Pradesh Lake the two major river basins of the Godavari
and the Krishna, which functions as a
natural flood balancing reservoir between
the deltas of the two rivers.
● Threat: Flooding in monsoon seasons,
partial drying out in summers, inadequate
(Revision Notes)
management planning and action

Tamil Point spoon-billed ● A coastal area consisting of shallow waters,
Nadu Calimere sandpiper, grey shores, and long sand bars, intertidal flats
Wildlife pelican, greater and intertidal forests, chiefly mangrove,
and Bird flamingos, lesser and seasonal, often-saline lagoons, as well
Sanctuary flamingos, prawns as human-made salt exploitation sites.
and crabs ● Threat: Illegal collection of firewood and
forest produce, the spread of Chilean
mesquite (Prosopis chilensis), increasingly
brackish groundwater caused by expansion
of the historical salt works, and decreasing
inflow of freshwater.
● The site is associated with Lord Rama.
Karikili ● The sanctuary is spread over a five-
Bird kilometre-wide belt and is home to
Sanctuary cormorants, egrets, grey heron, open-billed
stork, darter, spoonbill, white lbis, night
herons, grebes, grey pelican among others.
Pallika- ● One of the last remaining natural wetlands,
ranai the marsh drains in an area of 250 square
Marsh kilometres encompassing 65 wetlands.
Reserve ● The Pallikaranai Marsh is one of the few
Forest natural coastal aquatic habitats that qualify
as a wetland in India.
Picha- ● One of last mangrove forests of country.
varam ● It has an island of a vast expanse of water
Mangrove covered with mangrove forests.
Gulf of Dugong, Whale ● Extends between Toothukudi &
Mannar Shark, Seahorses, Ramanathapuram districts.
Biosphere Balanoglossus, Green ● First Marine Biosphere Reserve in South
Reserve sea turtle, Hawksbill and South-East Asia.
Turtle, Dolphins,
Sacred chanks etc.
Vembanur Indian river tern ● A man-made inland tank which forms the
Wetland (Sterna aurantia), the southernmost tip of peninsular India.
Complex spotted greenshank ● This wetland forms part of the Important
(Tringa guttifer), Bird and Biodiversity Area and hence part
garganey (Anas of the BirdLife International Data Zone.
querquedula) & grey
pelican (Pelecanus
philippensis). It is
also excellent habitat
for notable plants like
Indotristicha
ramosissima,
Cyrtococcum
longipes and
Eriochrysis
(Revision Notes)
rangacharii.
Vellode It is important ● Located in the Vadamugam Vellode village
Bird staging and breeding in Tamil Nadu's Erode district. Locally
Sanctuary ground for migratory known as Periyakulam Yeri, it is one of the
birds on Central 141 prioritised wetlands in the state.
Asian Flyway and ● The Site is also an ideal habitat for notable
also resident species plant species including Cayratia pedata,
such as Indian river Tephrosia purpurea and Commelina
tern (Sterna aurantia), tricolor.
oriental darter
(Anhinga
melanogaster) and
painted stork
(Mycteria
leucocephala).
Vedanth- Presence of several ● One of the oldest bird-protected areas in
angal Bird species including the Chengalpattu district of Tamil Nadu.
Sanctuary blackheaded ibis ● This freshwater wetland is a people-
(Threskiornis protected waterbird area, the history of
melanocephalus), which goes centuries back.
Eurasian spoonbill ● Locals have been protecting this heronry
(Platalea leucorodia), and in return benefitting from the manure-
black-crowned night rich water from the lake. •
heron (Nycticorax
nycticorax) & painted
stork (Mycteria
leucocephala).
Udhaya- Notable species ● 80 kilometres from Thanjavur, about 58km
marthand- observed include the from Vaduvur Birds sanctuary and 10 km
apuram oriental darter from Point Calimere Birds Sanctuary.
Bird (Anhinga ● The Sanctuary consists of human-made
Sanctuary melanogaster), black- irrigation tanks, interconnected by an
headed ibis ancient network of canals and fed by the
(Threskiornis Mettur dam through the Koraiyar canal.
melanocephalus),
Eurasian wigeon
(Anas Penelope),
Northern pintail
(Anas acuta) and
garganey (Anas
querquedula).
Koonthan- ● A man-made wetland in Tirunelveli district
kulam Bird of Tamil Nadu.
Sanctuary ● It is the largest reserve for breeding
resident and migratory water birds in South
India and an 'Important Bird and
Biodiversity Area' forming part of the
Central Asian Flyway, a brief by the
(Revision Notes)
ministry of environment, forest and climate

change (MOEFCC) states.
● The wetland also irrigates about 190 acres
of paddy.
Kerala Ashtamudi ● A natural backwater in Kollam district,
Wetland Kerala.
● Rivers Kallada and Pallichal drain into it.
● It forms an estuary with the sea at
Neendakara, famous fishing harbour.
● National Waterway 3 passes through it.
● Most-tastiest backwater fish in Kerala, the
Karimeen of Kanjiracode Kayal is from
Ashtamudi Lake.
Sastham- ● Situated in Kollam district, it is the largest
kotta Lake freshwater lake in Kerala.
● The Kallada River had a unique
replenishing system through a bar of paddy
field which has now disappeared due to
indiscriminate clay and sand mining.
● Threat: Destruction of its replenishing
mechanism.
Vembanad- ● It is the largest lake of Kerala.
Kol ● Famous tourist locations
Wetland like Alappuzha and Kumarakom are here.
● Mouths of Pamba and Achankovil rivers
in Vembanad forms part of the Kuttanad. It
is below sea level and is famous for exotic
fish varieties and paddy fields that are
below sea level.
Mahara- Nandur Deolali minnow, ● It is a mosaic of lakes, marshes and riparian
shtra Madhames Indian vulture, white- forest on the Deccan Plateau.
hwar rumped vulture, ● Construction of Nandur Madhameshwar
Leopard and Weir at confluence of Godavari and Kadva
rivers helped create a thriving wetland.
Indian sandalwood ● Threat: Invasive species including common
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
threaten the site, along with the effects of
urban development and water abstraction.
(Wildlife) manages the site.
Lonar Asian woollyneck, ● An endorheic or closed basin, almost
Lake common pochard, circular in shape, formed by a meteorite
grey wolf. impact some 50,000 years ago, onto the
basalt bedrock.
● It was identified as unique geographical
site by British officer C. J. E. Alexander in
1823.
● It is one of the four known, hyper-velocity,
(Revision Notes)
impact craters in basaltic rock anywhere on

Earth. It is the only crater lake in the
country formed by the meteorite impact.
● It is high in salinity and alkalinity, as the
lack of an outflow leads to a concentration
of minerals as the lake water evaporates.
● It is National Geological Monument
recognized by Geological Survey of India.
● Hemadpanti temples are located at the
periphery of the lake.
● Recently, the colour of Lonar lake water
had turned pink due to a large presence of
the salt-loving "haloarchaea" microbes/
Halophilic archaea [A bacteria culture that
produces pink pigment and is found in
water saturated with salt].
Gujarat Nalsarovar sociable lapwing, ● A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that
Bird marbled teal, sarus is the largest natural wetland in Thar Desert
Sanctuary crane Biogeographic Province and represents a
dynamic environment with salinity and
depth varying depending on rainfall.
● It is an important stopover site within the
Central Asian Flyway.
● The wetland is a lifeline for a satellite
population of endangered Indian wild ass.
● Provides: drinking water and water for
irrigation, income from fishing
Madhya Bhoj White storks, black- ● Consists of 2 lakes located in Bhopal
Pradesh Wetland necked storks, bar- ● 2 lakes are Bhojtal(Upper Lake) and Lower
headed geese, Lake, which lie to west of city centre.
spoonbills, sarus ● It is a man-made reservoir.
cranes ● Upper Lake acts as the lifeline of the city
supplying 40% of its potable water
Sakhya ● Sakhya Sagar is a human-made reservoir
Sagar on the outskirts of Shivpuri town within the
Madhav National Park.
● The Site features a mosaic of landforms
including open water and surrounding
marshes, plantations and a small patch of
agricultural land.
● It provides a permanent source of water for
wildlife, and habitat for animals including
thousands of migratory waterfowl and also
mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris),
whose presence attracts tourists.
Sirpur It supports some 175 ● Sirpur Wetland is a human-made wetland
Wetland terrestrial plant that has stabilized and acquired near-
species, six natural characteristics in the last two
(Revision Notes)
macrophytes, 30 centuries. Commonly named Pakshi Vihar

natural and cultured (bird sanctuary), the Site is a shallow,
fish species, eight alkaline, nutrient-rich lake that floods
reptiles, and during the monsoon to a maximum depth
amphibians. of two metres.
Rajasthan Keoladeo 5 species of ● Complex of 10 artificial, seasonal lagoons,
National ungulates, four situated in a densely populated region.
Park species of cats, and ● Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open
two species of grassland that provides habitat for
primates, as well as breeding, wintering and staging migratory
diverse plants, fish birds.
and reptiles. ● Placed on Montreux Record in 1990 for
"water shortage & unbalanced grazing
regime".
● Additionally, the invasive growth of the
grass Paspalum distichum has reduced its
suitability for certain waterbird species,
notably the Siberian crane.
Sambhar Flamingos ● India's largest inland Salt Lake,
Lake ● The specialized algae and bacteria growing
Deer, foxes, nilgai in the lake provide striking water colours
and support the lake ecology that, in turn,
sustains the migrating waterfowl.
● Other wildlife in nearby forests, nilgai
move freely along with deer and foxes.
Mizoram Pala ● It is home to a wide range of animals,
Wetland birds, and reptiles.
● Its geographical location falls under the
Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot and is
therefore rich in animal and plant species.
● The lake is a major component of the Palak
Wildlife Sanctuary and it supports the
major biodiversity of the sanctuary.
Karnataka Rangaa- ● First and the only Ramsar site in Karnataka
thittu Bird ● Also known as 'Pakshi Kashi' of the state.
Sanctuary ● Similarly, it supports a high population of
painted storks and mugger crocodiles
besides other species of fish and hence the
six islands and the water surrounding them
would be part of Ramsar site.
Goa Nanda ● It has freshwater marshes that lie adjacent
Lake to one of the major rivulets of the Zuari
river, said the brief. This enables local
residents to store water during the off-
monsoon season.
● The stored water is also utilised to cultivate
paddy downstream of the lake and supports
fishing and recreation.
(Revision Notes)
● It is a habitat of Black-headed ibis,

Common kingfisher, Wire-tailed swallow,
Bronze-winged Jacana, Brahminy kite,
among others.
Odisha Satkosia ● Established in 1976 as a wildlife sanctuary,
gorge Satkosia is the meeting point of two
biogeographic regions of India; the Deccan
Peninsula and Eastern Ghats, contributing
immense biodiversity.
● A mosaic of marshes and evergreen forests.
The forests of these catchments play a vital
role in the prevention of the gorge siltation.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 15: BIOSPHERE RESERVES
Biosphere: It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water, air interact with each other to support life.
It is in this zone that life exists + They are also called as Living laboratories.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
 Definition: Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to
reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use.
 Origin: In 1971 UNESCO launched its Man and Biosphere Programme.
 Recognition and control: They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments
and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
 Regulated under: As per the law, these regions of environmental protection related to the IUCN
Category V Protected areas.
CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION OF BIOSPHERE RESERVE

● A site must contain a protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation.
● Core area must be a bio-geographical unit and should be large enough to sustain a viable population
representing all trophic levels.
● The involvement of local communities and use of their knowledge in biodiversity preservation.
● Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of
the environment.
BIOSPHERE RESERVE ZONATION

 Core Areas: It comprises strictly protected zone that
contributes to conservation of landscapes, ecosystems,
species and genetic variation
 Buffer Zones: It surrounds or adjoins core area(s), and
used for activities compatible with sound ecological
practices that reinforces scientific research, monitoring,
training or education.
 Transition Area: Where community’s foster socio-
culturally ecologically sustainable activities.
MAN AND BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME

● Launched in 1971, it is an intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a scientific
basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments.
● It develops the basis within the natural and social sciences for the rational and sustainable use and
conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the overall relationship
between people and their environment
 Secretariat: It implements the Programme's Strategy and Roadmap, which were adopted by
Member States.
 Governing Body: The programme’s main governing body is the International Co-ordinating
Council of the of the Man and the Biosphere programme (MAB-ICC), which meets annually. In
between meetings, the authority of the MAB-ICC is delegated to its MAB Bureau.
 Advisory Bodies: Two advisory bodies provide guidance in the implementation of the MAB
programme: Advisory Committee and International Support Group.
(Revision Notes)
WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic and
interactive network of sites of excellence. It fosters the harmonious integration of people and nature for
sustainable development through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty reduction and
human well-being improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to cope with change -
thus contributing to the 2030 Agenda and SDGs.
It promotes North-South and South-South collaboration and represents a unique tool for international
co-operation through sharing knowledge, exchanging experiences, building capacity and promoting best
practices. By focusing on sites internationally recognized within WNBR, MAB Programme strives to:
● Assess changes and their effects: Identify and assess the changes in the biosphere resulting from
human and natural activities and the effects of these changes on humans and the environment, in
particular in the context of climate change;
● Inter-relationship between ecosystems and socio-economic processes: Study and compare the
dynamic interrelationships between natural/near-natural ecosystems and socio-economic processes,
in particular in the context of accelerated loss of biological and cultural diversity with unexpected
consequences that impact the ability of ecosystems to continue to provide services critical for human
well-being;
● Human welfare: ensure basic human welfare and a liveable environment in the context of rapid
urbanization and energy consumption as drivers of environmental change;
● Transfer of knowledge: promote the exchange and transfer of knowledge on environmental
problems and solutions, and to foster environmental education for sustainable development.
FACTS
● Covers: The WNBR covers all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems
● Geographical spread: There are 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21
transboundary sites.
● Area: It spans over a surface of 6,812,000 km2 in 129 countries. It's almost the size of Australia.
● Population covered: There are about 257 million people living in Biosphere Reserves worldwide
MAB AND INDIA

● 1979: Government of India constituted a MAB Committee and identified a network of 13
representative ecosystems to be protected as Biosphere Reserves.
● 1983: Biosphere Reserve Congress organized in Belarus recognized around 200 Biosphere Reserves
● 1986: Nilgiris was recognized as the first Biosphere Reserve of India. It was recognized by MAB
● Indian Biospheres under MAB Programme: 12 of the 18 biosphere reserves are a part of the WNBR,
based on the UNESCO’s MAB Programme list
● Most recent Biosphere Reserve in India: Panna Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh). It was
recognized by government of India in 2011 and became a part of MAB Program in November 2020.
RELATION BETWEEN THE BIOSPHERE RESERVES AND OTHER PROTECTED AREAS

1. Biosphere reserves don't replace other PAs but it further strengthens the protected area network.
Existing PAs can become part of BR without any change in their legal status.
2. Key differences:
● Conservation: Conservation of overall biodiversity rather than some specific flagship species.
● Stakeholders: Increases broad-basing of stakeholders, especially local people's participation and
their training, compared to the features of scheme on Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
● Recognition: BRs are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's MAB
programme, after receiving consent from the participating countries.
(Revision Notes)
BIOSPHERE RESERVES RECOGNIZED AS PART OF WNBR UNDER MAB PROGRAMME

States Other Protected Fauna Other Information
Areas
Nilgiris Tamil National Parks - Mammals: ● Nilgiri Sub-Cluster is part
Nadu, Aralam, Mudumalai, Bengal tiger, of Western Ghats
Kerala and Mukurthi, Indian leopard, [UNESCO World Heritage
Karnataka Nagarhole, Gaur, Cheetal, Site].
Bandipur, Silent Nilgiri marten, ● Ecoregions (3): South
Valley and Nilgiri tahr, Western Ghats moist
Wildlife Sanctuaries: Sambhar, Wild deciduous forests, South
Wayanad, Boar, Barking Western Ghats montane rain
Karimpuzha, Deer etc forests, and South Deccan
Sathyamangalam Primates: Lion- Plateau dry deciduous
Tiger Reserve: tailed macaque forests.
Nagarhole, and Nilgiri ● Ecosystem types: Tropical
Bandipur, langur. evergreen forests, Montane
Mudumalai sholas and grasslands, semi-
evergreen forests, moist
deciduous forests, dry
deciduous forests and thorn
forests.
Gulf of Tamil National Park: Gulf Dugong/Sea cow ● Islets and coastal buffer
Mannar Nadu of Mannar Marine [largest zone: beaches, estuaries,
National Park endangered and tropical dry broadleaf
marine forests
mammal]: ● Marine environments:
Feeding ground seaweed, sea grass, coral
reefs, salt marshes and
Balanoglossus: mangrove forests.
Its last refuge ● Known for pearl banks of
[an invertebrate, Pinctada radiata and
the unique Pinctada fucata for at least
‘living fossil’ 2000 years.
that links ● Inhabitants: Marakeyars,
vertebrates and local people principally
invertebrates]. engaged in fisheries.
Others: Sea ● Global Environmental
turtle, Facility provided support to
crustaceans, establish biosphere reserve,
molluscs, and Gulf of Mannar
echinoderms, Biosphere Reserve Trust,
fishes, turtles which is responsible for
and many other coordination of the
mammals. management plan for the
biosphere reserve.
● Famous pilgrim centre,
Rameswaram, is situated in
gulf on island of Pamban.
(Revision Notes)
Sunder- West National Park: Bengal Tiger ● UNESCO’s World Heritage

bans Bengal Sunderban National [single largest Site.
Park continuous area ● Largest delta and
It is bound in world] contiguous mangrove forest
on the by Sanctuaries: Saltwater in world (along with
rivers – Sundarbans West, crocodile, river Bangladesh).
West: Sundarbans South terrapin, olive ● Sunderban is the largest
Muriganga and Sundarbans East ridley turtle, mangal diversity of the
East: Ganges river planet (81 plant and 1586
Raimangal Tiger Reserve: dolphin, animal species.)
Harin- Sunderban hawksbill turtle ● Other major rivers flowing
bhahga,. and mangrove through this eco-system are
horseshoe crab, Saptamukhi, Thakuran,
leopard cats, Matla and Goasaba.
macaques, wild ● Although region is situated
boar, Indian grey south of Tropic of Cancer,
mongoose, fox, temperature is equable due
jungle cat, flying to its proximity to the sea.
fox, chital ● Sundarbans were considered
Irrawaddy & endangered in a 2020
Ganges river assessment by researchers
dolphins using IUCN Red List of
Ecosystems framework
Nanda Uttara- National Park: Snow leopard, ● Valley of Flowers is a world
Devi khand Nanda Devi and Himalayan black heritage site.
Valley of Flowers bear, brown ● Includes reserve forests,
bear, musk deer evam soyam (civil) forests,
Sanctuary: Nanda and bharal/blue panchayat (community)
Devi sheep, forests, agricultural land,
Himalayan Tahr grassy slopes, alpine
meadows (bugiyals) and
snow-covered areas.
● It is drained by the Rishi
Ganga river.
● Important peaks: Nanda
Devi,Devistan I, II, Rishi
Kot
● Local communities living
here mainly belong to 2
ethnic groups, Indo-
Mongoloid (Bhotia) and
Indo-Aryan.
Nokrek Meghalaya National Park: Red Panda, ● The entire area is
Nokrek National Asian Elephant, mountainous and Nokrek is
Lies on the Park Slow Loris, the highest peak of the Garo
Tura Giant flying hills, rising up 1,412 metres.
Range, part squirrel, ● The north of the reserve
of Hoolock gibbons embraces rather gently
(Revision Notes)
Meghalaya undulating hills, while steep

Plateau slopes characterize south.
● Rivers: Ganol, Dareng and
Simsang [longest and
largest]
● Tropical climate
characterized by high
humidity, monsoon rains
(April–October) and high
temperatures.
● Evergreen and semi-
evergreen deciduous forests
dominate the landscape:
90% of Nokrek Biosphere
Reserve is covered by
evergreen forest.
● Garo tribes dominate the
area. However, other tribes,
such as the Banias or
Hajjons, also exist in the
area. The Garo refer to
themselves as Achik
mande (man of hills).
● Most worshipped deity is
Saljong to whom the Garo
offer sacrifices.
Panch- Madhya National Park: Giant Squirrel, ● Lies in semi-arid region
mari Pradesh Satpura Flying squirrel, ● Highest peak – Dhoopgarh
chinkara, nilgai, ● The Pachmarhi Plateau is
Lies at the Sanctuary: Bori, wild dogs, bison, also known as the ‘Queen of
centre of Panchmari Indian wolf Satpura’, because it contains
Satpura valleys, marshes, streams
Ranges Tiger Reserve: and waterfalls
Satpura Tiger ● Ecosystems: Tropical moist
Reserve deciduous forests, tropical
dry deciduous and central
Indian sub-tropical hill
forests
● Teak and Sal are most
important tree species.
● Tribes found: Gond, Korkus
Simili- Odisha National Park: Bengal tiger, ● Lies within 2 bio-
pal Similipal Asian elephant, geographical regions:
gaur, and Mahanadian east coastal
Sanctuary: Hadgarh, Chausingha region of Oriental realm and
Kuldiha Chhotanagpur biotic
province of Deccan
Tiger Reserve: peninsular zone.
(Revision Notes)
Similipal ● Highest peak: Khairiburu

● Rivers: Budhabalanga,
Elephant Reserve: Khairi, Salandi, Palpala,
Mayurbhanj ● Tribes: Erenga Kharias and
Mankirdias [prominent];
others: Ho, Gonda & Munda
● Waterfalls: Joranda and
Barehipani/Barhai Falls
Achana Chhattis- Sanctuary: Four horned ● It is considered to be one of
kmar- garh [major Achanakmar antelope, Indian the major watersheds of
Amar- part] and Wildlife Sanctuary wild dog, Saras peninsular India. It
kantak Madhya crane, Asian separates the rivers that
Pradesh white-backed drain into the Arabian Sea
vulture, Sacred and the Bay of Bengal.
grove bush frog ● Source of 3 major rivers:
Narmada, Johilla and Son
● Ranges: Maikal hill ranges,
Vindhya, Satpura
Great Andaman National Parks: Nicobar scrub ● Tribe: Mongoloid Shompen,
Nicobar and Campbell Bay, fowl, edible-nest Nicobarese
Nicobar Galathea swiftlet, Nicobar ● Biome: Tropical and
Islands long-tailed subtropical moist broadleaf
Sanctuary: Galathea Macaque, forests biome
Dugong, Nicobar ● Indira Point: Southernmost
Tree Shrew, point of India was
Nicobar submerged in 2004 due to
Megapode, Tsunami.
Serpent Eagle,
salt water
crocodile,
marine turtles,
giant leatherback
sea turtle,
Malayan Box
Turtle, Giant
robber crab,
reticulated
python
Agasth- Kerala and Sanctuaries: Bengal Tiger, ● Ecoregions: Tropical wet
yamala Tamil Shendurney, Asian Elephant, evergreen forests, South
Nadu Peppara and Neyyar and Nilgiri Tahr. Western Ghats moist
deciduous forests, South
Part of Tiger Reserve: Western Ghats montane rain
Western Kalakad forests and Shola.
Ghats Mundanthurai ● Tribes: Kanikaran [one of
the oldest surviving ancient
tribes in the world]
Khang- Sikkim National Park: Red Panda, ● It is situated over the
(Revision Notes)
chend- Khangchendzonga Musk Deer, Himalayan trans-axial belt

zonga snow leopard, ● One of the world’s 34
Himalayan tahr, biodiversity hotspots and a
dhole, sloth bear, world heritage site.
viverrids, ● Includes the world’s third
Himalayan black highest peak, Mount
bear, Tibetan Khangchendzonga and
wild ass, Zemu Glacier.
Himalayan blue ● It contains Tholung
sheep, serow, Monastery, gompa located
Boral, takin, in the buffer zone
Barking Deer, ● In the north it adjoins
Monal Qomolangma National
Pheasants, Nature Preserve in Tibet,
Tragopan and in west the
Pheasants, Blood Kanchenjunga Conservation
Pheasants [state Area in Nepal.
bird]
Panna Madhya National Park: Bengal Tiger, ● It is northernmost tip of
Pradesh Panna Siyah Gosh, natural teak forests and the
Sanctuary: Gangau Jungle Cat, tiger, easternmost tip of natural
Tiger Reserve: leopard, chital, 'Kardhai' Anogeissus
Panna chinkara, nilgai, pendula forests.
Critical Tiger sambhar and ● Ethnic groups: Gond,
Habitat Area: Panna sloth bear, bar- Khairuas, and Yadavas.
National Park + 3 headed goose ● Most sacrosanct pilgrimage
parts of Gangau for the followers of the
Sanctuary Pranami sect world over.
● Ken river runs northeast
through the park
OTHER BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA

Biosphere State Other protected Fauna Other details
Reserve Areas
Manas Assam Manas: National Pygmy hog, Indian ● Located in Eastern
Park, Wildlife rhinoceros Assam Himalayan foothills
Sanctuary, Tiger roofed turtle, ● Contiguous with Royal
Reserve hispid hare, golden Manas NP, Bhutan.
langur, wild water ● Manas River passes
buffalo, slow loris, through the park
capped langur, ● In 1992, UNESCO
sambar, great declared it as world
hornbill, Malayan heritage site in danger due
giant squirrel or to heavy poaching and
black giant terrorist activities.
squirrel, Chinese However, it was removed
pangolin, Asian in 2011 due to
golden cats, preservation efforts.
(Revision Notes)
dholes, Bengal ● There is only one forest

Florican village, Pagrang, in the
core of the national park.
Other villages surround it.
Dihang- Arunachal National Park: Mishmi takin, red ● It covers high mountains
Dibang Pradesh Mouling goral, musk deer, of Eastern Himalaya and
red panda, Asiatic Mishmi Hills.
Sanctuary: Dibang black bear ● It has natural vegetation
stretching in an unbroken
sequence from the tropics
to mountain tundra.
● Habitat ranges from
tropical wet evergreen in
river gorges to
subtropical, temperate,
alpine & permanent snow.
Great Rann Gujarat Sanctuary: Indian Wild Ass, ● Extension of Thar Desert.
of Kutch Narayan Sarovar, Great Indian ● It is situated between the
Kutch Bustard Bustard, Greater Gulf of Kutch and the
Sanctuary, Wild Florican, Lesser mouth of the Indus River
Ass sanctuary Florican, f in southern Pakistan.
[Little Rann], Chinkara and ● Great Rann of Kutch
Kachchh Desert Indian Wolf, together with Little Rann
Wildlife Sanctuary Caracal, Desert Cat of Kutch is called Rann of
[Great Rann] and Desert Fox Kutch.
● Rivers: Luni, Rupen,
West Banas, Nara Canal/
Wetland: Chari- Puran River [empties into
Dhand Wetland Kori creek in Great Rann
in monsoon]
● Banni Grasslands: Largest
natural grassland in
subcontinent inhabited by
Maldhari pastrolists
● At night, an unexplained
strange dancing light
phenomenon known
locally as Chir Batti
(ghost lights) occurs in
the Rann, the adjoining
Banni grasslands, and the
seasonal wetlands
● World famous 'Flamingo
City' is located in
mudflats of Rann
Cold Desert Himachal NP: Pin Valley Snow Leopard
Pradesh Sanctuary: Kibber,
Sarchu, Chandratal
(Revision Notes)
Dibru- Assam Bengal tiger, ● The park is bounded by

Saikhowa Indian leopard, the Brahmaputra and
clouded leopard, Lohit Rivers in the north
jungle cat, sloth and Dibru river in the
bear, dhole, small south
Indian civet, ● It mainly consists of
Malayan giant moist mixed semi-
squirrel, Chinese evergreen forests, moist
pangolin, Gangetic mixed deciduous forests,
dolphin, slow loris, canebrakes and
Hoolock gibbon, grasslands.
Asian elephant, ● In December 2020,
wild boar, Sambar Guwahati High Court
deer, hog deer, stayed a permission given
barking deer, to Oil India Limited for
Golden Langur hydrocarbon exploration
White-winged at seven locations inside
wood duck, Bengal the protected area
Florican, Lesser
Adjutant Stork,
spotted-billed
Pelican, white-
bellied Heron,
Jerdon’s Babbler,
Pallas’ Fish Eagle
Seshacha- Andhra National Park: Slender Loris, ● Located in Eastern Ghats.
lam Hills Pradesh Srivenkateshwara Indian Giant ● Tirupati, a major Hindu
Squirrel, Mouse pilgrimage town is
Sanctuary: Deer, Golden located in the hills.
Srivenkateshwara Gecko, Yellow ● Contains 7 peaks namely,
throated Bulbul Anjanadri, Garudadri,
Narayanadri, Neeladri,
Seshadri, Venkatadri and
Vrishabhadri [highest].
● It has large reserves of
red sandalwood which is
used in medicines, soaps,
spiritual rituals, etc.
(Revision Notes)
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 16: CONSERVATION EFFORTS
INITIATIVES FOR TIGER CONSERVATION

1. Project Tiger: It is a conservation programme first launched in 1973 in Jim Corbett national park,
Uttarakhand + It is a centrally sponsored scheme of the MoEFCC + It is administered by NTCA.
● Major Objectives
o Ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to protect
them from extinction.
o Preserving areas of biological importance as national heritage for the benefit education
and employment of people.
o Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living in and around tiger reserves.
● Tiger reserves: Areas notified for protection of tiger and its prey + It is governed by project
tiger and administered by NTCA + It is constituted on a core/buffer strategy.
o Core zone: Legal status of a national park or sanctuary with an exclusive tiger agenda + It
is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, where collection of minor forest
produce etc. are not allowed + Tiger conservation without affecting rights of STs or such
other forest dwellers + It is notified by the State Government in consultation with an expert
committee.
o Buffer zone: Area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat providing supplementary
habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human activity
(tribals) + Limits of such areas determined on basis of scientific and objective criteria in
consultation with concerned Gram Sabha and an expert committee constituted for the
purpose.
o Corridor habitat: NTCA in collaboration with WII delineated minimal tiger habitat
corridors connecting tiger reserves for implementing landscape scale tiger conservation.
2. National tiger conservation authority (NTCA): It is a statutory body constituted under Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 + It was established in 2005 on recommendation of Tiger Task force to aid
in implementation of measures for conservation of tiger + It comes under MoEF&CC + It
cooperates with bodies such as CBI, WCCB by issuing alerts for any illegal poaching activities;
administers Project Tiger and tiger reserves.
● Composition:
o Set up under the chairmanship of the minister for environment and forests.
o Eight experts having qualifications and experience in wildlife conservation and welfare of
people including tribals, apart from 3 MPs (two will be elected by Los Sabha and one by
Rajya Sabha).
● Objectives
o Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives becomes
legal.
o Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of tiger reserves, by providing a
basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.
o Providing for an oversight by Parliament.
o Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding tiger reserves.
● Powers and Functions of NTCA
o Provide central assistance to states under ongoing Project Tiger and for activities based on
tiger conservation plan.
o Conducts every four years, the countrywide assessment of status of tiger, co-predators, prey
and habitat using refined methodology approved by Tiger task force.
o Approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government.
(Revision Notes)
o To approve, co-ordinate research and monitoring on tiger, co-predators, prey habitat and
their evaluation.
o Evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically
unsustainable land use such as, mining, industry etc.
o To ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal support
for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan.
o No alteration in boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a recommendation
of the NTCA and the approval of NBWL.
o No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with approval
of NTCA and the approval of the NBWL.
3. Tiger task force: On basis of the recommendations of NBWL, a task force was set up to look into
the problems of tiger conservation in the country; set up in 2005 following open exposure on
sudden disappearance of the tigers from Sariska wildlife reserve.
4. International tiger day: celebrated on July 29 every year to raise awareness about the dwindling
population of tigers; anniversary of agreement of St Petersburg tiger summit in Russia in 2010.
5. Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) of tiger reserves in India, 2022 (Fifth Cycle) report
for Indian tiger reserves prepared by the Wildlife Institute of India and the National Tiger
Conservation Authority + Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala stands out as the best performer with a
MEE score of around 94% followed by Satpura in Madhya Pradesh and Bandipur in Karnataka +
Sundarbans in West Bengal, the only tiger forest in the world with mangroves, continued to be in the
‘very good’ category and got a rank position of 32nd + Dampa in Mizoram is identified as the poorest
performing tiger reserve with only 50% followed by Indravati in Chhattisgarh and Nameri in Assam.
6. Tiger Estimates: NTCA conducts survey of tiger population every four years since 2006; includes
habitat assessment and prey estimation.
● All India tiger estimation, 2022:
o India’s tiger population increased to 3,682
in 2022.
o The largest tiger population of 785 is in MP,
followed by Karnataka (563)
Uttarakhand(560) & Maharashtra (444).
o Tiger abundance within Tiger Reserve is
highest in Corbett (260), followed by
Bandipur (150), Nagarhole (141), Bandhavgarh
(135), Dudhwa (135).
o Central India and the Shivalik Hills and
Gangetic Plains witnessed a notable increase
in tiger population, while Western Ghats experienced localised declines.
7. As of 2022, the tiger population is estimated at 3,167-3,925, showcasing a growth rate of 6.1% per
year. India is now home to three-quarters of the world’s tigers.
8. Reintroduction of tigers : As a part of active management to rebuild wild tiger population in tiger
reserves where tigers became locally extinct recently, the initiative of tiger reintroduction has been
undertaken. Under this active management initiative, tigers have been re-introduced in the western
part of the Rajaji Tiger Reserve (Uttarakhand), Madhav National Park (Madhya Pradesh), Mukundra
Hills Tiger Reserve and Ramgarh Vishdhari (Rajasthan). Efforts are on to reintroduce tigers in the
Buxa Tiger Reserve soon.
9. Declaration of new Tiger Reserves: With declaration of new tiger reserve “Rani Durgavati" in
Madhya Pradesh, the total number of tiger reserves in the county has gone up to 54 with more than
78,000 Square KM area and covers more than 2.30% of geographical area of India.
(Revision Notes)
10. Conservation Assured' Tiger Standards (CA|TS) accreditation of Tiger Reserves in

India: Conservation Assured) Tiger Standards (CA|TS) is a set of criteria which allows tiger sites to
check if their management will lead to successful tiger conservation as per the international
standards. In the current year, six tiger reserves namely Kali, Melghat, Navegaon – Nagzira, Pilibhit
and Periyar have been awarded with CA|TS accreditation. So far a total of 23 tiger reserves of India
have received CA|TS accreditation.
11. Landscape wise distribution: India’s five tiger landscapes are Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains,
central Indian landscape and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North-East hills, Brahmaputra plains
and the Sundarbans.
12. MSTRIPES: The app was developed by NTCA and WII in 2010 for proper location data feeding
and filling record more accurately; app was also used in the All India-tiger estimation; help
strengthen patrolling and surveillance of the endangered Bengal tiger.
13. e-Eye system: software-based system where high resolution thermal and infrared cameras to keep
track of tigers in wildlife sanctuaries and to prevent poaching and animal-human conflict.
14. Tiger Net: National database of individual tiger photo captures to establish linkage with body parts
seized or dead tigers.
15. International Big Cats Alliance: It is a proposed mega-global alliance that will work toward the
protection and conservation of the seven major big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, puma,
jaguar, and cheetah + Membership will be open to 97 'range' countries, which contain the natural
habitat of these big cats, as well as other interested nations, international organizations, etc + Provide
a platform for the dissemination of information on benchmarked practices, capacity building,
resources repository, research and development, awareness creation, etc., on the protection and
conservation of big cats + For the first five years -> supported by India's 'total grant assistance' of
$100 million; later sustain itself through membership fees, and contributions from bilateral and
multilateral institutions and the private sector.
16. TX2 goal: It is a global commitment to double world's wild tigers by 2022; set by
WWF through Global Tiger Initiative, Global tiger forum and other platforms at Petersburg Tiger
summit in 2010. Won by Pilibhit and Sathyamangalam tiger reserve.
17. Tiger Range Countries include India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
18. Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): It is a program of World Bank, using its presence and convening
ability, brought global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda.
19. International award to tiger reserves: During 2022-23, Pench Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh)
and Pench Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra) jointly and Satpura Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh) have
been awarded with Tx2 award, which is instituted by a consortium of international organization
namely GEF, UNDP, IUCN, WWF and GTF.
20. Important facts:
● Madhya Pradesh has highest number of tigers, closely followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand.
● The population of tigers has increased by 49% in Madhya Pradesh, which is the highest in India,
despite recording the highest tiger mortality.
● Kanha Tiger Reserve, MP is the first tiger reserve in India to officially introduce a mascot,
Bhoor Singh the Barasingha.
INITIATIVES FOR ELEPHANT CONSERVATION

1. Elephant census, 2017 report: The total Asian Elephant population in India is estimated at 27,312
across 23 states (a decrease over 2012); birth rate indicates elephant population is increasing;
geographical range has also increased. Karnataka has the highest number of elephants (6,049),
followed by Assam (5,719) and Kerala (3,054)
(Revision Notes)
2. Status of Elephants in India: India has about 30,000 Asian Elephants, which is the world’s largest
population of the species (More than 60% of the Asian elephant population is in India).
3. Project Elephant: It was launched by GOI in 1992 as a centrally sponsored scheme; implemented
in 16 states such as Assam, Arunachal, Jharkhand etc.
● Objectives
o Assist states having free ranging population of wild elephants
o Protect elephants, their habitats and corridors
o Addressing human-elephant conflict issues
o Improving welfare of captive animals
● Steps taken
o Establishment of 30 elephant reserves throughout elephant’s traditional range.
o Establishment of MIKE program of CITES
o Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of animals.
4. Gaj Yatra: a nationwide awareness campaign to protect elephants
5. Gaj Soochna: mobile application for forest officials
6. Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme: Launched in 2003, it is an
international collaboration that tracks trends in information related to illegal killing of elephants
from across Africa and Asia; currently 28 sites participating in the programme in Asia distributed
across 13 countries.
● Objectives:
o To measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants.
o To determine changes in these trends overtime.
o To determine the factors causing or associated with these changes and to try and assess in
particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken by the
Conference of the Parties to CITES.
7. Haathi Mere Saathi: It is a campaign launched by MoEFCC and WII to improve conservation of
the elephant population; launched at E-8 ministerial meeting held in Delhi in 2011; envisions setting
up of Gajah centres in elephant landscapes across the country to spread awareness and encourage
people’s participation.
Mike States State
Chirang Ripu Assam
Dihing Patkai Assam
Eastern Dooars West Bengal
Deomali Arunachal Pradesh
Garo Hills Meghalaya
Mayurbhanj Orissa
Mysore Karnataka
Nilgiri Tamil Nadu
Shivalik Uttarakhand
Wayanad Kerala
8. World Elephant Day: August 12 is celebrated as World Elephant Day every year. The theme for
World Elephant Day 2023 is “Ending the Illegal Wildlife Trade”
9. Project Snow Leopard: It was launched in 2009 to promote an inclusive and participatory
approach to conserve snow leopards and their habitat + It is operational in five Himalayan States
viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh with
support from WII and the Mysore based Nature Conservation Foundation + It adopts landscape
approach to conservation + Species such as Snow Leopard, Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh
Urial, Chiru, Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will benefit from this project. Snow leopard range
(Revision Notes)
countries - Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal,
Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
10. SECURE Himalaya: It is a six-year project to ensure conservation of locally and globally
significant biodiversity, in high Himalayan ecosystem spread over four states viz. Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Uttarakhand and Sikkim + It was launched by MoEFCC in association with UNDP.
11. Sea Turtle project: Started with the joint efforts of UNDP and MoEFCC in 1999 at the Indian
Institute of Wildlife, Dehradun + It issues guidelines for developmental activities in the area,
keeping in mind the need for securing the breeding areas of turtles.
12. Project Hangul: In 1970s, J&K government along with support of IUCN and WWF prepared a
project for protection of habitat of Hangul or the Kashmir stag + Included artificial breeding of the
highly endangered Stag along with other measures for its protection and conservation.
13. SAWEN (South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network): It is an inter-governmental body that acts
as a wildlife law enforcement support body + Its focus areas include harmonisation of policies,
strengthening of institutional capacities through intelligence and knowledge sharing; member states
are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka + It operates
from its secretariat in Kathmandu in Nepal; India became a formal member in 2016.
14. Asian Elephant Alliance: It is an umbrella initiative by five NGOs to secure 96 out of the 101
existing corridors used by elephants across 12 states in India + Five NGOs include Elephant
Family, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN Netherlands, World Land Trust and
Wildlife Trust of India.
15. Cheetah Translocation = India and South Africa signed a MoU on Cooperation on Re-introduction
of Cheetah to India with an aim to expand cheetah meta-population and to reintroduce cheetahs to a
former range state + Cheetahs were made available by Phinda Game Reserve, Tswalu Kalahari
Reserve, Waterberg Biosphere, Kwandwe Game Reserve and Mapesu Game Reserve and will join
Cheetahs relocated to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh (from Namibia) + Plan is to
translocate a further 12 annually for next eight to 10 years + Cheetah was declared extinct in India in
1952 due to over hunting and loss of habitat + Translocation is being made under ‘Project Cheetah’,
world's first inter-continental large wild carnivore translocation project + National Tiger
Conservation Authority (NTCA) is nodal agency for project + Cheetah, world’s fastest mammal, is a
keystone species (organism that helps define an entire ecosystem) of dry forests, scrub forests, and
savannahs, Protected under Appendix 1 of CITES with IUCN status: African Cheetah (Vulnerable);
Asiatic Cheetah (Critically endangered).
16. Project Cheetah = It is world's first intercontinental large wild carnivore translocation project and is
a part of the centrally Sponsored Scheme- ‘Project Tiger’ of India + It aims to introduce African
cheetah in India + Cheetahs are the only large wild mammalian species that went extinct since the
India country’s independence in 1947 + The cheetah was declared extinct from India in 1952 +
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is the nodal agency authorized by Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) for funding, supervision and hand holding of
the project + Wildlife Institute of India (WII), national and international carnivore/cheetah experts/
agencies provide technical and knowledge support to the programme + Under the project, the
government plans to introduce at least 50 cheetahs into various national parks over the next five
years. 12 more Cheetah are due to arrive from South Africa at KNP.
17. Indian Rhino Vision, 2020: It is an initiative led by Forest Department, Government of Assam, in
partnership with WWF India, International Rhino Foundation, and several other organizations + It
aims to increase the rhino population in Assam to 3,000 by establishing populations in new areas +
Seven protected areas are Kaziranga, Pobitora, Orang National Park, Manas National Park,
Laokhowa wildlife sanctuary, Burachapori wildlife sanctuary and Dibru Saikhowa wildlife sanctuary
+ Wild-to-wild translocations were an essential part of IRV2020.
(Revision Notes)
18. Indian crocodile conservation project: The Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975
in different States + The broad objectives of the project are to protect the remaining population of
crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries; to promote captive breeding; to involve
the local people in the project intimately.
19. National action plan for conservation of migratory birds (2018-23): It is to be implemented by
the MoEF&CC + Short-term goal of the plan is to stop the decline in population by 2027 + Major
components are species conservation, Habitat conservation and sustainable management,
Communication and outreach, capacity development, research and knowledge base development,
international cooperation.
20. Green Good Deeds Initiative: It is an initiative launched to spread environmental awareness among
peoples and to mobilize people’s participation for conservation of the environment + It is about
simple steps that students/teachers/citizens can perform in their day-to-day life towards the
protection of the environment + One lakh fifty thousand Ecoclubs have been established in schools
and colleges across the nation.
21. SIMBA (Software with Intelligent Marking Based identification of Asiatic lions) : It is a photo-
identification software, specifically designed to distinguish patterns or marks + Through this
software, forest department will assign different names to the lions by identifying marks on their
body parts + The veterinary record will also be maintained using this database + Asiatic lions are
known for their unique whisker spots on either side of their muzzle.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 17: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
1. Climate change: Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s,
human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels
like coal, oil and gas.
2. Global warming: It is an average increase in temperature of atmosphere near the earth’s surface
and in the troposphere, which contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
● Impacts: Rise in sea level, change in rainfall patterns, melting of ice caps, spread of diseases,
loss of plankton due to warming of seas etc.
3. Green House Effect: Certain gases blanket earth lower atmosphere and warm it, maintaining
temperature suitable for living things to survive.
● Significance: In its absence, average temperature would be -19 degree Celsius and earth would
be a frozen lifeless planet.
4. Anti-greenhouse effect: Titan, the largest moon of Saturn and Pluto show Anti-Green House Effect.
The atmosphere is opaque to solar radiation but lets out infrared. The effect is that the body is
cooler than the actual temperature would have been.
5. Green House Gases: The gases in earth’s atmosphere that trap heat is known as Greenhouse gases.
These are crucial for survival of life on earth.
● Water Vapor: Biggest overall natural contributor to greenhouse effect -> accounts for about
60% of the warming effect + It is controlled by temperature in atmosphere + It is a
noncondensable gas + Cycles through atmosphere quickly evaporating from oceans before
coming down as rain or snow + Decreases from equator towards poles + variable gas in
atmosphere which decreases with altitude + It absorbs not only long-wave terrestrial radiation
(Revision Notes)
(infrared or heat emitted by earth during nights), but also a part of incoming short-wave solar
radiation (visible and UV radiation).
● Carbon dioxide: Primary GHG emitted through human activities + transparent to incoming
solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation + Its concentration is greater close to
earth’s surface as it is denser than air + Main sources: Combustion of fossil fuels to generate
electricity and gasoline, diesel used for transportation + Humanity’s annual carbon emissions
through burning of fossil fuels and forests etc. are 40-100 times greater than all volcanic
emissions.
o The Keeling Curve: Named after its creator Dr. Charles David Keeling, is a global
benchmark for carbon levels in the atmosphere + It is a graph that represents the
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere since 1958 at the Mauna Loa
Observatory in Hawaii.
● Methane: Emitted by sources such as wetlands (largest source), growing rice and paddy, using
natural gas, mining coal, termites, volcanoes, raising livestock, landfills etc + Global food system
is responsible for one-third of world’s GHG emissions + Odourless, colourless, tasteless gas that
is lighter than air + The 20-year GWP is 84 i.e. over a 20-year period, it traps 84 times more heat
per mass unit than CO2- it is more potent GHG than CO2 + Its lifetime in atmosphere is much
shorter than CO2.
● Nitrous oxide: Natural part of nitrogen cycle. Human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel
combustion, use of synthetic fertilizers, wastewater management, industrial processes
(byproduct of production of nitric acid) increasing the amounts of nitrogen oxide. Bacteria in
soil and ocean also produce the gas + It is a green house gas 300 times more potent than carbon.
● Ozone (O3): Gas that occurs in both earth’s atmosphere and at ground level + It is a highly
reactive gas that merits short duration standard of only 1-8hrs average + It is good or bad for
health and environment depending on its location:
o Stratospheric Ozone: It is good because as it protects the living organisms from high
ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
o Ground level Ozone: It is not desirable because it can trigger a variety of health problems
for children, elderly etc.
▪ Ozone pollution is a secondary pollution created by reactions between oxides of
Nitrogen (NOX) and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from vehicles, power
plants in the presence of sunlight and heat.
▪ Health impacts: Asthma and respiratory diseases, chest pain, coughing, lung diseases,
People with lower intake of Vitamin C and E are at greater risk,
▪ Environment: Impact sensitive vegetation during growing season and ecosystems like
forests, parks wildlife and wilderness areas.
▪ Monitoring of Ozone: National ambient air quality standards by CPCB measures the
concentration of ozone. It is also listed as one of the major pollutant in AQI and SAFAR.
(Revision Notes)
● Flourinated Gases: These include HFCs, PFCS, SF6, Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) emitted
from industrial processes such as aluminum and semi-conductor manufacturing and
substitution for ozone depleting substances + They have very high global warming potential,
though released in small quantities + They are removed from atmosphere only when they are
destroyed by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere + They are the most potent and longest
lasting type of GHGs emitted by humans.
o Hydrofluorocarbons: Used as refrigerants, solvents, fire retardants + Developed as a
replacement for CFCs and HCFCs as they do not deplete stratospheric ozone; but they are
potent GHGs with long atmospheric lifetimes and high Global warming potential.
o Perfluorocarbons: Byproduct of industrial processes associated with aluminum production
and semi-conductors + Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric life-times and
high global warming potential.
● Black carbon: It is a kind of an aerosol and sooty black material emitted from gas and diesel
engines, coal-fired power plants due to incomplete combustion + It comprises high levels of
particulate matter + Short lived climate pollutant (few days to weeks) + They are the second
most anthropogenic agent for climate change.
o Main Sources: Incomplete burning of coal, biomass burning, cooking with solid fuels, diesel
exhausts etc.
o Impact: When deposited on ice, reduces reflective capacity, good absorber of sunlight->
absorb million times more energy than CO2; affect cloud formation and rainfall + It may
also lead to depletion of ozone layer + Key component of PM 2.5 -> negative health
impacts.
o Government measures: Project Surya by introducing efficient stove technologies, solar
cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants; PM Ujjwala yojana etc.
o Facts: India contributes around 25% of the world’s black carbon emissions; second
largest contributor to black carbon in the world.
● Brown carbon: It is emitted majorly by biomass combustion + It is ubiquitous and unidentified
component of organic aerosol + It is light absorbing organic matter.
o Major sources: Biomass burning (including domestic wood burning), agricultural fires
including stubble burning etc.
● Brown Vs Black carbon: Black carbon is produced by high temperature combustion and
brown carbon is emitted by biomass combustion.
● Blue carbon: It is stored in the coastal ecosystem such as Mangroves, seagrass meadows and
intertidal salt marshes.
● Blue Carbon Initiative : It is a global program aimed at mitigating climate change through the
conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems + The Blue Carbon Initiative
focuses on mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, which are found on every continent except
Antarctica + It is coordinated by Conservation International (CI), the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (IOC-UNESCO)
(Revision Notes)
6. Short-Lived Halogens (SLH) = SLH (lifetime of less than six months) are gases that contain the
halogen elements chlorine, bromine, or iodine + Source: Marine phytoplankton and algae, as well as
abiotic sources from ocean and tropospheric chemistry + SLH from oceans reduces warming by
depleting ozone and reduce the formation of cooling aerosols + SLH increase methane’s lifetime in
the atmosphere and increase the levels of water vapour.
7. Climate Forcings (Aerosol Radiative Forcing): Factors in the climate system that either increase
or decrease the effects to the climate system. Positive forcings such as excess GHGs warm earth,
while negative forcings such as effects of aerosols and volcanic eruptions cool the earth. (
Volcanic ash or dust released into the atmosphere during an eruption shade sunlight and cause
temporary cooling. Larger particles of ash have little effect because they fall out of the air quickly.
Small ash particles form a dark cloud in the troposphere that shades and cools the area directly
below).
8. Estimation of the effect of a gas:
● Quantity: It is how much of the gas is present in the atmosphere + It is measured in parts per
million/billion.
● Life: For what duration can the gas survive in atmosphere. Each of these gases remain in the
atmosphere for different amounts of time.
● Strength: How strong the gas traps the heat. Some gases are more effective than others at
making planet warmer and thickening the Earth’s blanket.
9. Global warming potential: For each gas a Global warming potential
(GWP) is calculated by considering its duration of existence i.e life
and strength of its impact. Gases with higher GWP absorb more
energy per compound, thus contributing more to warming the Earth.
10. Social cost of carbon: It is the marginal cost of the impacts caused
by emitting one extra tonne of CO2 equivalent at any point in time,
inclusive of 'non-market' impacts on the environment and human
health; India's country-level social cost of carbon emission was
estimated to be the highest at $86 per tonne of CO2-> Indian
economy will lose $86 by emitting each additional tonne of CO2.
11. Hydroclimate extremes: It refers to unusual and intense climatic
events related to the Earth's water cycle, encompassing both the
atmospheric and hydrological components + These extremes can
manifest an exceptionally heavy rainfall, prolonged droughts, intense storms, floods, or other
weather-related phenomena
12. Climate Feedback Loop = Climate change Feedback Loop - They are the climate's equivalent of a
vicious cycle. It refers to a change in one metric which accelerates or decelerates the warming trend
of the planet. Example - Melting of ice caps, wildfires, thawing etc + As the world gets hotter, ice
melts, exposing the darker-coloured land or water underneath. The dark surface absorbs more light,
which in turn contributes to warming and the ice melts at a much more rapid pace. Hence, it is an
example of Climate feedback loop + Wildfires - The burning of dry vegetation introduces poisonous
gases such as CO2 which accelerates the greenhouse effect and will result in another wildfire event.
Hence, it is an example of Climate feedback loop + Dampening Feedback loops - It refers to the
loops which absorb planet-heating carbon emissions.
13. Triple Dip La Niña = India is currently witnessing a colder than normal winter mainly due to the
north-south winter flow because of the climate phenomenon known as La Niña + The equatorial
Pacific Ocean is experiencing the longest-ever La Niña episode in recorded history + Having started
in September 2020, it has prevailed for three consecutive years and thus has been classified as a
“triple dip La Niña” + In the Indian context, La Niña is associated with good monsoon rainfall, while
(Revision Notes)
El Niño is expected to suppress monsoon rainfall + (El Nino = El Nino was first recognized by
Peruvian fishermen off the coast of Peru as the appearance of unusually warm water + The Spanish
immigrants called it El Nino, meaning “the little boy” in Spanish + El Nino is a climate pattern that
describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean + It is the
“warm phase” of a larger phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) + It occurs
more frequently than La Nina + El Nino soon came to describe irregular and intense climate changes
rather than just the warming of coastal surface waters + The El Nino event is not a regular cycle,
they are not predictable and occur irregularly at two- to seven-year intervals + The climatologists
determined that El Nino occurs simultaneously with the Southern Oscillation. The Southern
Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific Ocean. When coastal waters become
warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Nino), the atmospheric pressure above the ocean decreases.
Climatologists define these linked phenomena as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO))
14. Greenhouse gas protocol: It is the most widely used international accounting tool for government
and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions + It is a
partnership between World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD) + It provides accounting framework for nearly every GHG
standard and program in the world - from the International Standards Organization to The Climate
Registry - as well as hundreds of GHG inventories prepared by individual companies.
15. Greenhouse Gas Bulletin Report : Released by WMO + It shows the average surface mole
fractions for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and compares them
with the mole fractions during the previous year and with the preindustrial levels + Greenhouse Gas
Bulletin 2022 also provides change in radiative forcing by long-lived GHGs (LLGHGs) and the
contribution of individual gases to this increase.
16. GHG Emissions: China > USA > EU > India.
17. Short-lived climate Pollutants
Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) are a group of greenhouse gases and air pollutants that
have a near-term warming impact on climate and can affect air quality. SLCPs include black
carbon, methane, ground-level ozone, and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
18. Climate and Clean Air Coalition: The governments of Bangladesh, Mexico, Sweden, Ghana,
Canada and USA along with UNEP came together in 2012 to treat short-lived climate pollutants as
a collective and urgent challenge + It is a voluntary partnership of governments, intergovernmental
organizations, businesses, scientific institutions and civil society organizations committed to
improving air quality and protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived climate
pollutants + It focuses on Black carbon, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons and tropospheric ozone.
(Revision Notes)
19. Earth hour: Worldwide movement, held annually + organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) + Encouraging individuals, communities, households and businesses to turn off their non-
essential lights for one hour, from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. (local time) on the last Saturday in March +
Started as a lights-off event in Sydney, Australia in 2007.
20. Global Climate Change alliance: It is an initiative of the European Union + It provides technical
and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their
development policies and budget.
21. IPCC AR 6 Synthesis Report = The Synthesis Report of the 6th Assessment Cycle (AR6) of the
IPCC was adopted at the 58th Session of the IPCC at Interlaken, Switzerland + It integrates the main
findings of the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) based on contributions from the three Working
Groups, and the three Special Reports + The report reinforces the scientific view that CO2 is the
primary GHG and needs to be drastically reduced + The report mentions that for every 1000 GtCO2
emitted by human activity, global surface temperature rises by 0.45°C (best estimate, with a likely
range from 0.27 to 0.63°C)
22. CO2 Emissions in 2022 Report = International Energy Agency (IEA) released ‘CO2 Emissions in
2022’ report + Report is first in IEA’s new series, Global Energy Transitions Stocktake- tracking
progress towards Paris Agreement, provides complete picture of energy related greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions in 2022 + Global energy-related CO2 emissions grew by 0.9% in 2022, reaching a
new high of over 36.8 Gt + (Global Energy Transitions Stocktake = It tracks technology,
investment and people centered progress toward Paris Agreement and supports first Global
Stocktake (GST) which will conclude at COP 28 in 2023 + GST, started at COP 26, assesses world’s
collective progress towards Paris Agreement and long-term climate goals + Paris Agreement is a
legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 Parties at UN Climate Change
Conference (COP21) in 2015)
23. Debt for Nature Swap or Debt for Climate Swaps = Debt-for-climate swaps can incentivize
debtor countries to take meaningful action on climate while reducing their debt burdens. These
swaps involve reducing debt in exchange for policy commitments or spending by debtor countries +
In the past decade, debt-for-climate swaps have become relatively popular among low- and middle-
income countries + Multilateral development banks and multilateral organizations such as the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have been advocating this instrument as a debt-relief
measure.
24. Strategy on the Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships = International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has adopted a Strategy on the Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships + Adopted by the
Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC 80), an important committee of IMO.
25. Plastic Overshoot Day Report = Released by Swiss-based research consultancy Earth Action (EA)
+ Plastic Overshoot Day refers to the day when the amount of plastic waste surpasses the capability
of waste management systems to effectively manage + It is based on the country’s Mismanaged
Waste Index (MWI) i.e., the ratio of the mismanaged waste and the total waste + Recently, the Earth
witnessed Plastic Overshoot Day on July 28, 2023 + According to the report India contributed 16.7
days in 157 days of World Plastic Overshoot Days in 2023.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 18: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES
1. Carbon Sequestration: It describes long-term storage of CO2 and other forms of carbon to
mitigate global warming. Also known as Carbon capture and storage (CCS).
● Mechanism: CCS catches and sequesters (hide) CO2 from power stations, industrial sites and
permanently stores it in underground.
● Potential sites: Natural sinks such as Ocean, forests, soil etc. and Artificial sinks like depleted
oil reserves, un-mineable mines etc.
● Types of Sequestration
o Geologic sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as reservoirs for
long term CO2 storage.
▪ Trapping mechanisms: Hydrodynamic trapping (CO2 trapped under low permeability
hard rock), Solubility trapping (dissolved into a liquid) and Mineral carbonation.
o Ocean sequestration: Carbon is stored in oceans through direct injection or fertilization.
▪ Enhancing productivity of ocean biological systems through Iron fertilization
(stimulates phytoplankton production), and injecting CO2 into deep ocean.
o Terrestrial sequestration: Increasing carbon fixation through photosynthesis, changing
land use pattern enhance carbon uptake in soils, vegetation etc.
2. Carbon sink: Green and Blue carbon sequestrate atmosphere GHGs.
● Green carbon: It is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in plants and soil of natural
ecosystems. Forests accumulate large amounts of CO2 in relatively short periods.
● Blue carbon: Coastal, aquatic and maritime carbon sinks held by indicative vegetation, marine
organism and sediments. Tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses remove carbon from
atmosphere and store it in plants and sediment below them.
o More efficient: Removes carbon at rates higher than each square mile of mature tropical
forests.
3. Blue carbon initiative: Global program working to mitigate climate change through the restoration
and sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems. Coordinated by Conservation International,
IUCN, and IOC-UNESCO.
4. Carbon credit: It is a tradeable certificate representing right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide and
carbon dioxide equivalent gases. India’s Multi commodity exchange (MCX) has become first
exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.
5. Carbon offsetting: These are credits for reductions in GHGs emissions made at other location,
such as wind farms which create renewable energy; quantified and sold in metric tonnes of CO2
equivalent.
6. Carbon tax: It is tax based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such as coal to cause less
fossil use and an incentive to use another sources of energy.
7. Carbon Leakage : It is another issue with the Clean Development Mechanism. It is defined as
increase in emissions outside a region as a direct result of the policy measures to cap emission in this
region. This means that the domestic climate mitigation policy is less effective and more costly in
containing emission.
8. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CABM) : Proposed carbon tariff on carbon intensive
products, such as cement and some electricity, imported by the European Union + Currently being
legislated as part of the European Green Deal it is likely to take effect in 2026 with reporting starting
in 2023.
9. Geo-Engineering: Technique designed to tackle the effects of climate change by removing CO2
from the air or limiting the amount of sunlight reaching the planet's surface.
(Revision Notes)
● Methods: Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space (reflect light and reduce heating of Earth),
whitening stratosphere with sulfate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs to reflect sunlight into
ocean to promote carbon-gulping algae, whiten clouds with wind-powered ships, building fake
trees.
● Seed the sea with Iron (phytoplankton prefer iron and flourish in its presence, thus absorbing a
lot of CO2. E.g: LOHAFEX -> Indo-German Ocean iron fertilization project).
● Utility: For dry ice production, developing new kinds of plastic and concrete, horticulturists
need CO2 in GHGs for plants to use during photosynthesis.
10. Clean coal technologies
● Coal washing: Removes unwanted minerals by mixing crushed coal with a liquid and allowing
impurities to separate and settle.
● Electrostatic precipitators: Remove particulates by charging particles with an electric field
and then capturing them on collection plates.
● Flue gas desulfurization: Wet scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization remove Sulphur dioxide by
spraying flue gas with limestone and water.
11. Miscellaneous
● High latitude forests store more carbon than tropical rainforests.
● One third of the world’s soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas.
● When the permafrost melts due to global warming, it releases carbon in the form of carbon
dioxide and methane.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 19: OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
1. Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans,
caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
2. Process: As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, concentration of carbonate ions decreases, the PH of the ocean
decreases and oceans become less alkaline.
3. CO2 Effect on ocean acidification: Increase in CO2-> Ocean acidification-> Coral reefs can’t
grow-> less plankton production-> less productive fisheries.
4. Checking CO and CO2 emissions and controlling pollution are the only means to reduce ocean
acidification.
5. Influence of other factors:

● Acid Rain: Acid rain can have a PH between 1 and 6 and has major effect on ocean
acidification locally and regionally.
● Materials used to induce acid rain : Silver iodide Potassium iodide Dry ice,Liquid propane
Common salt.
● Eutrophication: It leads to large plankton blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to
the sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae leads to a decrease in
seawater oxygen and an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
6. Consequences of Ocean Acidification
● Affects corals population: Ocean acidification will negatively affect corals. Coral reefs will
erode faster than they can rebuild. When shelled organisms are at risk, the entire food web may
also be at risk.
● Some algae and seagrass may benefit from higher CO2 concentrations, as they may increase
their photosynthetic and growth rates.
● Cloud formation: The majority of sulphur in the atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, in the
form of dimethylsulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton. In acidified ocean water,
phytoplankton produces fewer DMS, which may lead to decreased cloud formation, raising
global temperatures.
● Ocean acidification in the Indian Ocean
o The Arabian Sea is witnessing acidification of its surface waters, a consequence of
excessive CO2 in the atmosphere
o The ocean acidification in the northern Bay of Bengal is mainly due to pollutants mixing
with seawater from the Indo-Gangetic plains.
o Decreasing presence of marine phytoplankton in the western Indian Ocean.
(Revision Notes)
● Saturation horizons: The acidic lower layers of the ocean are separated from the upper layers
by a boundary called the “saturation horizon.” Above this boundary there are enough carbonates
present in the water to support coral communities. Ocean acidification causes the saturation
horizons to rise vertically in the water column-> more calcifying organisms exposed to under
saturated water and thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and skeletons.
● Mitigation: Reducing CO2, promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions, eliminate
offshore drilling, alternative energy sources such as wind power and solar etc.
Carbon Compensation Depth (CCD) : It refers to the level of depth of the ocean till where
carbon doesn’t dissolve and is present in an adequate amount. It is essential for the survival of
marine organisms, whose bodies are made up of carbonate shells like corals, mollusks,
planktons, etc. Carbon dioxide above the CCD is locked in, however, the carbon below CCD
is free and dissolved. Global warming has led to ocean acidification and subsequent increase
of carbon in the oceans. It has led to rise in the level of CCD in the oceans.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 20: CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES
1. United Nations Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm conference), 1972: The

Stockholm conference was the first UN Conference on environment + It resulted in establishment of
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
2. 1987: Brundlandt report “Our Common Future”-> First mention of sustainable development.
3. UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit), 1992: UNFCCC, UNCBD,
UNCCD, Agenda 21, Global Environment facility , Forest principles , Rio declaration on
environment and development.
● Agenda 21: It is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of UN system, governments and major groups in every area + It is a non-binding
voluntarily implemented action plan of United Nations with regard to sustainable development.
● Forest Principles- They are informal name given to non-legally binding statement on
conservation and sustainable development of forestry.
4. New York, 1997: Rio + 5; review of progress under 1992 summit.
5. Rio + 10, Johannesburg (World Summit on sustainable development), 2002: Millennium
development goals (MDGs) and review of Agenda 21.Major Outcome Johannesberg Decleration for
the sustainable development. It is a generous statement which talks about threats post to the world
and therefore importance of sustainable development.
Green economy :Green economy is defined as economies aims at making issues of reduing
environmental risk and ecological scarcity aims at sustainable development without degrading the
environment.
6. Rio + 20, 2012: Talk about Sustainable development goals, Green economy, Partnership for action
on Green Economy (UNEP, UNDP, ILO are part of it). Binding document was released –THE
FUTURE WE WANT.
7. UNFCCC: Negotiated at Rio Earth summit (UNCED) in 1992 + It is the first multilateral legal
instrument on climate change + It came into force in 1994 + It is a legally non-binding agreement.
● Objective and role: Stabilize GHGs concentrations in atmosphere + It sets non-binding
limits on GHGs for individual countries + It has no enforcement mechanism.
● Parties to convention: All UN member states, Palestine (Observer state), European Union
and Niue and Cook Island (non-member states).
● UNFCCC secretariat: Supports Conference of parties (COP), subsidiary bodies, COP Bureau.
8. Kyoto Protocol (COP-3): Negotiated under UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan, 1997 + It is the only global
treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions + It came into force in 2005 + India ratified in 2002
+ USA never ratified.
● Goal: Fight global warming by reducing GHGs -> prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with climate system.
● Objectives: Enforce commitments under protocol + Sustainable development through tech
transfer and investment + encourage private sector to contribute emission reduction efforts.
● CBDR: Obligation on developed countries to reduce current emissions + Every country must
take part but historically biggest polluters like US, UK, Russia etc. should do more compared
to recent polluters and must accept to certain binding limits on GHG emissions.
● Main Parties
o Annex 1 parties: Industrialized countries which are members of OECD in 1992,
European Union + Economies in transition (EIT), including Russian federation, and several
central and east European states.
(Revision Notes)
o Annex 2 parties: OECD members of Annex 1 (But doesn’t include EIT parties); also
include EU; provide financial aid and technical support to developing countries to assist
in mitigation and adaptation.
o Annex B: includes 38 countries+ European Community; compulsory binding targets to
reduce GHG emissions.
o Non-Annex 1 parties: mostly developing countries; no binding targets to reduce emission.
o Least developed countries: given special consideration to adapt to climate change.
● First commitment period was 2008-12 + Second commitment period, launched by Doha
amendment (2012), begin from 1 Jan 2013 to 2020.
● Key provisions: Binding emission targets for 38 industrialized countries and EU in first
commitment period + Varied targets for nations (EU- 8%; US-7%) + Overall these targets add
up to 5% emission reduction by these countries from 1990 levels over five year period from
2008 to 2012 + Based on CBDR- only binds developed countries.
● Emission target gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6), HCFs and groups of Per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
● Architecture of Kyoto Protocol regime
o Countries to meet targets largely through domestic action; also offers Marked based
mechanisms.
Fig: Market based mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol

● Benefits of Flexible Market Mechanisms: Green investments in developing countries +
Inclusion of private sector to steady GHGs at safe level + Ensure transparency of accounting
by parties.
● Penalties: If country does not meet requirements for reporting-> losses right of gaining credit
through Joint implementation; Goes above emission-> make up difference + 30% in the next
period.
(Revision Notes)
● Status of Kyoto Protocol: Most countries failed to meet targets for first period of commitment
(2008-12).
9. Kyoto Beyond 2012
● Amendments to KP for second commitment period (2012-20) adopted at Doha in 2012 + It has
not entered into force yet + It enter force on 90th day after 3/4th of parties to KP have
deposited their instrument of accession + India ratified second commitment period in 2017 +
Developed countries started implementation under ‘opt-in provisions’.
10. COP-11: Held in Montreal, Canada in 2005-> ratified Kyoto protocol.
11. Bali conference 2007 (COP 13): Bali roadmap as a two-year process to finalize binding agreement
in 2009 Copenhagen; review of the financial mechanism (beyond existing Global Environmental
Facility.)
12. Poznan Conference 2008 (COP 14): Launched adaptation fund under Kyoto protocol; financed in
part by government and private donors.
13. Copenhagen summit (COP 15): limits max global avg temperature increase to not more 2 degrees
C above pre-industrial levels; developed countries to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-
2012; mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of
sources.
14. Cancun conference (COP 16): Agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund and include Carbon
capture and storage (CCS) under CDM.
15. Durban conference (COP 17): Second phase of Kyoto protocol secured; approved governing
instrument for Green climate fund.
16. Doha conference (COP18): agreed to extend life of Kyoto-> second commitment period (2013-20);
extension of KP until 2020 limited scope to 15% of global CO2 emissions.
17. Warsaw conference (COP 19): Term INDCs coined; Warsaw mechanism proposed-> Support to
developing nations to cope damages caused by natural extremities.
18. LIMA Outcomes (COP-20): Capitalization of the new Green climate fund past an initial $10
billion target; multilateral assessments; climate awareness into national development plans; launch
of Nazca Climate action portal.
19. Paris Agreement, 2015 (COP-21): Entered into force in November, 2016 (ratification by 55
countries that account for 55% of global emissions); Focus on mitigate and adapt to climate
change beyond 2020; India signed and ratified in 2016.
● Goal: Limit global temperature increase well below 2 degree celsius, also urging efforts to limit
increase to 1.5 degrees; zero net anthropogenic GHG emission during 2nd half of 21st century.
● Key features of the agreement
o Provides common framework for all countries-> all parties report regularly on emission
targets and international review (ends strict differentiation between developed and
developing countries).
o Binding procedural commitments: prepare, communicate NDCs; new NDC every five
years; each successive NDC progression beyond previous one; no binding obligation to
implement NDCs.
o Carbon markets: Recognize parties to use “internationally transferred mitigation
outcomes” to implement its NDCs.
o Successive NDCs: Global stocktake to assess collective progress; first stocktake in 2023;
new NDCs every five years to represent progression.
o Support to poor developing countries; extend $100 billion-a-year goal through 2025;
beyond that by 2023, COP set new quantified goal from floor of $100 billion a year.
● India’s INDCs
o To reduce Emission intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 % by 2030 from 2005 level.
(Revision Notes)
o Increase share of non-fossil based energy resource to 40% of installed electric power
capacity by 2030.
o Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest and tree
cover by 2030.
● Marrakech conference (COP-22), 2016: Adaptation of African Agriculture launched + It
aimed at dealing with orphan issues not assigned to APA + It also included mid-century
strategies; 2050 Pathway platform was launched; roadmap outlining methods to meet goal of
mobilizing $100 billion a year; $23 million for climate technology centre and network (CTCN).
● Bonn climate change conference (COP 23), 2017: Powering past coal alliance (coal phase-
out in OECD and EU28 by 2030); and by 2050 in rest of world + It has no particular phase-out
date commitments; Gender action plan; ocean pathway partnership; Insu resilience global
partnership (climate and disaster risk finance and insurance solutions).
o Talanoa dialogue: It reflect process of inclusive, participatory and transparent dialogue + It
help countries enhance their NDCs + It involves sharing of ideas, skills and experience
through storytelling.
● Katowice conference (COP-24), 2018: Finalized a “rulebook” to operationalize paris
agreement-> details on how countries will provide info about their NDCs, opaqueness of climate
financing, describes how loans, grants should be accounted for + Modalities for Monitoring
and progress report to INDCs.
● Madrid conference (COP-25), 2019: Framing rules for setting up new carbon market under
Paris agreement deferred to next year + It has no schedule finalized for updating NDCs + The
liabilities for damages caused by rising temperatures deferred; concrete plans regarding
climate emergency.
● Glasgow climate conference (COP-26), 2021: Secure Global net-zero by mid-century and
keep 1.5 degrees within reach + The countries asked for ambitious 2030 emission reduction
targets + ‘protect and restore ecosystems and build defences; Developed countries must
mobilize USD100bn per year.
o Five commitments made by Indian Prime Minister
▪ Raise the non-fossil fuel based energy capacity of the country to 500 GW by 2030.
▪ By 2030, 50% of the country’s energy requirements would be met using renewable
energy sources.
▪ Reduce the total projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes between now and the
year 2030.
▪ The carbon intensity would be reduced to less than 45% by 2030.
▪ India would become carbon neutral and achieve net zero emissions by the year 2070.
o Others: Developed economies should make $1 trillion available for climate financing.
● UNFCC COP 27 [Sharm El-Sheikh Climate Change Conference] : Held in Egpyt + The
Sharm-El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to build resilience for
four billion people that are most vulnerable to climate, by 2030 + COP27 signed an agreement to
provide "loss and damage" funding to vulnerable countries.
o Initiatives :
▪ Action on Water Adaptation and Resilience Initiative (AWARe): It has been
launched to reflect the importance of water as both a key climate change problem and a
potential solution.
▪ African Carbon Market Initiative (ACMI): It was launched to support the growth of
carbon credit production and create jobs in Africa.
▪ Global Renewables Alliance: It brings together, for the first time, all the technologies
required for the energy transition in order to ensure an accelerated energy transition.
(Revision Notes)
▪
Parties Agree to Introduce Loss & Damage Funding : During the COP27, Parties
agreed to include Loss and Damage Funding as an agenda item at the climate conference
for the first time since the adoption of the UN climate convention.
▪ International Conference on "Citizen-centric energy transition: Empowering
citizens with Mission LIFE (Lifestyles for Environment)" : It was held at the India
Pavilion at the COP-27 at Sharm-El-Sheikh in Egypt. The conference was hosted by the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and the Ministry of Power (MOP),
Government of India, in partnership with Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA), Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) and the Council on Energy,
Environment and Water (CEEW).
▪ ISA Releases USD 1 Trillion Roadmap for Scaling Solar Investment, Deployment :
The goal of this roadmap is to secure the funding needed to scale up the deployment of
solar power projects.
▪ Methane Alert and Response System (UNFCCC COP 27) : A new satellite-based
system to detect methane emissions and tackle them to slow climate change + The data-
to-action platform was set up as part of the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP)
International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) strategy to get policy-relevant
data into the right hands for emissions mitigation + The system will be the first publicly
available global system to connect methane detection to notification processes
transparently
● UNFCCC COP28 [Dubai, United Arab Emirates]
o Loss & Damage fund: Member countries reached an agreement to operationalize the Loss
and Damage (L&D) fund + The World Bank will be the "interim host" of the fund for four
years, aligning with UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement + All developing countries are
eligible, and contributions are voluntary, with a specific percentage earmarked for Least
Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States.
o Global Stocktake: Fifth iteration of the Global Stocktake (GST) released, adopting eight
steps to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees C.
 Tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030 (to at least 11,000 GW by 2030) and
collectively double the global energy efficiency improvements from around 2% to over
4% every year until 2030.
 Phase-down of unabated coal power
 Accelerating efforts globally towards net zero by around mid-century
 Accelerating zero and low emissions technologies e.g., Nuclear, CCUS, Hydrogen
 Transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable
manner, so as to achieve net zero by 2050
 Reducing non-CO2 emissions e.g., methane emissions globally by 2030
 Emissions reductions from road transport
 Phasing out of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies
o Global cooling pledge: 66 national signatories committed to a 68% reduction in cooling-
related emissions by 2050.
o Climate Finance: UNCTAD estimates that developed nations owe developing countries
$500 billion in 2025 under the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) for climate finance,
confirmed in the Paris Agreement + The goal, starting at $100 billion annually, allocates
$250 billion for mitigation, $100 billion for adaptation, and $150 billion for loss and damage.
o Nuclear energy: The text calls to triple global nuclear energy capacity by 2050.
(Revision Notes)
o Coalition for High Ambition Multilevel Partnership (CHAMP): 65 national governments

signed commitments for enhanced cooperation with subnational governments in climate
strategies.
o Powering past coal alliance: It is a coalition involving governments, businesses, and
organizations, focuses on transitioning from unabated coal power to clean energy. At COP28,
PPCA welcomed new national and subnational governments, advocating for cleaner energy
alternatives. India is not part of PPCA as it has not committed to phasing out of coal.
o Buildings Breakthrough Initiative: To make near-zero emissions and resilient buildings the
new normal by 2030 + It is co-led by France and the Kingdom of Morocco, coordinated
under the umbrella of UNEP, and hosted by the Global Alliance for Buildings and
Construction (Global ABC).
o India led initiatives
 Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA): Launched at COP 28, led by the National
Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) under the Ministry of Jal Shakti + Unique alliance
covering 275+ global river-cities in 11 countries + Partner countries include Egypt,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ghana, Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan and river-cities of
The Hague from the Netherlands, Adelaide from Australia, and Szolnok of Hungary + It
will facilitate knowledge exchange, river-city twinning, and dissemination of best
practices.
 Green Credit initiative: It aims to create a global trade forum facilitating the exchange
of innovative environmental programmes and instruments + Two main priorities are
water conservation and afforestation + Its main purpose is to boost voluntary
environmental activities like tree plantation, water conservation, sustainable agriculture,
and waste management by incentivizing it for big corporations and private companies,
bringing about a change in the climate issues faced by the country + It aligns with
Mission LiFE which aims to minimise per capita carbon footprint by promoting mindful
utilisation instead of wasteful consumption.
 LeadIT 2.0: Focuses on co-development and transfer of low-carbon technology and
financial assistance to emerging economies.
 Green Development Pact: The pact recognises that the present and future generations
can be prosperous only if current development and other policy choices and actions
resolve environmentally sustainable practices and inclusive economic growth + It
includes key ambitions such as tripling of global renewable capacity by 2030.
● Climate Finance: It refers to local, national or transnational financing-drawn from public,
private and alternative sources of financing + It seeks to support mitigation and adaptations
actions that will address climate change.
● Principles of Climate Finance: Polluters pay principle, CBDR and Respective capability
(CBDR-RC), Additionality (climate finance should be additional to existing commitments to
avoid diversion of funding for development needs to climate change actions), predictability
(climate finance must be predictable to ensure sustained flow of climate finance), adequacy and
precaution.
● UNFCCC established the financial mechanism to provide financial resources to developing
country parties.
o Global Environment Facility (GEF): Setup as a fund under World Bank in 1991+ Moved
out of WB system during Rio Earth summit in 1992 to become permanent and separate
institution + Multilateral grants to developing countries+ Based in Washington DC+ It
serves as a financial mechanism for CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD, Stockholm convention on
PoPs, Minamata convention on mercury + India is both donor and recipient of GEF + It
(Revision Notes)
also supports implementation of Montreal protocol in countries with economies in transition+

financial contribution is replenished every four years by GEF 39 donor countries + The
funds available to developing countries and economies in transition+ Six designated focal
areas are Biodiversity, climate change, international waters, ozone depletion, land
degradation and persistent organic pollutants.
▪ GEF Small Grants programme: Launched in 1992 + It was implemented by UNDP
on behalf of the GEF partnership + It provides financial and technical support to
communities through community based initiatives; funds grants of upto maximum of
$50,000 + It provides a maximum of $1,50,000 for strategic projects.
o Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP-16 at Cancun in 2010; chief instrument
of fulfilling developed countries collective promise to put $100bn annually by 2020;
mechanism to redistribute money from developed to developing world.
▪ COP 16 ==> Decision Made to establish GCF.
COP 17 ==> Parties approved the Governing Instrument for the GCF ==> Legal
approval
COP 18 ==> Songdo, Incheon, Republic of Korea hosted GCF.
▪ Structure: Fund governed by GCF board consisting of 24 members equally divided
between developed and developing countries; accountable to and functions under COP
to support projects; independent secretariat in Songdo, Republic of Korea; World
Bank serves as interim trustee of GCF.
o Special climate change fund: Established under convention in 2001 to finance adaptation,
technology transfer etc; GEF entrusted to operate the SCCF.
o Strategic climate fund: Administered by World Bank + The area of focus is adaptation,
mitigation + One of the two multi-donor trust funds within climate investment funds (CIFs).
o Biocarbon fund: Administered by World Bank + It is an initiative for sustainable forest
landscapes; sustainable forest management with climate smart agricultural practices.
o Clean technology fund: Administered by WB + It promotes scaled up finance for transfer of
low carbon technologies + It is channeled through African Development bank, ADB,
EBRD, WB group.
o Forest carbon partnership facility: Administered by the World Bank + Mitigation under
REDD + It consists of readiness fund and carbon fund.
o Least developed countries fund: Administered by GEF + It funds adaptation needs of
LDCs + Financed preparation and implementation of National adaptation programs of action
(NAPAs).
o Adaptation Fund: Administered by Adaptation fund board + It is operational from 2009 + It
is a financial instrument under UNFCCC and its Kyoto protocol + The fund is financed
with proceeds from Clean development mechanism (CDM) and donor governments.
o Loss and Damage Fund : Launched in United Nations Climate Conference (COP 27) and
the culmination of decades of pressure from climate-vulnerable developing countries. The
fund aims to provide financial assistance to nations most vulnerable and impacted by the
effects of climate change.
o Global Shield Against Climate Risks: It is a joint initiative of G7 and V20 + Vulnerable
Twenty(V20) is a dedicated cooperation initiative of countries systemically vulnerable to
climate change. It was established in 2015 in Lima, Peru + The initiative will provide pre-
arranged financial support designed to be quickly deployed during climate disasters + The
initiative is envisioned as a social protection and insurance-based finance mechanism for loss
and damage outside the UNFCCC process + Funding: World Bank Group has announced a
Global Shield Financing Facility to support the Global Shield Against Climate Risks.
(Revision Notes)
● Climate Financing in India

o National Adaptation fund for climate change (NAFCC): Established in 2015 to meet cost
of adaptation to climate change for the States & UTs + 100% central grant provided to the
State Governments/UTs for adaptation + NABARD is the National Implementing Entity
responsible for implementation of adaptation projects under NAFCC.
o National Clean energy fund: Promote clean energy + It is funded through initial carbon
tax on use of coal by industries + It is governed by an Inter-Ministerial Group with the
Finance Secretary as the Chairman + It fund research and development of innovative
clean energy technology in the fossil and non-fossil fuel based sectors.
o Green Ag project: It is funded by GEF, while the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation,
and Farmers’ Welfare (DAC&FW) is the national executing agency + It is designed to
achieve multiple global environmental benefits in at least 1.8 million hectares (ha) of land in
five landscapes, with mixed land-use systems + It aims to bring at least 104,070 ha of farms
under sustainable land and water management + It has been launched in high conservation
value landscapes of five states – Madhya Pradesh (Chambal landscape), Mizoram (Dampa
landscape), Odisha (Similipal landscape), Rajasthan (Desert national park landscape) and
Uttarakhand (Corbett- Rajaji landscape).
o Green Bonds: It is a debt instrument with which capital is being raised to fund ‘green’
projects, which typically include those relating to renewable energy, clean transportation,
sustainable water management etc + In India, SEBI puts disclosure norms for issuance and
listing of green bonds.
o Blue bonds: Blue bonds are pioneering financial instruments that are designed to support
sustainable marine and fisheries projects + They are a subset of the green bonds + The World
Bank defines blue bonds “as a debt instrument issued by governments, development banks or
others to raise capital from impact investors to finance marine and ocean-based projects that
have positive environmental, economic and climate benefits.”
o In 2018, the Republic of Seychelles launched the world’s first sovereign blue bond.
(Revision Notes)
o Climate Bonds Initiative: It is international, investor- focused not-for-profit organization it

is only organization working to mobilize $100 trillion bond market for climate change
solutions.
o Green Accounting is type of accounting that attempts to include environmental costs
into normal accounting of business where pollution is considered as negative externality
o Paris Finance Meet or Paris Global Climate Financing Summit = The Summit for a New
Global Financing Pact was recently held in Paris with an objective of tackling the lack of
financial support for developing countries + The Summit was announced at the 27th
Conference of Parties (COP27) of the UNFCCC + The summit was also attended by India's
Finance Minister + The Summit announced the unlocking of an additional USD 200 billion
lending capacity for emerging economies + Also, World Bank announced disaster clauses for
debt deals that would suspend debt payment in case of extreme weather events + $100bn is to
be provided to poorer countries through SDRs (form of currency provided by IMF).
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 21: OZONE DEPLETION
1. Introduction: Ozone is a natural gas, allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen
bound together in a non-linear fashion + It is a pale blue gas with distinctive pungent smell + It is
highly reactive gas + Its concentration is good in stratosphere as it protects Earth by absorbing UV
rays + It is a pollutant at ground level.
2. Ozone layer: Region of Earth’s stratosphere absorbs UV radiation + It contains high concentration
of O3 + It has less than 10 ppm of ozone + It is mainly found in lower portion of stratosphere 20-30
kms above earth.
● Dobson Unit: It is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Dobson Unit
is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone 0.01
millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere.
● Usefulness: Prevent damaging UV light from reaching earth-> reduce risks of mutation to
plant and animal + It protects oxygen of lower altitude from breaking due to action of UV
light + It prevents diseases like skin cancer; Life on earth possible.
● Depletion of Ozone layer: Major sources
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Molecules made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon + It
has properties of non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxicity and chemical
stability + It is used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants for making plastic foam,
cleaning of electronic equipment, fire extinguishing agents etc.
▪ Lifetime and removal of CFCs: Estimated to be between 40-150 years + It cannot be
eliminated from atmosphere by usual scavenging process like photo-dissociation, rain-
out and oxidation + It escape into atmosphere from a discarded refrigerator + They are
thermally stable and can survive in troposphere.
o Bromine containing compounds: Called as halons and HBFCs (used in fire
extinguishers) and methyl bromide.
o Carbon Tetrachloride: Cheap, highly toxic solvent + It is used in manufacture of
synthetic rubber, production of pesticides and pharmaceuticals.
o Methyl chloroform: Used as cleaning solvent
for clothes and metals, propellant of consumer
products such as correction fluid, dry cleaning
sprays.
o Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs):
Developed as an interim replacement for CFCs
+ It is much less harmful than CFCs + It has
high global warming potential.
o Nitrogen Oxides: Major source is explosions
of thermonuclear weapons, industrial
emissions and agricultural fertilizers + N2O released from solid through denitrification of
nitrates under anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic
conditions.
o Sulphuric acid particles: Free chlorine from molecular reservoirs; convert reactive
nitrogen into inert forms-> preventing formation of chlorine reservoirs.
● Role of Polar stratospheric clouds in Ozone depletion
o Polar Stratospheric clouds: Nacreous clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitude of
15-25 kms.
o Activating chlorine and absorbing nitrogen
(Revision Notes)
▪ Ice particles of PSC provides substrates for chemical reaction which frees chlorine
from its reservoirs; the reaction between HCL and Chlorine nitrate occurs at faster rate
in presence of suitable substrate provided by stratospheric clouds at poles.
▪ HCL + Chlorine Nitrate ◻ Cl2 (Molecular chlorine) + HNO3 (Nitric acid)
▪ PSCs not only activate chlorine, but also absorb reactive nitrogen.
● Why Ozone depletion predominant at Antarctic

o Antarctic is more cold than arctic: Antarctic stratosphere is much colder; low temperature
enable formation of PSCs below 20km.
o Longer stability of vortex: Enhances favorable conditions for depletion; vortex remains
throughout polar winter, well into midspring.
o Chlorine and bromine activation leads to rapid ozone loss when sunlight returns to Antarctica
in September and October of each year, which then results in the Antarctic ozone hole, hence
ozone depletes more in the spring season .
● Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion: Decrease in quantity of total-column ozone->
increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation to earth’s surface.
o Human and animal health: Eye disease, skin cancer and infectious morbidity; UV-B
radiations-> development of non-melanoma skin cancer.
o Terrestrial plants: Change composition of species-> increase in number of tolerant species;
changes in biomass allocation to parts of plant etc.
o Aquatic Ecosystems: Affect orientation mechanisms and motility of phytoplankton ->
reduced survival rates; damage to early development stage of fish, shrimp etc; decreased
reproductive capacity; impaired larval development.
o Biogeochemical cycles: Alternates both source and sinks of greenhouse and chemically
important trace gases.
o Air quality: Higher photo dissociation rates of trace gases; increase both production and
destruction of Ozone; increased production of particulates like cloud condensation nuclei.
o Effects on materials: Limits photo-degradation of synthetic polymers and bio-polymers + It
limit their life outdoors.
● Vienna convention: Multilateral environment agreement signed in 1985 and came into force in
1988 + It is a legally binding convention + Ratified by 197 states (all UN members and Niue,
Holy see and Cook island) and European Union + Objective is to promote cooperation by
means of systematic observations, research and information exchange + It does not include
legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs->laid out in Montreal protocol + In 2009, it
became first convention to achieve universal ratification.
● Montreal Protocol: Protocol to Vienna convention + It was signed in 1987 and came into force
in 1989 + It is the international treaty to protect ozone layer + It aims to reduce production and
consumption of Ozone depleting substances.
o Key Elements
▪ Requires all parties to eliminate production and import of Ozone depleting substances.
(Revision Notes)
▪Special provisions for developing countries-> grace period of 10-15 years

▪Multilateral funds: Help qualifying developing countries to phase out their consumption
of ODS.
▪ Report annually on production, import and export of ODSs.
▪ Regular assessments to enable parties to make informed decisions.
o Chemicals covered: Covers nearly 100 chemicals grouped in: CFCs, Halons, Carbon
tetrachloride, HCFCs, Methyl chloroform, Methyl Bromide.
o CBDR: phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise
manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries.
o Protocol assisted by Ozone secretariat based at UNEP HQ in Nairobi, Kenya.
o Impact: Highly successful international arrangement; phased out more than 95% of ODS;
world will achieve final phase out of ODS in 2016 with phase out of CFCs used in Metered
dose inhalers.
o Progress made by India: India has already phased out CFCs and CTC; India’s current plan
result in 60% phase out of HCFCs by Jan 1, 2023.
● Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol: It is an international agreement to reduce
consumption and production of HFCs + It is a legally binding agreement designed to create
rights and obligations + It was finalized in 2016 at 28th meeting of parties to Montreal protocol +
India recently approved ratification to phase out HFCs
o Legally binding commitments:
▪ Industrialized countries cut HFC production and consumption by at least 85% by 2036
compared to annual average values in period 2011-13 starting from 2019;
▪ Developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa to reduce their HFC
use by 80% of their average value in 2020-22 by 2045 starting from 2024.
▪ India and some developing countries- Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait cut
down their HFCs by 85% of their values in 2024-26 by 2047 starting from 2028.
o Others: 121 states and the European Union have ratified the Kigali Amendment as of July
2021. India is the new entrant to the list; US not ratified the amendment.
o Quito Adjustment : In 2018, the Quito Adjustment is the adjustment made to the Montreal
Protocol. It aims high to avoid 1°C of future warming. In this, the decision to strengthen
enforcement mechanisms of this accord in response to an unexpected rise in global emissions
trichlorofluoromethane or CFC-11 was adopted.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 22: INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE
1. Introduction: As per Global climate risk index 2021, India is the 7th most vulnerable country +
Overall, 11.8 million people affected by the intense monsoon + Economic damage caused was
estimated to be US$ 10 billion + The energy sector was prime contributor + Fifth largest GHG
emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions + released by international environmental
think tank ‘Germanwatch'.
2. India’s efforts to counter Climate change
● NAPCC: Launched in 2008 by PM Council on Climate Change + 8 national missions form core
which represent multi-pronged, long term and integrated strategies.
o National Solar Mission: Governed by MoNRE + Target of JNNSM enhanced to 100 GW
by 2022->includes 60GW (large and medium grid solar projects) and 40GW (rooftop solar).
o National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): Improve energy efficiency
+ Governed by Ministry of Power; commenced in 2010 to achieve GHG reduction of 98.55
million tonnes/year + Annual fuel savings of 23 million tonnes.
o National Mission for Sustainable Habitat: Governed by Ministry of Housing and urban
affairs + It commenced in 2010 with aim to reduce emission in cities + It focuses on GHG
reduction opportunities by increasing energy efficiency of building, improving SWM.
o National Water Mission: Governed by Ministry of Jal Shakti + Commenced in 2011 with
aim to ensure water security and improve access to water resources + It covers entire
sweep of water management to fight climate change impacts.
o National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem: Governed by DoS&T +
Commenced in 2011 + It is aimed at developing capacity to assess health status of
Himalayan ecosystem.
o National Mission on Strategic knowledge for Climate change: Governed by DoS&T + It
aimed at establishment of knowledge network among existing knowledge institutions.
o National Mission for Green India: Governed by MoEF&CC, commenced in 2014 +
Aimed to increase forest and tree cover + It focus on reviving degraded forests with a
focus on increasing forest cover and conserving biodiversity.
o National Mission for Sustainable agriculture: Commenced in 2012 aimed to climate-proof
agriculture and reduce emissions from sector. Four components are:
▪ Soil Health Management->aimed at nutrient management through judicious use of
chemical fertilizers.
▪ Rain-fed area development to develop agri-land under integrated farming system.
▪ Sub-Mission on agro-forestry to promote plantation along with crops.
(Revision Notes)
▪ Climate change and sustainable agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking

(CCSAMMN) for creating models on adaptation and dissemination of information
about climate change.
● National Bio-Energy Mission: It is aimed at improving energy efficiency in traditional
biomass consuming industries + Develop bio-energy city project + Provide logistics support to
biomass processing units + Propose a GIS-based National Biomass Resource Atlas to map
potential biomass regions.
● International Solar Alliance: Intergovernmental treaty-based organisation with a global
mandate to catalyze solar growth by reduced cost of financing and technology + It is launched
by PM of India and President of France on sidelines of COP-21 + 101 members, after being
joined by the US + Headquartered at Gurugram.
● PM Ujjwala yojana: Launched in May 2016 + It is aimed to provide LPG connections to
poor households + Deposit-free LPG connection given to the eligible household with financial
assistance of Rs 1,600 per connection by the Centre.
● National Adaptation funds: Set up in 2010 for which 100 crore rupees set aside for taking
agriculture adaptation measures.
● GRIHA: It is a green rating system developed by The Energy resource agency (TERI) + It
promoted by MNRE as national rating system.
o Objective: To help design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the 'greenness' of
the buildings.
o Parameters used:
▪ Site selection and planning
▪ Conservation and efficient utilization of resources
▪ Building operation and maintenance
▪ Innovation points
o MNRE made mandatory for building to obtain a GRIHA rating to avail subsidies allocated
for green development.
● Greenco rating system: Developed by CII + It evaluates companies on environmental
friendliness using life cycle approach + It considers parameters like Energy efficiency, water
conservation, renewable energy, GHG mitigation, waste management, material
conservation, product stewardship, life cycle assessment and Green building features,
biodiversity and innovation.
● PM council on Climate change: Established in 2007, responsible for framing the NAPCC in
2008 + The High Level Advisory, for co-coordinating action plans for assessment, adaptation
and mitigation of climate change + Advise government on multiple climate change related issues
and facilitated inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination + Review the implementation of
eight mission and comprehensive assessment of climate change policy.
● Energy Conservation Building Code : The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), was
devised by the Indian government for brand-new commercial buildings+ For commercial
buildings with a connected load of 100kW or contract demand of 120 KVA and above, ECBC
establishes minimal energy criteria + The EC Act of 2001 gives the Central Government
Government authority, but the state governments are free to adapt the code to meet unique local
or regional requirements and to notify the Central Government of any changes + With extensive
participation from numerous other stakeholders, including working architects, consultants,
educational institutions, and other governmental agencies, the ECBC was created in accordance
with Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) criteria. ECBC's aim is to provide minimum standards
for energy-efficient building design, construction, and system installation without compromising
comfort levels.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 23: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
1. Animal Welfare Board of India: It is a statutory advisory body established under Section 4 of
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act,1960 + Advise GOI on animal welfare laws + Provides grants
to animal welfare organizations + Publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues +
Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting of board with HQ’s at Chennai + The board consists of
28 members; term of office is 3 years.
2. Central Zoo authority: It is a statutory body constituted in 1992 under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 + Chaired by the Environment Minister and has 10 members and a member-secretary +
Main objective is to complement and strengthen the national effort in conservation of rich
biodiversity + Provides recognition to zoos and also regulate the zoos + Prescribes rules under which
animals may be transferred among zoos nationally and internationally + Grant of licenses,
recognition, certification of ownership etc.
3. National Biodiversity authority: Established in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity Act
(2002) + Statutory and autonomous body performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory functions for
the GOI on the issue of conservation and sustainable use of biological resources + Impose benefit
sharing conditions + Advise state governments in selection of areas of biodiversity importance +
Protection of knowledge of local people + Headquarters in Chennai + Members appointed by central
government consists of a chairperson, 3 ex officio members: one from Ministry of Tribal affairs and
two from MoEF&CC + Five non-official members to be appointed from amongst specialists and
scientists having special knowledge and experience.
4. Wildlife crime control bureau: Statutory body created under Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972 +
Deals with organized wildlife crime + Collection, collation of intelligence and its dissemination +
Establishment of centralized wildlife crime databank + Implementation of international conventions
+ Primary enforcers of WPA, 1972. Initiatives : Save Kurma, Operation Clean Art
5. National Lake Conservation Plan: MoEF&CC implements NCLP + Emphasis on conservation and
management of polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas + In situ measures of lake
cleaning such as de-silting, de- weeding, bioremediation, aeration, bio-manipulation, nutrient
reduction, withdrawal of anoxic hypolimn ion; afforestation, storm waterdrainage, silt traps etc +
Solid waste management and provision of dhobi Ghats is generally not covered under NCLP.
6. National Ganga River Basin Authority: Established in 2009 under Environment Protection Act,
1986). It is a financing, planning implementing, monitoring, coordinating authorities for Ganga
under Jal Shakti Ministry + It is transferred from MoEF to Ministry of Jal Shakti in 2014 + PM is the
Chairperson. In 2016, it was changed to National Ganga Council (NGC).
7. National Mission on Clean Ganga, 2016: It is the implementation wing of NGC set up in 2016
under River Ganga Authority Order 2016; 2 tier management structure (Governing Council &
Executive Committee) + 5 tier structure at National, State & District level: NGC (PM), Empowered
Task Force (MoJS), NMCG (2016), State Ganga Committees & District Ganga Committees.
8. Wildlife Trust of India: It is an Indian NGO committed to nature conservation with motto as
Service of Nature + To conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in
partnership with communities and governments.
9. Bombay Natural History society: One of the largest NGOs in India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research + Conservation of nature primarily biological diversity through action based on
research, education and public awareness.
10. Wildlife Institute of India: Established in 1982 as an autonomous institution under MoEF&CC + It
carry out research on various aspects of wildlife conservation + Training programs for capacity
building of wildlife managers; repository of knowledge of wildlife + Technical and advisory services
to states and central government in the country.
(Revision Notes)
11. Indian council for forest research and education (ICFRE): Autonomous council under
MoEF&CC + Through its 9 institutes and five centres is guiding, promoting and coordinating
forestry research, extension and education at the national level.
12. Botanical Survey of India: It is the apex research organization under Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEFCC) for carrying out taxonomic and floristic studies on wild plant resources of
country + Established in 1890 with objective to explore plant resources of country and to identify
plants species with economic virtues.
13. Zoological Survey of India: It is India’s apex organization on animal taxonomy + Its objective is to
promote survey, exploration, research and documentation on various aspects of animal taxonomy in
Indian subcontinent + It was established in 1916 and headquartered in Kolkata.
14. Forest Survey of India: It is a national organisation responsible for the assessment and monitoring
of the forest resources of India regularly + It functions under the Ministry of Environment and
Forests; headquartered at Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
15. National Board for Wildlife (NBWL): It is a Statutory organization constituted under the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 + Its role is “advisory” in nature and advises the Central Government on
framing policies and measures for conservation of wildlife in the country + It has power to review all
wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and sanctuaries + No
alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done without approval of
the NBWL + It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
16. National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: It is a single conservation programme for
both wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by
MoEF&CC + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
17. National Green Tribunal:
● NGT Act, 2010: Provided for establishment of a NGT for effective and expeditious disposal of
cases relating to environment protection and conservation of forests and other natural
resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief
and compensation for damages to persons and property.
● Mandate: Speedy environment justice, help reduce burden of litigation in higher courts +
Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.
● Branches: Principle Bench in New Delhi + Regional benches in Pune, Bhopal, Chennai and
Kolkata.
● Structure of NGT
o The Tribunal comprises of the Chairperson, the Judicial Members and Expert Members;
term of five years and are not eligible for reappointment.
o The Chairperson is appointed by the Central Government in consultation with CJI.
o A Selection Committee shall be formed by central government to appoint the Judicial
Members and Expert Members.
o There are to be least 10 and maximum 20 full time Judicial members and Expert Members
in the tribunal.
● Members: Chairperson of NGT is a retired judge of the SC + Other judicial members are
retired judge of the High courts.
● Each Bench-> At least 1 judicial member and one expert member; expert members should
have professional qualification and a minimum of 15yrs of experience in field of environment/
forest conservation.
● The NGT deals with civil cases under the seven laws related to the environment, these include:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
o The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
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o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

o The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
o The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and
o The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
● Note: NGT has not been vested with powers to hear cases relating to Wildlife protection act,
1972, Indian Forest act, 1927 and various laws enacted by states relating to forests, tree
preservation etc.
● NGT by an order, can provide
o Relief and compensation to the victims of pollution and other environmental damage
including accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.
o For restitution of property damaged, and
o For restitution of the environment for such area or areas, as the Tribunal may think fit.
● The NGT Act also provides a procedure for a penalty for noncompliance:
o Imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years,
o Fine which may extend to ten crore rupees, and Both fine and imprisonment.
● Principles: Not guided by Code of Civil procedure, 1908 but guided by Principles of natural
justice + It is also not bound by Indian Evidence act, 1872.
● Review appeal can be made to NGT + If review appeal fails, NGT order can be challenged
before Supreme court within ninety days.
● Others: India became the third country in the world to set up a specialised environmental
tribunal, after Australia and New Zealand, and first developing country to do so.
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CHAPTER 24: ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
1. Introduction: EIA is decision making tool which compares various alternatives for a project and
chooses which ensures best combination of economic and environmental costs + It is based on
precautionary principle + It is statutory backed by Environment protection act, 1986.
2. UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as tool used to identify environmental,
social and economic impacts of project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental
impacts at early stage in project planning and design, find ways to reduce adverse impacts, shape
projects to suit local environment and present predictions and options to decision-makers.
3. Advantages of EIA: Optimum utilization of resources + Environment safe development + It saves
time and cost of project + Risk assessment + Lessens conflict by community participation
4. Origin: EIA introduced by National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970 in USA.
5. History of EIA in India
● Till 1994-> EIA was an administrative decision + It lacked statutory backing.
● 1994: EIA under Environmental (Protection) Act,1986 -> EIA notification made environment
clearance mandatory for modernization of any activity + Setting up new projects listed in
schedule 1 of the notification.
6. EIA notification, 2006: notified under Environment (Protection) act, 1986 + It made mandatory
for activities like mining, thermal power plants, infrastructure to get environmental clearance + It
is responsibility of clearing certain projects on state government.
● Category A (National level appraisal by MoEFCC): Under this projects mandatorily require
clearance; don’t undergo screening process; they require both EIA and public hearing.
● Category B (State level appraisal by SEIAA, SEAC) undergo screening process + B1
(mandatorily requires EIA & public hearing) + B2 (Don’t require EIA and public hearing).
7. Amendment to EIA 2006 notification: Recategorization of all bulk drug manufacturers to category
B2->bulk drug manufacturers not require EIA as an interim measure.
8. EIA Process: After 2006, four steps: Screening, scoping, public hearing and appraisal.
(Revision Notes)
9. Public hearing: Public must be informed on a proposed development after completion of EIA report
+ State Pollution Control Board will conduct public hearing before proposals sent to MoEF for
obtaining environmental clearance + Affected people entitled for access to executive summary.
 Procedure for public hearing: Proponents submit to concerned SPCB->notice of public
hearing-> composition of public hearing panel (representatives of SPCB, District collector,
representative of state government, not more than 3 rep’s of local bodies, not more than 3 senior
citizens nominated by collector).
10. Parameters of assessment: Impacts on fauna, water quality, air quality, protected areas,
occupational safety, displacement, biological such as deforestation and shrinkage of animal habitat.
11. Main participants of EIA: Applies to public and private sections + Six main players are proponents
of project, Pollution control board (State or National), public, Environment consultant, impact
assessment agency, regional centre of Ministry of Environment and Forest.
12. Exempted projects: Offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale exploration + Hydroelectric projects up
to 25 MW + Irrigation projects between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares of command area + Small and
medium cement plants + Acids other than phosphoric or ammonia, sulphuric acid + MSMEs in dye
and dye intermediates, bulk drugs, synthetic rubbers, medium-sized paint units + All inland
waterway projects and expansion or widening of highways between 25 km and 100 km with defined
parameters + Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive areas + Specified building construction and
area development projects; built-up area up to 1,50,000 sq.m.
13. Indian Neutrino Observatory (Theni, Tamil Nadu) ruling: The project is categorized under
‘Category B’-> Only State level appraisal needed + Environment activists appealed to NGT as the
proposed project is considered to harm Mathikettan Shola bird sanctuary which is in the radius of
4.9 km of the proposed site + NGT mandated additional clearance of National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL) for setting up INO.
14. 2017 Amendment to EIA rules, 2006
● It increased the ambit of State government authorities to grant environmental clearances
especially Mining projects- Minor mineral and non-coal projects.
● State governments are empowered for river valley or irrigation projects.
● Change in irrigation technology but without increase in height.
15. Draft EIA notification 2020
 Post facto clearance-> Projects to be granted environmental clearance (EC) even if they have
started construction or operations without obtaining prior EC.
 The amendment reduced the time period for public consultation from 30 days to 20 days for
projects in non-urban areas and from 30 days to 40 days for projects in urban areas.
 The amendment exempts several categories of projects from the requirement of obtaining prior
EC. These include projects related to national defense and security, rural infrastructure, and
certain expansions of existing projects.
 Added new projects which require EIA clearance -> inland waterways, expansion or
modernization of existing airports, and construction of highways in mountainous regions.
 The amendment increased validity period of ECs for mining projects from 5 years to 50 years.
16. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): It is a pro-active and comprehensive process
which identifies and evaluates significant environmental implications of particular plans to ensure
that they are fully considered at earlies stages of decision making + It can recommend changes
within proposed plans in coordination between relevant agencies, new cross-sectoral interventions
and suggestions for EIAs of future projects and improve their quality.
17. Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment: It takes data of only one season (excluding the
monsoon season).
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 25: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS
1. CITES: It is also known as Washington convention is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered

plants and animals + It is entered into force in July 1975; 183 parties + Secretariat is
administered by UNEP and is located at Geneva, Switzerland.
● Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten survival of species in wild-> bans hunting, capturing and selling of endangered or
threatened species.
● Functions
o Subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
o All import, export, re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered by the
convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
o Each party must designate one or more Management authorities in charge of administering
that licensing system and one or more scientific authorities to advise them on the effects of
trade on the status of the species.
● Conference of Parties (COP): Supreme decision-making body and comprises all its Parties.
● Legally binding: CITES is legally binding on the parties although it does not take place of
national laws.
● Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction-> trade permitted only in exceptional
circumstances. Example: Tiger, gorillas
● Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be
controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.Example - Species like corals
● Appendix III: Species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES
parties for assistance in controlling trade. Example - Blackbuck (Nepal, Pakistan) ,
Binturong(India)
2. TRAFFIC: It is a wildlife trade monitoring network and NGO working globally on the trade of
wild animals and plants + It is founded in 1976 as a strategic alliance of WWF and IUCN
headquartered at Cambridge, United Kingdom + It aims to ensure that trade in wild plants and
animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature. Became independent NGO in 2017.
● Governance: Governed by the TRAFFIC Committee, composed of members of TRAFFIC's
partner organizations, WWF and IUCN.
● It also works in close co-operation with the secretariat of CITES.
3. Convention on conservation of migratory species of wild animals (Bonn convention): It is an
international treaty concluded under aegis of UNEP + It provides a global platform for
conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats + It is only legal
convention specializing in conservation of migratory species It is signed in 1979 in Bonn and
entered into force in 1983 + Headquarters: Bonn, Germany; India is a party to CMS since 1983.
● Appendix I: Migratory species threatened with extinction listed on it + The parties strive
towards strictly prohibiting these animals, conserving the places where they live.
● Appendix II: Migratory species that would significantly benefit from international co-
operation are listed.
● Key Highlights of 13th COP Summit, Gandhinagar Gujarat (2020)
o Gandhinagar Declaration: Calls for migratory species and concept of ‘ecological
connectivity’ to be integrated and prioritized in new framework.
o First ever report on Status of Migratory species presented to CMS COP13.
o Great Indian Bustard, Asian Elephant and Bengal Florican classified as “Endangered
migratory species” (Appendix 1) by CMS.
(Revision Notes)
o Animal culture linked to conservation for the first time at UN Wildlife conference in
India.
o Seven migratory species champions recognized: Germany, India, Italy, Monaco, Norway,
EU and the Environmental agency Abu Dhabi.
o Theme: Migratory species connect the planet and we welcome them home.
o Logo: Inspired by ‘Kolam’, a traditional artform from southern India.
o Mascot: The Great Indian Bustard is a critically endangered species which has been
accorded the highest protection status under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
o India is temporary home to several migratory animals and birds; important among them
include Amur Falcons (Least concern), Bar headed Geese(Least concern) , black necked
cranes(Near threatened ) , Dugongs( Vulnerable) , Humpbacked whales etc.
4. UNCBD: It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered
into effect in 1993 + Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada + It calls upon all nations to take
appropriate measures for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its
benefits + It is a legally binding convention + 195 UN states and the European Union are parties
to the convention + All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified
the treaty + India enacted Biological Diversity act, 2002 for giving effect to the provisions of
CBD + Three main goals: Conservation of biological diversity; Sustainable use of its
components; and Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
● Cartagena protocol, 2000: The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the
potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
● Nagoya protocol, 2010: On Access to Genetic resources and Fair and Equitable sharing of
benefits arising from their utilization + Entered into force in 2014 + It provides a transparent
legal framework for effective implementation of Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
out of utilization of genetic resources.
● The Nagoya – Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was ratified in the October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The
Supplementary Protocol establishes international guidelines and practices for living modified
organisms (LMOs) accountability and remedies.
● Conference of Parties (COP-15) : It commenced in Montreal, Canada on 7 December 2022.
The two-weeklong conference (7-19 December 2022) was originally scheduled to be held in
Kunming, China in October but was shifted to Montreal, Canada due to covid situation in
China + The 14th meeting was held in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt (17-19 November 2018) +
Parties to the CBD normally meet every two years.
● Kunming Declaration : It was adopted by over 100 countries at the ongoing 15th
Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in china.
The adoption of the declaration will create momentum for a new global biodiversity pact. It
is not a binding international agreement. It calls for urgent and integrated action to reflect
biodiversity considerations in all sectors of the global economy
● 30by 30 : a plan to conserve 30% of Earth’s land and sea areas by 2030 through “area-based
conservation measures” like protected national parks..
● Kunming Biodiversity Fund : China has also pledged to inject USD 233 million into a new
fund to protect biodiversity in developing countries. The fund is being referred to by China as
Kunming Biodiversity Fund.
5. Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF) = Approved by GEF at 64th GEF council
meeting which was held in Brazil + It aims to finance the implementation of Kunming-Montreal
Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) + The approved GBFF will be launched at the next
GEF Assembly in Canada by August 2023 + GBFF will draw in capital from governments,
(Revision Notes)
private sector, and philanthropic organisations and will focus on eight thematic Action Areas
namely Biodiversity conservation, restoration, land/sea-use and spatial planning, etc.
 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) = KMGBF was adopted
by COP15 (Montreal) of UN Convention on Biological Diversity + It has set 23 targets to be
achieved by 2030, which include 30% conservation of land and sea, 30% restoration of
degraded ecosystems and halving the introduction of invasive species + The Global
Environment Facility has been requested to establish a Special Trust Fund to support the
implementation of the Global Biodiversity Framework (“GBF Fund”)
6. UN Forum on Forests: Established by ECOSOC to promote the management, conservation, and
sustainable development of all types of forests + Universal membership, and is composed of all
Member States of the United Nations and specialized agencies + It is headquartered at New York,
United States.
7. IUCN: It is a membership union uniquely composed of both government and civil society
organizations + It is created in 1948, it is the global authority on the status of the natural world + It
is headquartered in Switzerland + IUCN Red List of threatened Species, is the world's most
comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species. + The
IUCN Green List is a global programme of certification aiming to achieve and promote effective,
equitable, and successful protected and conserved areas by highlighting best practices, and providing
a benchmark for progress towards effective and equitable management.
8. Global Tiger Forum: Only intergovernmental platform of tiger range countries which has been
consolidating Tiger Action Plans of the range countries + It formed in 1993 on recommendations of
an international symposium on Tiger Conservation + Headquartered in New Delhi + 13 Tiger
range countries consist of Malaysia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos,
Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
9. Stockholm convention: Global treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs
+ It entered into force in 2004 + India ratified in 2006 + GEF is interim financial mechanism +
UNIDO is also responsible for supporting developing countries and countries with economies in
transition to implement the Stockholm Convention. The convention initiated banned or phased out
12 bio-accumulant that are known as dirty dozen. In 2011 Endoslphan was added to the list. Dirty
Dozen- DDT, Endrin, Heptachlor. Hexachlorobenzene. PCB, Decabromodiphenyl Ether.
● Objectives
o Support the transition to safer alternatives.
o Target additional POPs for action.
o Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs.
o Work together for a POPs-free future.
10. Basel Convention (Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal): International treaty designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between
nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed
countries (LDCs) + It entered into force in 1992 + Haiti and the United States have signed the
Convention but not ratified it + It does not address movement of radioactive waste.
11. Rotterdam convention: On Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals
and Pesticides in International Trade + Multilateral treaty promotes open exchange of
information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions
on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans + Jointly administered
by FAO and UNEP.
12. Triple COP: Triple COPs meeting took place in Geneva, Switzerland, 2019 + They include Basel
convention (COP-14), Rotterdam convention (COP-9) and Stockholm convention (COP-9) + Triple
(Revision Notes)
COPs convened under the theme “Clean Planet, Healthy people: Sound management of chemicals
and waste”.
13. International Whaling commission: International body set up under International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) + It aims to provide for the proper conservation of whale
stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry + 89 countries the
membership of in IWC and all the member countries are signatories to this convention + India is a
member state of the IWC + Japan announced its withdrawal from the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) conservation body and it will resume commercial whale hunting in its territorial
waters and exclusive economic zones.
14. National Carbon Registry = Launched by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) +
National Carbon Registry is an open-source software that allows countries to effectively manage
national data and processes for trading carbon credits + It has been accredited as a digital public
good (DPG) and can be integrated with national measurement, reporting and verification (MRV)
systems to meet international reporting requirements + National carbon Registry will promote
development of Carbon Market by facilitating trading of carbon credits + Article 6 of Paris
Agreement allows countries to voluntarily cooperate with each other to achieve emission reduction
targets set out in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 26: SCHEMES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT
1. National river conservation plan = Its objective is to improve the water quality of the rivers
through the implementation of pollution abatement works + It is the Centrally Sponsored Scheme
implemented by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for abatement of pollution in
identified stretches of rivers in the country, excluding those in Ganga basin, by providing financial
and technical assistance to the States/Union Territories (UTs) on cost sharing basis + The works
include; collection, transportation and treatment of municipal sewage, River Front Development
(RFD), Low Cost Sanitation (LCS), Electric Crematoria, Improved Wood Based Crematoria etc.
2. Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) = Announced in
Union Budget 2023-24 + It is a government-led initiative aimed at increasing the mangrove cover
along the coastline and on saltpan lands + It’s objective is to conserve and restore the mangrove
ecosystem, which is critical to mitigating the effects of climate change + The government provides
financial assistance to local communities to undertake mangrove plantation activities + Funding
Agency: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) + 80% of the project cost
is borne by Government of India, while the remaining 20% is contributed by respective State Govts.
3. Amrit Dharohar = Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change + Objective: to promote
unique conservation values of wetlands + Implemented in convergence with various Central
Government ministries and agencies, State Wetland Authorities, and a network of formal and
informal institutions and individuals + It has 4 components -> Species and Habitat Conservation;
Nature Tourism; Wetlands Livelihoods; Wetlands Carbon.
4. National Green Hydrogen Mission = Ministry of New and Renewable Energy + It is a program to
incentivise the commercial production of green hydrogen and make India a net exporter of the fuel +
Its objectives are- Developing green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million
Metric Tonne) per annum, alongside adding renewable energy capacity of about 125 GW (gigawatt)
in India by 2030; It aims to entail over Rs 8 lakh crore of total investments and is expected to
generate six lakh jobs; It will also lead to a cumulative reduction in fossil fuel imports by over Rs 1
lakh crore and an abatement of nearly 50 MT of annual greenhouse gas emissions + Subschemes ->
Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT) [fund the domestic
manufacturing of electrolysers and produce green hydrogen] + Green Hydrogen Hubs.
5. REWARD Program = REWARD is a World Bank assisted Watershed development program which
is being implemented from 2021 to 2026 + The Development Objectives of REWARD program is to
“Strengthen capacities of National and State institutions to adopt improved watershed management
for increasing farmers resilience and support value chains in selected watersheds of participating
States” + It is being implemented to introduce modern watershed practices in the Department of
Land Resources in the Ministry of Rural Development and in the States of Karnataka and Odisha.
6. Green Credit Initiative = Recently, the central government unveiled a tradeable green credit
initiative + It is a special programme which allows an individual or an entity to earn Green Credit +
It aims to leverage a competitive market based approach for incentivising environmental actions of
various stakeholders + This programme is voluntary in nature and a followup action of the
‘LiFE’(Lifestyle for Environment) campaign + Cover eight types of activities — tree plantation,
water management, sustainable agriculture, waste management, air pollution reduction, and
mangrove conservation and restoration + The initiative aims to encourage industries, companies, and
other entities meet their obligations under any law that is in force + The notification clarified that the
Green Credit programme is independent of the carbon credit provided under the Carbon Credit
Trading Scheme, 2023 under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
7. Ecomark scheme: Launched in 1991 + It is a certification mark issued to products conforming to a
set of standards aimed at the least impact on the ecosystem + The Central Pollution Control Board
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administers the Eco mark Scheme in partnership with Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) + The
criteria for certification typically include a product’s impact on the environment during its entire life
cycle — from raw material extraction to manufacturing, distribution, use, and disposal + Some of the
categories for which ecomark is granted include food items, textiles, packing materials, cosmetics,
soaps and detergents, architectural paints, and lubricating oils, among others + Ecomark label is
represented by an earthen pot, which is universally recognized as a symbol of the environment + It
is a voluntary scheme-> manufacturers can choose whether to obtain the certification for their
products + The environmental criteria will be periodically reviewed, at least once every two years, to
take into account new scientific knowledge and changes in production methods.
8. National Action Programme to Combat Desertification: It was prepared in 2001 to address issues
of increasing desertification and to take appropriate actions + Implemented by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change + Its objectives are community based approach to
development, activities to improve the quality of life of the local communities, awareness raising,
drought management preparedness and mitigation, R&D initiatives and interventions which are
locally suited, strengthening self governance leading to empowerment of local communities.
9. Plastic park scheme: Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers approved setting up of 10 Plastic Parks in
the country + They will be set up in the states of: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu,
Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh + It is implemented by a Special purpose vehicle-> It
should complete setting up of the Plastic Park in a period of three years from the date of final
approval + Major objectives are to increase the competitiveness, polymer absorption capacity and
value addition in the domestic downstream plastic processing industry + Achieve environmentally
sustainable growth through innovative methods of waste management + Central Government
provides grant funding up to 50% of the project cost, subject to a ceiling of Rs. 40 crores per project.
10. City compost scheme: It was launched in 2016 + Implemented by the Ministry of Chemicals and
Fertilizers + It aims to convert all organic waste generated in cities into compost or biogas and
market the compost with the help of fertilizer companies to benefit farmers + Provision has been
made for Market development assistance of Rs. 1500 per ton of city compost for scaling up
production and consumption of the product.
11. India cooling action plan: It was launched in 2019 by MoEF&CC + It provides a 20-year
perspective and outlines actions needed to provide access to sustainable cooling + It seeks to reduce
cooling demand across sectors by 20% to 25% by 2037-38 + Reduce refrigerant demand by 25% to
30% by 2037-38 + Reduce cooling energy requirements by 25% to 40% by 2037-38 + Recognise
“cooling and related areas” as a thrust area of research under national Science and Technology
Programme + Training and certification of 100,000 servicing sector technicians by 2022-23,
synergizing with Skill India Mission.
12. Green skill development program: It was launched as pilot project in 2017 by MoEFCC in
partnership with National Skill Development Agency (NSDA) to develop green skilled workers
having technical knowledge and commitment to sustainable development + It aims to train over 5.5
lakh workers in environment and forest sectors in the country through 30 courses by 2021 for
sustainable conservation and management of natural resources.
13. Climate Resilience Building Among Farmers Through Crop Residue Management: It is a
regional project approved under National Adaptation Fund For Climate Change (NAFCC) by
MoEF&CC + It aims to mitigate climate change impacts and enhance adaptive capacity and counter
adverse environmental impacts arising from stubble burning +The first phase of the project was
approved for Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan at cost of approximately Rs. 100 crores.
14. Green Energy Corridor Project: The Government approved the second phase of the Green Energy
Corridor with an outlay of ₹12,031 crore to facilitate grid integration and power evacuation of about
20 GW of renewable energy projects in seven states + It aims at synchronizing electricity produced
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from renewable sources, such as solar and wind, with conventional power stations in the grid + Intra-
State Transmission System is implemented by respective State Transmission Utilities (STU) and
Inter-State Transmission System implemented by Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (PGCIL).
15. Nagar Van Scheme: It is implemented by MoEF&CC + It aims to develop 200 Urban Forests
across the country in next five years + It emphasizes on people’s participation and
collaboration between Forest Department, Municipal bodies, NGOs, Corporates and local citizens +
The scheme is financed through CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016) funds
16. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) : CIFOR is a non-profit, scientific
institution that conducts research on the most pressing challenges of forest and landscape
management around the world + It aims to improve human well-being, protect the environment, and
increase equity + It conducts innovative research, develop partners’ capacity, and actively engage in
dialogue with all stakeholders to inform policies and practices that affect forests and people.
17. Cheetah mitras = Dedicated team of volunteers, trained by forest dept trained to create awareness in
villagers about protecting cheetahs. Local mascot named Chintu Cheetah to sensitise locals.
18. Cheetah Task Force = It was constituted by MoEF&CC for a period of two years to monitor
Cheetah introduction in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh, and other suitable designated areas.
19. Urban Waterbody Information System (UWAIS) : The UWaIS portal has been launched by the
Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs with help from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad +
It will provide satellite images of water bodies to various cities to plan their rejuvenation. 219 cities
have been handed over UWaIS + The Ministry has also shortlisted 76 start-ups under the ‘India
Water Pitch-Pilot-Scale Start-Up Challenge’ + They will be provided financial support of up to ₹ 20
lakh each to work in fields of water supply, used water management, water body rejuvenation, etc.
20. Jaldoot App: Developed by: Ministry of Rural Development + The app will help in identifying the
ground water level in selected villages + For this, app will enable Gram Rojgar Sahayak (GRS) to
measure the water level of selected wells twice a year (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon) + Data
collected could be utilised as part of the Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) and Mahatma
Gandhi NREGA planning exercises.
21. Trees Outside Forests In India Initiative : It was launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest,
and Climate Change and US Agency for International Development (USAID) to: Enhance carbon
sequestration, Support local communities, Strengthen climate resilience of agriculture + It will be
implemented in seven states: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Haryana, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and
UP + It will bring together farmers, companies, and private institutions in India to rapidly expand
tree coverage outside of traditional forests by 28 lakh hectares.
22. Kritagya 3.0 : It is a national level hackathon to promote speed breeding for crop improvement to
ensure overall sustainability and resilience in crop production in India + It gives an opportunity to
students/faculties/entrepreneurs/innovators and others to showcase their innovative approaches &
technology solutions + It will also encourage greater adoption of technology enabled solutions in the
country + It is organised by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with its National
Agricultural Higher Education Project (NAHEP) and Crop Science Division.
23. Indian Virtual Herbarium (IVH) : IVH is a database of dried plants that maximizes the usefulness
of the collections + Apart from digital images, label data on each species include all information
about the herbarium specimen such as family, genus, species etc + Herbarium specimens are
considered important tools for plant taxonomy, conservation, habitat loss and even climate change +
Developed by: Botanical Survey of India (BSI) + BSI, under Ministry of Environment, Forest &
Climate Change, is apex taxonomic research organization of the country.
24. Green Energy Open Access Rules = Ministry of Power notified the rules + Objective is to
accelerate our renewable energy programmes.
(Revision Notes)
CHAPTER 27: MISCELLANEOUS- STATIC AND CURRENT AFFAIRS
1. MOEF&CC: It is nodal ministry for planning, promotion, coordination and overseeing the
implementation of India’s environment, forestry policies and programmes + Nodal agency in the
country for UNEP, SACEP, International centre for integrated mountain development program
(ICIMDOP) and UNCED + Major Objectives: Conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forests
and wildlife; Prevention and control of pollution; Afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas;
Protection of the environment and ensuring the welfare of animals.
2. World Environment Day (WED) 2023 = WED is observed on 5th June every year since 1973 as
part of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to build awareness to save life on
planet Earth + World Environment Day 2023 marks the completion of 50 years of its establishment
on 5th June, 2023 + Every year World Environment Day has a specific host country and a theme +
This year host is the West African country of Côte d’Ivoire, in partnership with the Netherlands with
theme ‘Beat Plastic Pollution.’ + 45th World Environment Day with the same theme was held under
the leadership of India.
3. CCAMLR: It is an international convention established in 1982 aimed at preserving species
diversity and stability of the entire Antarctic marine ecosystem + It is part of the Antarctic treaty
system+ Headquartered at Tasmania, Australia + It is signed by 14 states and ratified by 35 states
including India and the European Community + Established in response to concerns that increasing
krill fishing activities + India is a permanent member of the since 1986 + In India work is
coordinated by Ministry of Earth Sciences through its attached office CMLRE in Kochi + It does not
prohibit reasonable harvesting.
4. CLRTAP: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution + It is an international
convention on controlling Air Pollution + It came into force in March 1983 and has 51 parties +
Formed within the ECE, the UN Economic Commission for Europe, United States and Canada +
Aimed initially to reduce effects of acid rain through control of the emissions of sulphur, later
widened to include nitrogen pollutants, VOCs and photochemical oxidants.
5. Gothenburg Protocol: It is also known as Multi-effect protocol + It aims to abate acidification,
eutrophication and ground level ozone + Adopted by the countries of UNECE on 30 November 1999
+ It is a part of the convention on long Range Transboundary Air Pollution + It sets emission
ceilings for four pollutants Sulphur, NOx, VOCs and ammonia + By July 2019, the revised protocol
had finally been ratified by the needed eighteen Parties, and it entered into force on 7 October 2019.
6. Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974: It provides for prevention and control of
water pollution and for maintenance of wholesomeness of water in the country + Amended in 1988.
 Important Provisions:
o Establishment of Central, state and joint pollution control Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution
o to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture
o to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works, and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade
effluents
o It vests regulatory authority in SPCBs to establish and enforce effluent standards for
factories.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for the
purpose of analysis.
7. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977: To provide for levy and collection
of cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities
+ Augment resources of Central board and State boards for prevention and control of water pollution
under Water act, 1974 + Creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local
(Revision Notes)
authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess for water effluent discharge + Act gives a
polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cessupon installing effluent treatment equipment.
8. Air (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981: It was enacted to implement decisions taken
at Stockholm conference in 1972 + Aimed to improve quality of air and to prevent, control, and
abate air pollution + Expanded authority of the central and state boards established under the Water
act to include air pollution control.
 Important Provisions
o Definitions of the terms: Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or gaseous
substance which may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants, animals, or
even damage property + It defines air pollution as presence of any dangerous pollutant that
makes the air unbreathable + 1987 amendment also added ‘noise’ to the list of harmful
substances.
o Demarcation of high pollution areas: Declaration of certain heavily polluted areas as Air
pollution control area and no industrial plant shall be operated in these areas without prior
consent of the State Pollution Control Board.
o Emission control: The State Government and the respective Boards may give instructions to
under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure emission standards for automobiles.
o Consent from state board: All industries operating within designated air pollution control
areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o Amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
o The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended the
Act to include noise pollution.
o Penalties: failure to comply with CPCB directives would result in imprisonment of 1 year +
It is extendable to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of Rs 5000 per day.
9. Joint Forest Management: Village communities are entrusted with the protection and management
of nearby forests + They are required to organize forest protection committees, village forest
committees, village forest conservation and development societies + It has been in formal
existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest
management + Example include Mundas and the Santhals of Chotanagpur region worship
Mahua and Kadamba trees and the tubes of Orissa and Bihar worship the Tamarind and many
trees during weddings.
10. Deemed Forests: Concept not clearly defined in any law including the Forest Conservation Act of
1980; SC in case of T N Godavarman Thirumalpad (1996) accepted a wide definition of forests
under the Act- It covered all statutorily recognised forests, whether designated as reserved, protected
or otherwise for the purpose of Section 2 (1) of the Forest Conservation act.
11. Blue Flag Beaches: It is an eco-label awarded to beaches, marinas, and sustainable boat tourism
operators that meet a comprehensive set of requirements awarded by Denmark based non-profit
organization called Foundation for Environmental Education (awarded by a jury comprising
members from the IUCN, UNWTO, UNEP, and UNESCO) + It was started in France; South Africa
became the first country outside of Europe to join the program + Spain has the largest number of
blue flag beaches + Blue flag beaches should provide clean and hygienic bathing water, along with
basic infrastructure for tourists + Puri beach on the Konark coast, Odisha is Asia’s first beach to get
the Blue Flag certification.
 Parameters used: Based on 33 parameters divided into 4 major categories:
o Environmental education and information
o Bathing water quality
o Environmental management
(Revision Notes)
o Conservation and safety services on the beaches

 Ten beaches awarded Blue flag certification in India [October 2022]
o Golden Beach, Odisha + Shivrajpur Beach, Gujarat + Kappad Beach, Kerala + Ghoghla
Beach, Diu + Radhanagar Beach, Andaman and Nicobar + Kasarkod Beach, Karnataka +
Padubidri Beach, Karnataka + Rushikonda Beach, Andhra Pradesh + Kovalam Beach, Tamil
Nadu + Eden Beach, Puducherry + Minicoy Thundi Beach – Lakshadweep + Kadmat Beach
– Lakshadweep.
12. BEAMS initiative: India has launched its own eco-label BEAMS (Beach Environment & Aesthetics
Management Services) under ICZM project of MoEF&CC for sustainable development of coastal
regions of India to protect and conserve the pristine coastal and marine ecosystems and for achieving
the globally recognizedand the coveted
international eco-label blue flag.
 Objectives:
o Abate pollution in coastal waters.
o Promote sustainable development
of beach facilities.
o Protect and conserve coastal
ecosystems & natural resources.
o Strive and maintain high standards
of cleanliness,
o Hygiene and safety for beachgoers
in accordance with coastal
environment regulations.
13. Atal Bhujal yojana: It is a central sector
scheme launched by Ministry of Jal Shakti aimed to improve groundwater management in certain
priority areas through community participation + Assisted by the World Bank and is implemented
from 2020-21 to 2024-25 + It covers Alluvial and hard rock aquifers + It envisages people's
participation through the formation of Water User Associations, implementation of Gram-panchayat-
wise water security plans, etc.
 Priority areas: Water deficit areas of Central and Western India; priority areas are Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
 Implementation: Central Government bears 50% of the cost and World Bank provide the
remaining 50% as a loan; government will provide 50% of the money to the gram panchayats
and states as the incentives for dealing with the proper usage and conservation of groundwater;
funds will be made available to the states in the form of grants.
14. Sand Mining: Sand is a minor mineral under Mines and Mineral (Development and Regulation)
Act, 1957 + Section 15 of act->complete powers to respective state governments regarding
formation of rules related to grant of mining leases of minor minerals; Section 23C-> empowers
state government to frame rules to prevent illegal mining.
15. Ocean Deoxygenation: It is the phenomenon of oxygen loss in ocean caused by excessive growth of
algae due to nutrient pollution caused by fertilizers, sewage, animal or aquaculture waste.
 Ocean Deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem: IUCN released this report at COP-25 of UNFCCC.
o The levels of oxygen in oceans fell by around 2 per cent from 1960 to 2010.
o Volume of area depleted with oxygen (dead zones) have quadrupled.
o Climate change and Nutrient pollution are main drivers of ocean oxygen loss.
16. Dead zones: Excess nutrient pollution in oceans create a situation of hypoxia i.e, reduction in
availability of oxygen in water, referred as Dead zones.
 Nutrients-> algae-> decomposition-> oxygen depletion.
(Revision Notes)
 Largest dead zone: Gulf of Oman is largest dead zone lies in Arabian sea.
17. Mercury pollution: Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad uses
+ Human activities like mining and fossil fuel combustion led to global mercury pollution.
 Sources of pollution: Element in earth’s crust, natural sources like volcanic eruptions and
emissions from ocean; anthropogenic sources include coal burning power plants, burning
hazardous waste, producing chlorine, breaking mercury products and spilling mercury.
 Harmful effects: It is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public health
concern (WHO) + Bio-accumulates and bio-magnify in food chain + Methy mercury is
neurotoxin which impacts function and development of central nervous system + The
reproductive problems (fish have difficult schooling and decrease spawning success) + It impairs
mammals motor skills which affect their ability to hunt.
18. Minamata Convention: It is an international treaty signed in 2013 aimed to protect human health
and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds + It
also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste + It is
agreed at 5th session of Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland and
entered into force in 2017 + More than 140 countries including India have ratified the convention.
 Major highlights of the convention:
o Ban on new mercury mines
o Phase-out of existing mercury mines
o Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, certain non-ferrous metals
production, cement production etc.
o Regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
o Phase out to reduce mercury use in certain products like batteries, switches, pesticides etc.
o Provision for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness and research and
monitoring.
 Others: Convention gives five-year time to India to control and reduce emissions from new
power plants and 10 years-time for already existing power plants.
19. Secure Himalaya project: It is a six-year project launched by MoEFCC in association with UNDP
to ensure conservation of locally and globally significant biodiversity, land and forest resources in
high Himalayan ecosystem spread over four states viz. Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttarakhand and Sikkim; TRAFFIC is a partnering agency.
 Focus areas: Protection of snow leopard and other endangered species and their habitats and also
securing livelihoods of people in region.
 Landscapes: Specific landscapes including Changthang (Jammu and Kasmir), Lahaul – Pangi
and Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh), Gangotri – Govind and Darma – Byans Valley in Pithoragarh
(Uttarakhand) and Kanchenjunga – Upper Teesta Valley (Sikkim).
20. BEE Star labelling: Formulated by Bureau of Energy efficiency under Energy Conservation Act,
2001, launched in 2006 + Measure of energy efficiency of an appliance + Five-point scale-> higher
rating, lower energy consumption; covered 24 appliances (ACs, fans, color TV, computer, industrial
motor etc).
21. National clean energy fund: It was launched in 2010-11 to fund research and innovative projects in
clean energy technology of public or private entities up to extent of 40% of total project cost + It is
created out of cess on coal produced under the “polluter pays” principle.
 Eligibility: Any project relating to innovative methods to adopt to Clean Energy technology and
R&D are eligible for funding under the NCEF.
 Assistance is available as loan or as a viability gap funding as deemed by Inter-Ministerial group.
 Non-lapsable fund under public accounts and with its secretariat in DoE, Ministry of Finance.
(Revision Notes)
 Inter-Ministerial Group, chaired by Finance Secretary recommends projects eligible for funding
under NCEF.
22. National wildlife action plan (2017-31): MoEFCC unveiled third Wildlife Action Plan for to chalk
out road map for wildlife conservation + It is the first wildlife action plan to recognize concerns
related to climate change impact on wildlife.
 Key focus areas: integration of climate change into wildlife planning, conservation of coastal
and marine ecosystem, focus on wildlife health among others.
 Climate change: Recommends assisted migration of wildlife and anticipatory planting along
ecological gradients, as climate change may result in die-offs of certain tree species.
 Landscape approach: It adopts landscape approach in conservation of all wildlife –
uncultivated flora and fauna that have an ecological value to ecosystem and to mankind
irrespective of where they occur.
 People’s support: Recommends eco-development, education, innovation, training, extension,
and conservation awareness and outreach programs.
 Participation of private sector: increased role of private sector in wildlife conservation;
adequate and sustained funding including CSR funds are made available for implementation.
23. Global warming potential of gases:
24. Green House Gases (GHGs) in terms of quantity:
25. State of India’s birds 2020: Released at the 13th COP to convention on conservation of migratory
species of wild animals at Gandhinagar, Gujarat + The report produced in partnership of 10 global
organizations:
(Revision Notes)
 Key points
o It is first comprehensive assessment of distribution range and conservation status for most of
bird species in India.
o Categorised 101 species as “high concern”, 319 as “moderate concern” and 442 into “low
concern”.
o Over 50% of 867 species studied, exhibit a population decline in the long term while 146 are
at great risk in the short term.
o Greatest decline seen in raptors, migratory shorebirds, and habitat specialists, including
White-rumped Vulture, Richard’s Pipit, Indian Vulture, Large-billed Leaf Warbler, Pacific
Golden Plover and Curlew Sandpiper.
o Endemics such as Rufous-fronted Prinia, Nilgiri Thrush, Nilgiri pipt and Indian vulture are
suffering current decline.
o Common Sparrow has a stable population + Indian peafowl are rising in numbers; rise in
Great Indian Bustards population.
o The species that have shown an increase in numbers include Rosy Starling, Feral Pigeon,
Glossy Ibis, Plain Prinia and the Ashy Prinia
o Key challenges to birds: Loss of habitat due to human activity, toxin presence including
pesticides, hunting and trapping for pet trade.
26. Indian Swamp deer (Barasingha): It is the state animal of Madhya Pradesh + It is distributed
throughout Indian subcontinent especially at Kanha national park and tiger reserve (KNPTR) +
Endemic to south-western Nepal and Central and northeastern India + It is called as dolhorina in
Assamese + Locally extinct in Pakistan and Bangladesh.
 Conservation status: IUCN Red List: Endangered, CITES: Appendix I, WPA,
1972: Schedule I
 Three sub-species found in Indian sub-continent
o Western swamp deer found in Nepal
o Southern swamp deer found in central and North India
o Eastern swamp deer found in Kaziranga and Dudhwa national parks.
27. Bio char: It is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue which is produced through pyrolysis processes +
It produces a mixture of solids (the biochar proper), liquid (bio-oil), and gas (syngas) products.
 Benefits: Increase soil fertility of acidic soils, protection against foliar and soil-borne diseases,
carbon sink, water retention (hygroscopic), increase output in vertical farming, boost natural
ability of legumes to fix nitrogen in soil.
28. Nagarjunasagar srisailam tiger reserve: Largest tiger reserve in India notified in 1978 + It is
spread over five districts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana + Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar
multipurpose reservoirs are located in the reserve + Krishna river cuts through the reserve + It is
largest area under ‘critical tiger habitat’.
 Fauna: Bengal Tiger, leopard, rusty-spotted cat, Mugger crocodiles etc.
 Flora: Forests range from southern tropical dry mixed deciduous to shrubs and bamboo thickets.
29. Microbeads: These are tiny pieces of non-biodegradable plastic measuring less than 1mm + It made
up of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon + It is
used as exfoliating agents, scrubbers in cosmetics and in various personal care products such as
toothpaste, lip gloss, shaving creams etc + Fish ingest and gets accumulated into digestive tracts.
30. Agasthyamala Biosphere reserve: It is located in western ghats consisting mostly of tropical forest
+ It is themost diverse ecosystems in peninsular India and constitutes an important biogeographical
‘hot spot’ within the Western Ghats + Shendurney, Peppara and Neyyar wildlife sanctuaries located
in the site, as well as Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger reserve.
(Revision Notes)
 Flora: Unique genetic reservoir of cultivated plants like cardamom, jamune, nutmeg, pepper and
plantain.
 Fauna: home to about 79 species of mammals of which 20 are endemic, 88 species of reptiles of
which 45 are endemic and 46 species of fishes including 10 endemics.
31. Partnership for action on green economy (PAGE): direct response to Rio + 20 Declaration,
Future we want + Joint collaboration of UNEP, UNDP, ILO, UNIDO, UNITAR + It is a mechanism
to coordinate UN action on green economy and assist countries in achieving and monitoring
emerging SDGs.
32. Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA): Inclusive, voluntary and action-
oriented multi-stakeholder platform on climate smart agriculture (CSA) + It started working in 2014
+ No binding obligations and each member individually determines the nature of participation +
India is a signatory to GACSA.
33. Global climate change alliance: Initiative of the European Union + It is launched in 2007 to
strengthen dialogue and cooperation on climate change between EU and Least Developed Countries
(LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which are hardest hit by the adverse effects of
climate change.
34. Kharai camel: Unique breed of camels found only in Kachchh region of Gujarat + It has special
ability to survive on dry land and sea + It feed on saline plants and mangroves + It is distinct from
other camels- rounded back, long and thin legs and small feet + It can swim up to 3kms + It also
known as dariyataru + It is adapted to extreme climate of desert and high salinity + Major threats are
industries in Kutch region such as salt, thermal power and cement industries + Conservation status:
IUCN (Endangered); WPA (Schedule 1).
35. TEEB initiative: It is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible” + Its principal
objective is mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making at all
levels + It is based in Geneva, Switzerland at the International Environment House + It is hosted by
UNEP under ETB of the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE).
36. Agenda 21: It is a non-binding action plan of UN dealing with sustainable development + It is
anoutcome of UNCED held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 + Its major objective is that every
local government should draw its own local agenda 21.
37. Great Indian Hornbill: It also known as great pied hornbill + It is one of the largest members of
hornbill family + It is found in Indian sub-continent and South-east Asia + It is predominantly fruit-
eating but opportunist also feeds on reptiles and birds+ It can live for nearly 50 years in captivity +
Its significant proportion in Western Ghats and Nilgiris + It is referred as ‘forest engineers’ or
‘farmers of the forest’ for playing a key role in dispersing seeds of tropical trees + IUCN status is
vulnerable and listed in Appendix 1 of CITES + Major threat is they are hunted for their casques and
illegal logging.
38. Biocarbon fund initiative: It is a multilateral fund supported by donor governments and managed
by World Bank + It promotes and rewards reduced GHG emissions through better land management,
including REDD + Climate smart agriculture + It wasestablished in 2013 + It supported by
Germany, Norway, Switzerland, UK and USA.
39. Birdlife International: It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to
conserve birds, their habitats + It is theworld’s largest conservation partnerships for conservation of
birds and their habitats + Its global office in United Kingdom + It publishes a quarterly magazine
called as World Birdwatch (official red list authority for birds for IUCN) + It also publish important
bird areas (IBA) inventory.
40. Rio + 20 conference: It also known as United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development +
20-year follow-up to Earth Summit 1992 and 10-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 2002 + It held
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 + It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21 + It bring together
(Revision Notes)
governments, international institutions and NGOs for poverty reduction, clean energy and
sustainable development.
41. Goldilocks zone: Habitable zone, area around a star where it is not too hot and not too cold for
liquid water to exist on the surface of surrounding planets + Earth is in Sun’s goldilocks zone.
42. Coal-bed methane: Unconventional form of natural gas found in coal deposits or coal seams + It
was formed during process of coalification + Its applications are in power generation, CNG auto
fuel, cement production, methanol production etc + India’s CBM resources are estimated at around
92 trillion cubic feet + Damodar Koel and Son valley are prospective areas for CBM development.
43. Earth Hour: It is WWF annual initiative for environment conservation + Encourages people from
more than 180 countries to switch off the lights from 8.30 pm to 9.30 pm as per their local time + It
was started in 2007 held every year on the last saturday of March + It is aimed to call attention to
global warming, loss of biodiversity, and climate change + Theme for 2021 is “Climate Change to
Save Earth”.
44. Moringa: It is non-leguminous, green leafy fast-growing deciduous plant native to the Indian
subcontinent + India is largest producer + Common names include moringa, drumstick tree,
horseradish tree, and ben oil tree + It has its nutritional, medicinal, culinary uses.
45. Water credit: It is an initiative of Water.org + It is a global non-profit organization+ powerful
solution and the first to put microfinance tools to work in the water and sanitation sector + It bring
small loans to those who need access to affordable financing and expert resources to make
household water and toilet solutions a reality.
46. R2 Code of practices: Promote adoption of environmentally responsible practices in electronics
recycling industry + R2 stands for Responsible Recycling and is a standard specifically created for
the electronics recycling industry by Sustainable Electronics Recycling International (SERI).
47. Blue carbon: It refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by vegetation, marine
organisms and sediments + Seagrasses, mangroves, and marshes are types of vegetated coastal blue
carbon ecosystems.
48. New York declaration on forests: It is a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take
action to halt global deforestation + It was endorsed at UN Climate Summit in September 2014 + It
emphasize ten goals which includes halting natural forest loss by 2030 + It also include restoring 350
million hectares of degraded landscapes and forestlands, improving governance, increasing forest
finance etc as part of a post-2020 global climate agreement + India has not signed the declaration.
49. Common carbon metric: Protocol developed by UNEP Sustainable buildings & climate Initiative
(UNEP-SBCI) for measuring energy use & reporting GHG emissions from building Operations + It
support GHG emissions reductions through accurate measurement of energy efficiency
improvements in building operations.
50. UN Capital Development Fund: Established by UNGA in 1966 + It provide microfinance access to
LDCs + Autonomous, voluntarily funded UN organization affiliated with UNDP + It is
headquartered at New York, United States.
51. Emission Gap Report, 2022: Published by UNEP + The top 7 emitters (China, the EU27, India,
Indonesia, Brazil, the Russian Federation and the United States of America) of GHG + Collectively,
G20 members are responsible for 75% of global GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emission) emissions +
World is falling short of the goals set forth in the Paris Climate Agreement adopted in 2015, with no
credible pathway to 1.5°C in place.
52. Adaptation Gap Report, 2022: Published by UNEP + A third of the 197 parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have incorporated quantified and
time-bound targets on adaptation. And 90% of them have considered gender and disadvantaged
groups + International adaptation finance flows are 5-10 times lower than required and this gap
continues to grow.
(Revision Notes)
53. Climate change performance index (CCPI), 2022 : It is compiled by Germanwatch, New Climate
Institute, and Climate Action Network + Monitors climate mitigation progress of 60 countries and
European Union + No country performs well enough in all index categories to achieve an overall
very high rating + India has been ranked amongst top 5 countries in the world, and the best among
the G20 countries + Denmark, Sweden, Chile and Morocco were the only four small countries that
were ranked above India as 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th respectively + The ranking given by CCPI places
India as the only G-20 country in the top 10 rankers.
54. CARE Project: It is an initiative of World Bank + It will build resilience to climate threats and
disasters by sharing regional data and knowledge + It fund technology to support resilience in South
Asia + It works with two regional organizations, the Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early
Warning System for Africa and Asia (RIMES) and Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC).
55. CSCAF 2.0: An initiative of Ministry of Housing and Urban affairs + Itintends to inculcate a
climate-sensitive approach to urban planning and development in India + Climate Centre for
Cities under National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is supporting MoHUA in
implementation + It has 28 indicators across 5 categories Energy and green Buildings, Urban
planning, Green cover & biodiversity, Mobility and air Quality, Water management, Waste
management.
56. IFLOWS-Mumbai: It is an integrated Flood Warning System + It is a joint initiative between
MoES and Municipal corporation of Greater Mumbai + It relay alerts of possible flood-prone areas
between six to 72 hours in advance + It incorporate weather models from NCMRWF and IMD +
Mumbai is the second city after Chennai to get this system.
57. Green Crackers : Green crackers cause 30 per cent less air pollution as compared to traditional
ones + They reduce emissions substantially and absorb dust and don’t contain hazardous elements
like barium nitrate + There are three categories of green crackers: SWAS - Safe Water Releaser,
STAR – Safe Thermite Cracker, SAFAL – Safe Minimal Aluminium + These can be produced by
licensed manufacturers, approved by CSIR + Trees and forests can be restored using ANR at less
than a third of the cost of tree planting, based on WRI estimates + Can restore much more land,
much more quickly, as it requires very little human intervention.
58. Glyphosate = Government has restricted use of glyphosate except for Pest Control Operators + It is
a non-selective herbicide (it will kill most plants), used to clear all kind of weeds from agricultural
fields + It prevents the plants from making certain proteins that are needed for plant growth + The
major consumption is done in orchards and plantation crops.
(Revision Notes)
59. World Green City Award 2022 = Hyderabad city won the overall ‘World Green City Award 2022’
and ‘Living Green for Economic Recovery and Inclusive Growth’ award + The results are
announced by The InternationalAssociation of Horticulture Producers.
60. World Energy Outlook = Released annually by International Energy Agency (IEA) + World is in
the midst of the first global energy crisis, triggered by Russia's invasion of Ukraine + India is likely
to see world's biggest rise in energy demand this decade, with demand climbing 3 per cent annually
+ Outlook projects continued expansion in coal generation (in absolute terms) in India, peaking
around 2030.
61. State of Climate Action Report 2022 = Released by: Climate Action Tracker (an independent
analytic group comprising Climate Analytics and New Climate Institute), the United Nations High-
Level Climate Change Champions, World Resources Institute and others + It provides a
comprehensive assessment of the global gap in climate action across the world’s highest emitting
systems.
62. Breakthrough Agenda Report 2022 = It has been released by the International Energy Agency, the
International Renewable Energy Agency and the UN Climate Change High-Level Champions + This
is a first-of-its-kind annual progress report, requested at the UN Climate Change Conference COP26
in November 2021 as part of the launch of the Breakthrough Agenda (BA) + The BA currently
covers more than 2/3rd of the global economy, including G7, China and India.
63. World Water Development Report 2022 = It was released by UNESCO + It was officially
launched by the UNESCO Director-General at the 9th World Water Forum in Dakar, Senegal.
64. Swachh Sujal Pradesh = Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands have become India’s first Swachh
Sujal Pradesh + Swachh Sujal Pradesh certification (by Ministry of Jal Shakti) has three important
components as: Safe and secure drinking water supply and management, ODF (open defecation free)
Plus, Cross-cutting interventions like convergence, IEC (Information, Education Communication),
action planning, etc. + All villages on A&N Islands have received Har Ghar Jal certification.
65. Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) Report Card, 2022 = World Metrological Organisation
recently released it + Report has been released annually since 2017 in partnership with
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO) and other GOOS
partners + GOOS is a permanent global system for observations, modeling, and analysis of marine
and ocean data + It highlighted biological observations for first time and identifies gap in system + It
pointed at inequality in operational services across oceans like Indian, Atlantic and Southern Ocean.
66. International Argo program = It maintains global array of about 3,800 floats that measure
pressure, temperature and salinity of upper 2,000 metres of world’s ocean + This is a major
component of both GOOS and Global Climate Observing System, providing near real time data (on
temperature, salinity) for ocean and atmospheric services.
67. Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS) : Norway is building world's first open-access CCS
infrastructure on Norway's North Sea coast + It will allow any emitter that has captured his CO2
emissions to deliver that CO2 for safe handling, transport and storage + CCS is a way of reducing
carbon emissions, which could be key to helping to tackle global warming
68. Rule Curve: As per Tamil Nadu Water Resources Organisation, Mullaperiyar is first reservoir to
have Rule Curve implemented in country + Rule Curve is a tabulation which specifies quantum of
storage of water or empty space to be maintained in a reservoir during different times of year, based
on the rainfall data for 35 years + Under Rule Curve method, water is not allowed to be stored to
permissible maximum level at the time when reservoir receives huge inflows.
69. Per And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) : New research suggests that rainwater around the
world is contaminated by PFAS + PFAS are chemicals that have partially or completely fluorinated
carbon chains of varied lengths + Due to these strong carbon-fluorine bonds, they do not degrade
easily in the environment and are often referred to as “forever chemicals” + PFAS like
(Revision Notes)
perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are listed under Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and their production and use are restricted or eliminated
in the Parties.
70. Arctic Amplification = Arctic is heating up 4 times as fast as rest of world + It refers to
enhancement of near-surface air temperature change over Arctic relative to lower latitudes + Global
warming, Ice-albedo feedback, lapse rate feedback, water vapour feedback and ocean heat transport
are primarycauses of AA.
71. Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement (STEVE) : It is a puzzling aurora-like
phenomenon that leads into a purple streak of light + Auroras are caused by interaction of energetic
particles of solar wind with atoms of upper atmosphere + Aurora occurs primarily in high latitudes
of both hemispheres + STEVE appears significantly lower in the atmosphere unlike the typical
auroras + STEVE first appeared in 2017 and has been appearing often since + It has been observed
in New Zealand, Canada, Alaska and UK between October to February.
72. Zombie Ice = Zombie ice from massive Greenland ice sheet will eventually raise global sea level by
at least 10 inches + Zombie or doomed ice is ice that is still attached to thicker areas of ice, but is no
longer getting fed by those larger glaciers because parent glaciers are getting less replenishing snow
+ Without replenishment, zombie ice is melting from climate change and will inevitably raise seas.
73. Tonga Volcano : According to a new study, Volcanic eruption in Tonga (January 2022) is likely to
add to global warming and depletion of Earth’s ozone layer + Generally, volcanic eruptions have a
cooling effect on atmosphere as particles spewed from volcanoes shades incoming solar radiation +
Underwater eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano injected 146 teragrams (1 teragram
equals a trillion grams) of water vapour (a greenhouse gas) into the stratosphere + Excess
stratospheric H2O will persist for years, could affect stratospheric chemistry and dynamics and may
lead to surface warming.
74. Aridity Anomaly Outlook Index = At least 85% of districts were facing arid conditions across
India, according to the Aridity Anomaly Outlook Index for July, issued by India Meteorological
Department (IMD) + Aridity Anomaly Index is the departure of aridity index value from normal
(expressed in percentage) + Aridity Index refers to the water stress suffered by a growing plant due
to shortage of available moisture (both rainfall and soil moisture), calculated as the percentage of
annual water deficit to annual water need or annual potential evapotranspiration.
75. Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP) = JETP is a financing mechanism that aims to support
developing countries in their transition from fossil fuel-based energy systems to clean and renewable
energy sources + Senegal has joined the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP) deal, becoming
the fourth country to sign after South Africa, Indonesia, and Vietnam. The deal aims to mobilize 5
billion euros in new financing for Senegal + JETP funding can be provided through grants, loans, or
investments. The International Partners Group (IPG) and the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net
Zero (GFANZ) Working Group are key contributors + The IPG includes countries such as Japan, the
USA, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, the EU, and the UK + The GFANZ
Working Group comprises multilateral and national development banks and finance agencies.
SPECIES IN NEWS
1. Northern Pintail = They inhabit wetlands, agricultural fields, flooded grasslands, lakesides, tundra,
sheltered estuaries, marshes and lagoons + Breeding populations occur in Nearctic and Palearctic
regions in Europe, North America and North Asia + The wintering pintail ducks move to Africa,
South America and South and East Asia, including the Indian Subcontinent + IUCN: Least
Concerned + These migratory pintail ducks are seen across several water bodies in India during
winter season.
(Revision Notes)
2. Nicobar long-tailed Macaque = The largest mammal on the Nicobat island is the Nicobar long-
tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), a vulnerable subspecies of the larger family of long-
tailed macaques found across South-East Asia + The macaque is found in only three of the Nicobar
islands—Katchal, Little Nicobar, and Great Nicobar—with GNI being home to the largest
population + IUCN: Vulnerable + (Nicobar megapode = Another flagship species from GNI is the
Nicobar megapode ( Megapodius nicobariensis), a medium-sized scrubfowl species found only in a
few Nicobar islands + Large, brownish bird with a small gray head and massive legs and feet +
Builds a large mound for a nest, from where the newly-hatched chicks dig themselves out and
become immediately independent + IUCN: Vulnerable)
3. Spot-Bellied Eagle Owl = A wildlife team has stumbled upon a Spot-bellied Eagle Owl (Bubo
Nipalensis) for the first time in the Seshachalam forest and for the third time in Andhra Pradesh +
Spot-bellied Eagle Owl, also known as the Forest eagle-owl is a large owl species and are known for
their distinctive spots on their belly + It is a forest-inhabiting species found in India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. These
species occur in altitudes from 300 to 3000 meters. The bird is found on large trees in thick forests.
It feeds on small rodents and lizards + IUCN: Least Concern + Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972:
Schedule IV + CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora): Appendix II + Note: The bird makes a strange scream similar to humans and it is hence
called the ‘ghost of the forest’ in India and ‘devil bird’ in Sri Lanka.
4. Indian Star Tortoises = Schedule IV of WPA,1972 + Vulnerable + Prohibited from export under
the foreign trade policy + Liable for confiscation under Customs act,1962 + found in dry areas and
scrub forest in India and Sri Lanka + CITES: Appendix I + The species faces two threats: loss of
habitat to agriculture and illegal harvesting for the pet trade.
5. Sedge Warbler = Birders and ornithologists recently in the State of Kerala spotted a migratory bird
the Sedge Warbler + The sedge warbler is a medium-sized warbler of marshes, reedbeds and
wetlands that can be spotted singing from perches on reeds and willow bushes + The male sedge
warbler introduces random phrases into its repertoire which is known for mimicking + The male
warbler never sings the same song twice; he attracts more mates the more phrases his song has +
These are insectivores in nature + IUCN Red List: Least concern.
6. Himalayan Griffon Vulture = Migratory bird species native to Himalayas + spotted in Point
Calimere wildlife sanctuary in Tamil Nadu + usually found in the high-altitude regions + originate
from Himalayan Chain and Plateau of Tibet + IUCN status: Near Threatened + Appendix II of the
CITES.
7. Ghol Fish = Gujarat recently declared the black-spotted croaker (Protonibea Diacanthus), locally
known as the Ghol fish, as the state fish + Distribution: Indo-Pacific region that stretches from the
Persian Gulf to the Pacific Ocean + It is excellent source of high-quality protein and rich in Omega-3
Fatty Acid.
8. White Tufted Royal Butterfly = Researchers have found white tufted royal butterfly at Kalliyad in
Kannur, Kerala + White Tufted Royal Butterfly is a rare species + The species had been spotted in
Agasthyakoodam in 2017 and the Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala in 2018 + The wingspan
of the butterfly is just 32-40 mm + Its larvae feed on Scurrula parasitica, a plant belonging to the
Loranthaceae family + It is protected under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Protection Act.
9. Greater Scaup = A rare species of duck, Greater Scaup, was recently sighted in Loktak lake in
Manipur’s Bishnupur district after a gap of over 90 years + The Greater Scaup is a medium-sized
diving duck species that belongs to the family of Anatidae + The greater scaup species is distributed
in Asia, Europe, United States and Canada. It is a rare visitor to the Indian Subcontinent + The
greater scaup species are highly migratory, breeding near arctic regions and migrating to the warmer
south from August onwards + IUCN: Least Concern.
(Revision Notes)
10. Yangtze Finless Porpoise = Scientists recently found that checking sand mining in Dongting lake in
China can help the rebounding of the population of the Yangtze finless porpoise + The Yangtze
River, the longest river in Asia is home to these porpoises + The Yangtze finless porpoise belongs to
the group of animals which also includes dolphins and whales + It is the only freshwater porpoise in
the world and breeds just once in 18 months + Overfishing, increased shipping traffic and noise
pollution have all been linked with the decline of the porpoise + IUCN: Critically Endangered.
11. Red-Billed Quelea = It is a small, short-tailed weaver with a mottled back and a yellow or reddish
bill + Large flocks are resident and nomadic in arid savanna, grassland, and cultivated areas +
IUCN: Least Concerned + Kenya's government began to kill up to 6 million red-billed quelea birds,
the world's most populous bird species which are also known as 'feathered locusts'. The preferred
method for eradicating pests in Africa has been to spray fenthion, which is an organophosphate
pesticide, but scientists have noted that the substance is toxic to people and other non-target
organisms. Fenthion has been listed in Annex III of the Rotterdam convention which aims to reduce
risks from hazardous chemicals in agriculture.
12. Bar Headed Goose(Anser Indicus) = Bar-headed geese are found in central China and Mangolia
and they breed there + They start migration to the Indian sub-continent during the winter and stay
here till the end of the season + They are one of the birds which can fly even at very high altitude.
They come to India and return to their homes by crossing the Himalayan ranges + capacity of bar-
headed geese to transport and consume oxygen at high rates in hypoxia distinguishes this species
from similar lowland waterfowl + Least Concern + WPA – Schedule II.
13. Chestnut-winged Cuckoo = Chestnut-winged cuckoo was recently being sighted in newer spots
around the Chennai city while it makes its way down the Coromandel Coast towards its wintering
habitats further south and in Sri Lanka + They are mostly migratory and breed during summer in
north India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, southeast China, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam +
IUCN Status: Least Concern.
14. Asiatic Golden Cat = It is also called Temminck's cat, the “fire cat” in Thailand and Burma, and as
the “rock cat” in parts of China + It is a medium-sized wild cat native to the northeastern Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and China + IUCN: Near Threatened + WP Act, 1972- Schedule I +
The species occurs in Southeast Asia, from Nepal and Tibet to Southern China, Sumatra and India +
It prefers forest habitats that are interspersed with rocky areas, being found in deciduous, tropical
and subtropical evergreen rainforests.
15. Black- Headed Ibis = It is a large wader bird with a white body and bare black head and neck.
Males and females look similar and both have grayish tail feathers + They are found primarily
around wetlands including agricultural fields and occasionally around coastal areas + These are
called wader birds due to their adaptability to a wide variety of aquatic environments + It is found in
South- and Southeast Asia from India to the west and as far east as Japan + IUCN Red List: Near
Threatened + Wildlife Protection Act 1972:Schedule-IV.
16. Black-necked Stork = It is a tall long-necked wading bird in the stork family + It is a resident
species across the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia with a disjunct population in Australia +
The Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary near Jamnagar and the Marine National Park along the coast of
Jamnagar and Devbhumi Dwarka district harbor the largest population of BNS in Gujarat + It lives
in wetland habitats and near fields of certain crops such as rice and wheat where it forages for a wide
range of animal prey + IUCN status: “Near Threatened” + (Bardasagar reservoir = It is located in
the Porbandar district, Gujarat + The Bardasagar dam and farms on its periphery are the ideal winter
escape for thousands of cranes. Common crane and Demoiselle crane)
17. Noble’s Helen = “Extremely rare” Noble’s Helen (Papilio noblei) butterflies were recorded from
three locations in the Namdapha National Park of Arunachal Pradesh in 2021 + The Noble’s Helen,
recorded from the Namdapha National Park, is disappearing from its previously known ranges in
(Revision Notes)
Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam + It is a swallowtail butterfly with a
wingspan of 100–120 mm + They are considered vital indicators of the state of biodiversity and key
ecosystem functions.
18. Garrarnawun Bush Tomato = Recently Scientists are proposing to include the species in the "Data
Deficient" category of the IUCN Red List + It is currently found only in Judbarra/Gregory National
Park in the Australia’s Northern Territory + It is a perennial pale green shrub about 30 cm tall.
19. Zebra fish = It is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the minnow family, native to rivers and
streams of South Asia + It has dark-blue and silvery longitudinal stripes + IUCN status: Least
Concern.
20. Great White Pelicans = It is mainly found in southeastern Europe, Asia and Africa + It is also
known as the eastern white pelican, rosy pelican + They have feet with all 4 toes webbed which is
known as ‘totipalmate’ + It is associated with relatively large, warm, shallow fresh, brackish,
alkaline or saline lakes, lagoons, marshes, broad rivers, deltas, estuaries and coasts of landlocked
seas + IUCN status: Least Concern.
21. Mahabali Frog = The purple frog, also known as pignose frog, is one of the rarest frog species
endemic to the Western Ghats + These frogs live underground for their whole lives and breed only
during the rainy season each year. Following their brief courtship above the ground, they quietly go
back under the soil in a few days, where they lay eggs. The frog was named after the mythical King
Mahabali, as the king visits his people once a year from the underneath world only on the
Thiruvonam day + IUCN - Near Threatened.
22. Black Vulture = It is native to the north-eastern United States and a few South American countries
like Peru, central Chile, and Uruguay + They breed in dense woodlands but forage in open habitats,
and they are most abundant at low elevations + IUCN status: Least Concern.
23. Soliga Ecarinata = Researchers have named a new genus of wasp after the Soliga indigenous
community of Biligiri Rangan Hills (B.R. Hills) of Karnataka + The Soliga ecarinata is a new wasp
that belongs to the subfamily Metopiinae of the Darwin wasps family Ichneumonidae + These are
seen only in the Palaearctic region, Neotropical and Nearctic regions + This is the second genus of
this subfamily reported from India and the first from South India + (Soliga Community = Soligas
are the indigenous dwellers of BR Hills + They are dependent on collecting a wide range of non-
timber forest products (NTFP), small game hunting and shifting cultivation for their livelihood +
After BR Hills was designated a wildlife sanctuary, shifting cultivation and hunting were completely
banned and the Soligas were allocated small pieces of land to practice settled agriculture) + (Biligiri
Rangan Hills = BR Hills falls under the confluence of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats and
the unique geographical positioning makes it one of the richest areas for biodiversity in India + The
Biligiri Ranganatha Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary or BRT Wildlife Sanctuary is located near
BR Hills + It is a protected reserve under Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and also a tiger reserve)
24. Pallas’s Cats = Recently researchers have discovered one of the planet's rarest Pallas cats for the
first time in the Mount Everest Region + The Pallas’s cat, also known as manul, is a small wild cat,
perfectly adapted to the harsh conditions typical of its habitat + Naturally secretive, it is rarely seen
and little known + Habitat: Wide but fragmented distribution throughout montane grasslands and
steppes of Central Asia + Its core populations are in Mongolia and China + IUCN Red List: Least
concern.
25. White-Tailed Deer = It is also known as whitetail or Virginia deer + They are the smallest members
of the North American deer family + IUCN: Least Concern + Recently, a study discovered
widespread infection of white-tailed deer with SARS-CoV-2 virus across the state of New York
26. Red-headed Vulture = Red-headed vulture (also called Asian King vulture or Pondicherry Vulture)
was extensively found in India but its numbers drastically reduced after diclofenac poisoning + This
is one of the 9 species of Vulture which are found in India + IUCN: Critically Endangered +
(Revision Notes)
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + Recently, The Red-headed vulture was spotted in the
Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary. For the first time since 2017, birders spotted a red-headed vulture
(Sarcogyps calvus) in the Bhatti mines area of Delhi.
27. Pilot Whales = Pilot Whale Strandings was seen recently at coastline of Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka +
Whale stranding, also known as beaching, is a phenomenon in which whales are stuck on land,
usually on a beach + Pilot whales are so named because it was once believed that each observed
group was navigated by a pilot or leader + There are two species of pilot whales: Short finned pilot
whales, which are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, and long-finned pilot
whales, which inhabit colder waters + IUCN Status of both: Least Concern.
28. Rhododendrons = They are a diverse genus of about 1,000 species of woody flowering plants in the
heath family (Ericaceae), notable for their attractive flowers and handsome foliage + They are native
to the temperate regions of Asia, North America, and Europe, as well as to the tropical regions of
southeast Asia and northern Australia + They occur in a variety of habitats, including alpine regions,
coniferous and broadleaved woodlands, temperate rain forests, and even tropical jungle + They also
require a slightly acid soil to grow well + Rhododendron, also known as "Lali Guras" in local
language, is the national flower of Nepal and the state tree of the state of Uttarakhand in India + In
India, Pink Rhododendron is the state flower of Himachal Pradesh, while Rhododendron arboreum is
the state flower of Nagaland and the official State Tree of Uttarakhand + Recently, the Botanical
Survey of India has published a new report titled 'Rhododendrons of Sikkim and Darjeeling
Himalaya- An Illustrated Account', which lists 45 taxa of rhododendrons.
29. Thyreus Narendrani = A new species of cuckoo bee, Thyreus narendrani, has been discovered in
Kerala + The new species was collected from the kole wetland ecosystem + The new species
belongs to the family Apidae of the order Hymenoptera + The genus Thyreus consists of cuckoo
bees or cleptoparasitic bees. Cuckoo bees parasitise the nest of other bees by breaking and entering
and laying their eggs. Unlike other female bees, cuckoo bees lack pollen-collecting structures +
(Kole Wetland = Kole wetlands are unique and productive ecosystems located in Thrissur and
Malappuram districts, Kerala and were declared as Ramsar sites in 2002 + The area extends from
Chalakudy River in South to Bharathapuzha River in the North)
30. Kharai Camel = They are a rare breed of camel found in the salt marshes of the Kutch district of
Gujarat + Their name is derived from the local word khara, meaning saline + It is well adapted to the
saline desert environment and is known for its ability to swim (hence also known as ‘swimming
camel’) + They swim long distances in the sea to reach their grazing areas, usually more than 3 km
at a time, even in deep water + Kharai camels mostly feed on mangroves + They are considered a
unique Eco-tonal species as they survive in the dryland ecosystem as well as the coastal ecosystem +
Conservation Status: IUCN: Endangered.
31. Pancorius sebastiani = A New species of jumping spiders’ Pancorius sebastiani’ has been
discovered from the Western Ghats + Males and the Females of this species exhibit reddish brown
carapace + They have yellowish abdomens with black patches and chevron-shaped markings
posteromedially + Only two States, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, have reported high numbers of
Salticidae species.
32. Melocanna Baccifera = It is a tropical bamboo species known for its association with the
occurrence of ‘bamboo death,’ ‘rat floods’ and famines in northeast India + Called ‘Muli’ in
northeast India, it is largest fruit-producing bamboo and native to northeast India-Myanmar region.
33. Alcalus fontinalis = A new species of frog named Alcalus fontinalis discovered in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh (in the Namdapha Tiger Reserve) + The frog appeared to be a mix of a bush frog
& a water frog, something not seen before in India + They are no ordinary frogs but members of a
dwarf mountain frog of the genus Alcalus, hitherto unknown from India.
(Revision Notes)
34. Raccoon Dogs = The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is a small, carnivorous mammal
native to East Asia + Raccoon dogs have a distinctive black and white facial mask, and their fur is
thick and fluffy + They are the only canids that hibernate during the winter + Raccoon dogs are
found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands. They are native to East
Asia, including Japan, China, Korea, and parts of Russia + IUCN: Least Concern + Recently, A new
analysis of genetic data collected from the Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan, China, has linked
coronavirus to raccoon dogs, adding evidence to the belief that the pandemic might have originated
from the infected animals sold at the site.
35. Ibisbill = It is a bird which belongs to the family Ibidorhynchidae. It is the only species in this
family + it is a charismatic and uncommon wader seen in the Himalayas and foothills of India +
They are common in Central Asia and the Himalayas. They are found in India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Bhutan,
Myanmar and China + It lives at high altitudes near rivers. They exhibit altitudinal migration,
breeding in the higher reaches of the mountains and descending to lower elevations during winters +
IUCN: Least Concern
36. Eurasian Otter = It is a semi-aquatic carnivorous mammal + Scientific Name: Lutra lutra + It has
one of the widest distributions of all Palaearctic mammals. Its range covers parts of three continents:
Europe, Asia, and Africa. In India, it occurs in northern, northeast, and southern India + In the Indian
sub-continent, Eurasian otters occur in cold hill and mountain streams + IUCN: Near threatened +
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: + Schedule II CITES: Appendix I + Recently Eurasian otters spotted
in Neeru stream, Jammu & Kashmir.
37. Indian Black Turtle = The Indian black turtle is a medium-sized found across the Indian
subcontinent + It is an aquatic species, mainly associated with standing water bodies, sometimes
rivers + The species is an omnivore, consuming both aquatic macrophytes and invertebrates + The
distribution in India includes the hill ranges of the Western Ghats, south of Gujarat, and the
southeast coast, and then a separate disjunct distribution in northern and northeastern India +
Conservation status: IUCN: Least concern.
38. Olive Ridley Turtles / Pacific Ridley Sea Turtle = The species is the second-smallest and most
abundant of all sea turtles found in the world + It is found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in
the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but also in the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean + Olive Ridley
Turtle and the related Kemp's Ridley Turtle are best known for their unique synchronised mass
nestings called arribadas, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs
+ The olive ridley is predominantly carnivorous + IUCN Red List: Vulnerable + The Gahirmatha
Beach in Kendrapara district of Odisha (India), which is now a part of the Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary, is the largest breeding ground for these turtles + There are two mass nesting sites for
Olive Ridley turtles in Odisha — the Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary and the Rushikulya coast +
Besides, Puri and Devi River mouth beaches too host Olive Ridley turtles this time around.
39. Horseshoe Crabs = The horseshoe crab is a marine chelicerate arthropod living in shallow coastal
waters on soft sandy or muddy bottoms and spawns mostly on intertidal beaches at summer-spring
high tides + It is known as a marine ‘living fossil’ + Odisha is the largest habitat of horseshoe crabs
in India + Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule IV + There are four extant horseshoe crab species:
American horseshoe crab (Vulnerable); Tri-spine horseshoe crab (Endangered); Coastal horseshoe
crab (not listed yet) and Mangrove horseshoe crab (not listed yet) + Please Note: The Chelicerata is a
division within the Arthropoda, containing animals such as spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, mites and
ticks. Like all arthropods, they have a segmented body and segmented limbs and a thick chitinous
cuticle called an exoskeleton
40. Exostoma Dhritiae = It is a new species of catfish of the genus Exostoma + It was found in Siking
stream, a tributary of the Siang River in the Upper Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh + It is a small
(Revision Notes)
fish locally called 'Ngorang' by local tribals + The new species has been named 'Exostoma Dhritiae'
after Dhriti Banerjee, the first woman director of the ZSI.
41. Great Seahorse = They are known for their unique appearance, with a horse-like head, long snout,
and a curled tail that they use to cling onto seagrasses, corals, and other underwater structures +
Seahorses are mainly found in shallow tropical and temperate salt water throughout the world, from
about 45°S to 45°N + Seahorses are unique in that the males carry and give birth to the young +
Seahorses are also known for their ability to change color and blend in with their surroundings,
which helps them to avoid predators. They feed on small crustaceans and plankton, which they suck
up through their snouts. They live in sheltered areas such as seagrass beds, estuaries, coral reefs, and
mangroves + There are 46 known species of seahorses worldwide. India's coastal ecosystems are
home to nine of the twelve species found in the Indo-Pacific, which is a hotspot for seahorse
populations + These nine species are distributed along the coasts of eight States and five Union
Territories from Gujarat to Odisha, apart from Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
+ IUCN: Vulnerable + CITES: Appendix II.
42. Dragon Fruit = The dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) is indigenous to the Americas. It is a
member of the cacti family + Its flowers are hermaphrodites (male and female organs in the same
flower) in nature and open at night + It is also known as ‘Pitaya’, ‘Pitahaya’, strawberry pear,
noblewoman and queen of the night throughout the world + In India, it is also known as ‘Kamalam’
+ The world’s largest producer and exporter of dragon fruit is Vietnam + They grow in regions
where summer temperatures rise above forty degrees Celsius. It grows in all kinds of soil and does
not require much water + Recently, the Union Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare approved
a Centre of Excellence (CoE) for Dragon Fruit (Kamalam Fruit) to be established by the Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, Karnataka.
43. Kappaphycus Alvarezii = It is seaweed (alga) which is native to the Indo-Pacific region + The
International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as one of the world’s 100 most invasive
species + It recently invaded Gulf of Mannar + (Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park = Gulf of
Mannar is one of the biologically richest coastal regions in all of the mainland of India. It is the first
Marine Biosphere Reserve in South and South East Asia + It is designated as a Biosphere Reserve +
In India, the Gulf of Mannar region in Tamil Nadu is one of the four major coral reef areas and the
others are the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat, Lakhsadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands)
44. Sea Slugs = Recently, scientists documented a unique species of sea slugs from the Visakhapatnam
coast + Sea slugs belong to Phylum Mollusca and Class Gastropoda. They look like naked snails,
i.e., without shells + Sea slugs are found in the sea and some slugs live on land as well + A unique
species of nudibranch sea slugs were documented on the Visakhapatnam shore. These sea slugs are
found in places with abundant prey bases which may vary from sponges, hydroids and algae + The
nudibranchs are usually found in coral reefs and their presence is a significant indicator of a strong
coral ecosystem + They mainly feed on algae and are usually seen in large numbers when there is an
algal bloom + Most nudibranchs are active throughout the day, but some species are also nocturnal.
45. Moray eel = Recently, researchers have discovered a new species of Moray eel at the Mudasalodai
fish landing centre off the Cuddalore coast, Tamil Nadu + Moray eels or Muraenidae are a family of
eels found worldwide + Moray eels live in shallow water among reefs and rocks in all tropical and
subtropical seas + Moray eels can be found in both freshwater and saltwater environments + Moray
eels have small eyes and rely primarily on their highly developed sense of smell to ambush prey +
The newly discovered species has been named after Tamil Nadu as Gymnothorax tamilnaduensis
with common name as Tamil Nadu brown moray.
46. Cnemaspis Ganeshaiahi = New species of gecko, endemic to Male Mahadeshwar hill Wild Life
Sanctuary + Male Mahadeshwara Hills Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the state of Karnataka. It is
contiguous to BRT Tiger Reserve, Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserveand Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary.
(Revision Notes)
47. Cyrtopodion Vindhya = Recently, a new species of naked-toed gecko (Cyrtopodion) has been
discovered in Dahod and Panchmahals districts in Gujarat + It is the fifth endemic species of reptile
described in the last fifteen years from the state of Gujarat + The new species is named after the
Vindhya hill ranges + The Palearctic naked-toed geckos of the genus Cyrtopodion are a group of
gekkonid lizards distributed across the arid regions of north Africa, Arabia, and Central Asia to
northwestern India.
48. Trichrysis Poseidonia = The new species of cuckoo wasp has been named Trichrysis poseidonia +
poseidonia specimens were collected from Tamil Nadu and Madayipara in Kannur. Another
specimen was obtained from Nepal + These wasps belong to the family Chrysididae.The members of
the family Chrysididae are more active in warm areas and they are heliophilic (more active in
sunlight).
49. Mimeusemia Ceylonica = Two researchers from Tamil Nadu have spotted a rare moth species for
the first time in India in the buffer zone of the Kalakkad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) after
it was last sighted 127 years ago - at Trincomalee in Sri Lanka in 1893 + Mimeusemia ceylonica is a
moth species belonging to the subfamily Agaristinae and family Noctuidae + It was first illustrated
and described by English entomologist George Hampson in 1893. The species was rediscovered
during a moth survey conducted on October 11, 2020 at the Agasthyamalai Community based
Conservation Centre (ACCC) situated in the buffer zone of KMTR, Tirunelveli district. It was again
spotted at the Vallanadu Black Buck Sanctuary in Thoothukudi district in 2022 + (Kalakkad–
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) = Location in Tirunelveli & Kanyakumari Districts, Tamil
Nadu + It was declared as the “First Tiger Reserve of Tamil Nadu” and the 17th Tiger Reserve of the
country + It consists of the Kanyakumari Wildlife sanctuary in the south and the Nellai Wildlife
Sanctuary in the North + The river Thamirabarani originates from this tiger reserve + The reserve is
also known as the “River Sanctuary” with as many as 14 rivers originating from this Tiger Reserve).
50. Toque Macaques = The Sri Lankan Toque Macaques (Macaca sinica) are the smallest species of
Macaca, a golden-brown coloured monkey, endemic to Sri Lanka + They are native and endemic
exclusively to Sri Lanka + IUCN- Endangered + CITES - Appendix II + Recently, Sri Lanka is
planning to export 1,00,000 toque macaques to China, and this step is being criticized by many
environmentalists.
51. Sloth Bear = Sloth bears are one of the eight bear species found across the world + Their range
includes India, Sri Lanka and southern Nepal. 90% of the global Sloth Bear population is found in
India + They live in a variety of dry and moist forests and in some tall grasslands, where boulders,
scattered shrubs and trees provide shelter + IUCN: Vulnerable + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:
Schedule I + They have long, shaggy dark brown or black fur and curved claws, which are the
longest out of any of the bear species. They use their claws to excavate termites and ants.
52. Greater One-Horned Rhinos = Also known as Indian rhino, it is the largest of the rhino species +
Vulnerable + The species is restricted to small habitats in Indo-Nepal terai and northern West Bengal
and Assam + In India, rhinos are mainly found in Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh + Assam
has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in four protected areas, i.e. Pabitora Wildlife Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi
Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Manas National Park + Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary has the highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and second highest number of
Rhinos in Assam after Kaziranga National Park.
53. Mexican Giant Turtle = also called the Red Eared Slider + Invasive turtle species + Native Indian
turtles face U.S. slider threat across Northeast + It derives its name from red stripes around part
where its ears would be and from its ability to slide quickly off any surface into the water + Native to
the U.S. and northern Mexico + these turtles can impact human health as they may accumulate
toxins in their tissues which pass on with the food chain upto humans + International Union for
(Revision Notes)
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) releases the world’s 100 most invasive species, and the Red-Eared
Slider Turtle is included in this list+ IUCN: Least Concern.
54. Asiatic Water Snake = Species is endemic to Asia + It is non-venomous + It is primarily found in
freshwater bodies like rivers, lakes, and ponds + The species is endemic to Asia and found in
countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand,
Laos, Cambodia etc + IUCN: Least concern + CITES: Appendix III + WPA: Schedule II.
55. Lesser Flamingo = It is the smallest of all flamingos but has the largest population + It possesses
the "hallux" or hind toe that some other flamingos do not have + Males are a little taller than females
+ It inhabits coastal and inland wetlands + Geographical distribution: Africa, Asia continents and in
that especially Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, North Africa + IUCN: Near Threatened + Recently,
after a six-year absence, the lesser flamingos have finally found their way back to Pulicat Lake.
56. Spot Billed Pelican = The Spot-billed Pelican or Grey Pelican is a large water bird found in India
and other parts of Southeast Asia + It is a bird of large inland and coastal waters, especially large
lakes. The main habitat is in shallow lowland freshwaters + The species is found to breed only in
peninsular India, Sri Lanka and in Cambodia + The best places to spot the Spot-billed Pelican in
India are the Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan, Pulicat Lake, Andhra Pradesh, the Vedanthangal
Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Chilika Lake in Odisha, Kokkare Bellur and Karanji Lake in
Karnataka + IUCN - Near Threatened.
57. Short-beaked Echidnas = It is one of four living species of echidna. It is covered in fur and spines
and has a distinctive snout and a specialized tongue, which it uses to catch its insect prey (ant and
termite) at a great speed + According to researchers from Curtin University, Short-beaked echidnas
in Western Australia beat the heat by blowing mucus bubbles
58. Mangrove Pitta = species of Bird + The mangrove pitta (Pitta megarhyncha) belongs to the family
of pittas, the Pittidae + Distribution: Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore,
and Thailand (primarily the west coast of the southern Thai peninsula) + It is found in mangrove and
nipa palm forests where it feeds on crustaceans, mollusks and insects + IUCN: Near Threatened +
WPA: Schedule IV + A census of mangrove pitta birds was conducted in two coastal districts of
Odisha, India, where the nearly threatened species is found. A total of 179 individual mangrove pitta
birds were counted, with the highest concentration found in the mangroves near the Mahipura river
mouth inside the Bhitarkanika National Park.
59. Helopeltis Theivora = also known as Tea Mosquito Bug + It is considered to be a serious pest of tea
+ The damage is more in most shaded areas + The tea mosquito bug is affecting tea production in
both low and high elevation plantations as per the United Planters Association of Southern India
(UPASI) + UPASI is the apex body of planters in south India.
60. Cycas Pectinata = Cycas pectinata, listed as vulnerable in the International Union for Conservation
of Nature’s Red List, is the only cycad species found in Bhutan + It is an evergreen, palm-like plant
+ Recently, a new study by five botanists has revealed that the Cycas pectinata plant’s existence in
the Himalayan country of Bhutan is threatened by overcollection as an ornamental plant and habitat
destruction.
61. Caltoris Bromus Sadasiva = A group of lepidopterists has discovered a butterfly subspecies from
the fringes of Akkulam and Vembanad lakes in Kerala + Caltoris bromus sadasiva is the first
Bromus swift butterfly to be documented in the Western Ghats + (Vembanad Lake = Vembanad is
the largest lake in Kerala and the longest Lake in India + The lake has its source in four rivers,
Meenachil, Achankovil, Pampa and Manimala + Vallam Kali (Nehru Trophy Boat Race) is a Snake
Boat Race held every year in August in Vembanad Lake)
62. Piarosoma Arunachalensis = Recently, researchers from Titli Trust, National Centre for Biological
Sciences and others have discovered a new moth from Talle Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal
Pradesh + It belongs to the family Zygaenidae, which includes Forester and Burnet moths + (Talle
(Revision Notes)
Wildlife Sanctuary = Arunachal Pradesh + Rivers like Pange, Sipu, Karing and Subansiri flow
through this sanctuary + It comprises sub-tropical and alpine forests)
63. Garra Laishrami = Researchers from Central University of Odisha (CUO), Koraput and Zoological
Survey of India (ZSI) have recently discovered a rare freshwater edible fish from Kolab river in
Koraput, Odisha + The cyprinid fish species which can be consumed have been seen so far in Kolab
river, one of the major tributaries of Godavari.
64. Amolops Siju = Recently, researchers from the Zoological Survey of India have discovered a new
species of frogs from deep within the Siju cave system in the South Garo Hills district of Meghalaya
+ This is the second cave-dwelling species of frog recorded from India after Micrixalus spelunca in
Tamil Nadu nine years ago + It has been named after the Suji cave where it was discovered + It
belongs to the cascade Ranidae family and genus Amolops + (Siju Cave = The cave is a natural
limestone cave located in the South Garo Hills District of Meghalaya, Northeast India + It is a 4 km
long natural limestone cave).
65. Allegator Gar = It is a ray-finned euryhaline fish and is one of the largest of all freshwater fishes +
largest species in the Gar family + The fossil record traces its group's existence back to the Early
Cretaceous over 100 million years ago + Gars are often referred to as "primitive fishes", or "living
fossils" because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors +
Distribution: Central and North America + IUCN: Least Concerned + Recently, Jammu and Kashmir
Lake Conservation and Management Authority (LCMA) discovered a rare type of fish known as a
"Alligator Gar" for the first time in Srinagar’s Dal Lake + (Euryhaline Organisms = They are a
type of mostly marine organisms with the ability to adapt to a wide range of water salinities + They
can survive either in freshwater, saltwater or brackish water + Some euryhaline organisms migrate
between freshwater and saltwater habitats during their life cycle + Some examples of such organisms
are salmon, eels, etc.)
66. Sea Butterfly = Sea butterflies, scientific name Thecosomata, are a suborder of sea snails known as
shelled pteropods + They have muscular feet that allow them to swim in water instead of gliding on
solid surfaces + Sea butterflies are holoplanktonic (organisms that pass their whole life floating,
drifting, or swimming weakly in the water) and spend their entire life cycle in the water column +
They are found in all oceans but are more diverse and abundant in colder waters + Sea butterflies
have bilateral symmetry and a coiled or uncoiled shell of various shapes and sizes + Recently,
British Antarctic Survey studied the impact of climate change on sea butterflies, a suborder of free
swimming sea snails and a gastropod mollusk of the class Gastropoda.
67. Baobab Trees = Baobabs are long-lived deciduous, small to large trees from 20 to 100 ft tall with
broad trunks and compact tops + The Baobab Tree is also known as the upside-down tree + The
baobab is a prehistoric species which predates both mankind and the splitting of the continents over
200 million years ago + They are called ‘Tree of Life’ as they can store large amounts of fresh water
in their extraordinary trunks. It also allows the baobab tree to produce nutritious fruits even during
the driest years. This makes them true life savers during times when water is scarce + Baobabs
belongs to the genus Adansonia are native to mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Australia + The
tree’s unique pendulous flowers are pollinated by bats and bush babies + IUCN Status: endangered +
Madhya Pradesh government has applied for a Geographical Indication (GI) tag + Recently, Bhil
tribe of Central India is opposing the forest department’s decision to give permission for uprooting
baobab trees for commercial use
68. Hijol = Hijol, or Indian oak, is a medium-sized evergreen tree + Common names: Hijal, Hijangal,
Hendol, Stream Barringtonia, Itchy Tree + It is native to coastal wetlands in southern Asia and
northern Australasia + This species grows on the banks of freshwater rivers, the edges of freshwater
swamps and lagoons and on seasonally flooded lowland plains, commonly on heavy soils + It is
commonly found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin + Its bark has tannin, which is useful
(Revision Notes)
for heart diseases. Powder of seeds works as an expectorant and is applied to cure the cough of
children. Tonic is prepared from leaves and roots. Fish poison is also prepared from its roots.
69. Comb Jelly = A recent study suggest that comb jellies, more formally known as ctenophores, are the
closest relatives of the first animals + It is any of the numerous marine invertebrates constituting the
phylum Ctenophora + Some ctenophores live in somewhat brackish water, but all are confined to
marine habitats + They live in almost all ocean regions, particularly in surface waters near shores +
They are frequently swept into vast swarms, especially in bays, lagoons, and other coastal waters +
They are carnivorous, eating myriads of small planktonic animals.
70. Indian Mouse Deer or Spotted Chevrotain = It is the smallest deer in India and is highly nocturnal
+ Scientific Name: Moschiola indica + It is endemic to the Indian subcontinent + It is mainly found
in peninsular India with some old records from Nepal + Within India, it is commonly encountered in
a number of forest areas along the Western Ghats, in the Eastern Ghats up to Orissa, and in the
forests of central India + IUCN: Least Concern.
71. Milkweed Butterflies = They are any of a group of butterflies in the brush-footed butterfly family
(Nymphalidae) + There are some 300 species in the group, including the iconic Monarch butterfly +
The majority of species are found in both Old and New World tropics. However, some well-known
members of the group, such as the monarch butterfly and the queen butterfly, live in temperate
regions + The large, colourful adults have long, usually brownish or orange wings marked by black-
and-white patterns. They fly slowly, and some, such as the monarch butterfly, migrate great
distances. They feed chiefly on milkweed and sometimes on nightshade + Striped tiger, Blue tiger,
Dark blue tiger and Plain tiger are types of milkweed butterflies who migrate westward from the
Eastern Ghats and plains to the Western Ghats, becoming active for more than two months upon
their arrival.
72. Coyotes or Bobcats = Mediumsized carnivorous species — mesopredators like coyotes or bobcats
— tend to move into humandominated areas to avoid predation by larger carnivores, a phenomenon
also known as the “human shield” effect.
73. Whitebellied Shortwing, an endemic and threatened bird. Birds found around Ooty and Baba
Budan are called the Nilgiri blue robin; the Anamalai group diff◻ers slightly in appearance, and is
called the Whitebellied blue robin + The biodiversity of a region is expressed in two ways:
 Species Richness: which relates to how many species are found in an ecosystem.
 Phylogenetic Diversity: where you add up the evolutionary age of all the species you find.
74. Hemidactylus quartziticolus = A new species of gecko, Hemidactylus quartziticolus, has been
discovered from the scrub habitats of Vallanadu and Kurumalai reserves forest areas in Tamil Nadu
+ The common name suggested by the authors for the new gecko is Quartzite brookish gecko or
Thoothukudi brookish gecko + It is the 53rd species of Hemidactylus found in India and the seventh
that is endemic to Tamil Nadu + (Gecko = Geckos are small, nocturnal lizardsfound in all the warm
parts of the world + There are approximately 1,500 gecko species, and they vary in size + Geckos
are found on every continent except Antarctica and live in almost every habitat, including
rainforests, deserts and mountains + They also possess a short, stout body, a large head, and typically
well-developed limbs)
75. Gekko Mizoramensis = Recently New species of flying gecko found near Myanmar border named
after Mizoram + It is a subgenus called Ptychozoon of the Gekko genus + There are 13 species of
them throughout the world and they are found in Southeast Asia + Before founding this species, only
one species- Ptychozoon lionotum or smooth-backed gliding gecko-was found in Mizoram + Its
habitat spread into the parts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia along with Mizoram
+ It is arboreal, nocturnal and glides from one tree to another + Flying geckos have webbed limbs
and flat tails to help them glide (they do not fly).
(Revision Notes)
76. Gomphonema Rajaguruii = It is a new freshwater diatom species + It was found in a semi-aquatic
environment along the wet walls in Maharashtra’s popular hill station, Mahabaleshwar in Satara
District + It was named after a veteran geo-archaeologist from the city, the late Professor S N
Rajaguru + It is unique because it shows the characteristics of two genus – Gomphonema and
Gomphoneis.
77. Himalayan Brown Bears = One of the largest carnivores in the highlands of the Himalayas +
Range: North-western and central Himalaya, including India, Pakistan, Nepal, the Tibetan
Autonomous Region of China and Bhutan + In India, this species exists in small isolated populations
in the fragmented alpine and subalpine habitats of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and
Uttarakhand + They are found above the timberline, between 3,000 and 5,500 meters (9,800 and
18,000 feet) above sea level + Critically endangered + Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972: Schedule I
+ CITES - Appendix I.
78. Golden Jackal = The golden jackal, also known as the common jackal, is a medium-sized wolf-like
canid + They are small compared to their close relatives, wolves, and wild dogs + They are widely
distributed from North and East Africa to southeastern Europe and South Asia, including Burma +
They are quite widespread across India. Right from the Himalayan foothills, down to the Western
Ghats, the Golden Jackal has a wide distribution + IUCN: Least Concern + Wildlife Protection Act,
1972: Schedule II.
79. Hyenas = Hyenas are doglike carnivores found in Asia and Africa and are noted for their scavenging
habits + There are three hyena species — spotted (Crocuta Crocuta), brown (Arahyaena brunnea),
and striped (Hyaena hyaena). Spotted hyenas are the largest of the three + Found in Forest edges,
grasslands, savannas, sub-deserts, and even mountains + These animals live throughout Africa, the
Middle East, and parts of Asia + According to IUCN, Spotted Hyena populations are of least
concern. However, brown and striped hyenas are classified as near threatened.
80. Mexican Giant Turtle = also called the Red Eared Slider + Invasive turtle species + Native Indian
turtles face U.S. slider threat across Northeast + It derives its name from red stripes around part
where its ears would be and from its ability to slide quickly off any surface into the water + Native to
the U.S. and northern Mexico + these turtles can impact human health as they may accumulate
toxins in their tissues which pass on with the food chain upto humans + International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) releases the world’s 100 most invasive species, and the Red-Eared
Slider Turtle is included in this list + IUCN: Least Concern.
81. White-Rumped Vulture = It is a medium-sized Old-World vulture + It is also known as Indian
White-backed Vulture or Oriental White-backed Vulture + Distribution: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam + Found
mostly in plains and less frequently in hilly It can also be seen in villages and cities near to
cultivation + It is a typical, medium-sized vulture, with an unfeathered head and neck, very broad
wings, and short tail feathers + IUCN: Critically Endangered + Wildlife Protection Act 1972:
Schedule-1.
82. Whale Shark = The whale shark is the largest fish in the world and the largest fish known to have
lived on this planet + They feed on plankton and travel large distances to find enough food to sustain
their huge size, and to reproduce + They are one of only three species of filter feeding sharks + They
can be found in all temperate and tropical oceans around the world, except the Mediterranean Sea +
IUCN: Endangered.
83. Sea Lion = It is a marine mammal that belongs to the family Otariidae + These are known for their
semi-aquatic lifestyle, spending a significant amount of time both on land and in the water + They
inhabit rocky shorelines, islands, and sandy beaches + They can be found in various regions,
including the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and parts of the Indian Ocean + Sea lions are
carnivorous and primarily feed on fish, such as herring, anchovies, sardines, and squid + Sea lions
(Revision Notes)
comprise a total of six extant species. Three sea lion species are endangered by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and one is endangered under the United States'
Endangered Species Act (ESA).
84. Sal Tree = It is a large sub-deciduous tree which is seldom completely leafless + It is indigenous to
India and occurs in two main regions separated by Gangetic plain namely the northern and central
Indian regions + It requires well-drained, moist and sandy loam soil + It survives upto a maximum
temperature of 36°C to 44°C and minimum temperature of 11°C to 17°C and it needs an average
rainfall of 1000 mm to 3500 mm per annum + The resin of this tree is used in the indigenous system
of medicine + The state of Odisha has a rich depository of sal seeds accounting for 25 per cent of the
country’s production. Other major Sal seeds producing states include Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh and Jharkhand.
85. Mahua Tree = It is mainly cultivated or harvested in the wild in Southern Asia for its edible flowers
and oil seeds + It is commonly known as madhūka, madkam, mahuwa, Butter Tree, mahua, mahwa,
mohulo, Iluppai , Mee or vippa chettu + It is a frost resistant species that can grow in marginal areas
of dry tropical and subtropical forests up to an altitude of 1200-1800 m + It can be found scattered in
pastures, in crop fields in central India, and on rivers banks in semi-evergreen forests + It grows well
where annual rainfall is between 500 mm to 1500 mm, and where temperatures are in the range of 2-
46°C + It requires loamy or sandy-loam soils with good drainage and also occurs on shallow stony,
clayey and calcareous soils.
86. Sea Lettuce = Sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) is commonly referred to as seaweed + It is a genus of green
algae usually found growing on rocky shores of seas and oceans around the world + Some species of
Sea lettuce also grow in brackish water rich in organic matter or sewage and can accumulate heavy
metals + It usually grows attached by a small discoid holdfast to rocks and shells, but it can also
grow in a free-floating, non-attached form, sometimes in prolific masses + It needs a lot of sunlight
to flourish + It is perennial, and grows all year, although the largest blooms occur during the summer
+ Large masses of sea lettuce are often an indicator of nutrient pollution in the water + In some parts
of the world, people eat sea lettuce in soups and salads + Researchers have recently discovered 20
new species of Sea lettuce along the Baltic and Scandinavian coasts.
87. Mizoram Parachute Gecko = New Species discovered in Mizoram + It is species of gliding geckos
+ The Mizoram parachute gecko, or Gekko mizoramensis, is one of the 14 geckos known to take to
the air + Unlike other gliding reptiles, which use the bone to form their flying surfaces, these geckos
have flaps of skin.
88. Hasarius Mumbai = It is a newly discovered species of jumping spider + These are spiders who,
instead of trapping their prey in a web, stalk and hunt them by pouncing + It has multiple eyes that
give a 360-degree view of its surroundings and a bulbous body covered in hair + The word
‘Hasarius’ refers to a genus that ranks the species — of ‘jumping spiders’ in the ‘salticidae’ family +
In India, there are only two other Hasarius species which have been documented, namely H.
Adansoni, which is found across the country, including in urban areas, and kjellerupi, which was
documented from the Nicobar Islands.
89. Protosterol Biota = These ancient organisms inhabited the underwater world over 1.6 billion years
ago and are the source of the evolution of life on Earth + It is the microscopic organism, belongs to
the family of organisms called eukaryotes. These are discovered inside a rock at the bottom of the
ocean near what is now the Northern Territory in Australia. They have a complex structure
combining mitochondria.
90. Homo Naledi = Homo naledi is a previously-unknown species of extinct hominin + Fossil of Homo
Naledi were first discovered in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system in South Africa
during an expedition led by Lee Berger beginning October 2013 +This excavation remains the
largest collection of a single hominin species that has been found in Africa + Where Lived: South
(Revision Notes)
Africa + When Lived: 335,000 - 236,000 years ago + Homo naledi appears to have lived near the
same time as early ancestors of modern humans.
91. Duck-billed Dinosaur = It is a species of herbivorous dinosaur previously unknown in the southern
hemisphere + These were slender-looking dinosaurs, which could easily adopt a bipedal and
quadrupedal posture to reach the vegetation at height and ground level + This type of duck-billed
dinosaur was common in North America, Asia and Europe during the Cretaceous period + The
Cretaceous Period, in geologic time, is the last of the three periods of the Mesozoic Era. The
Cretaceous began 145.0 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago. It followed the Jurassic
Period and was succeeded by the Paleogene Period.
92. Hoolock Gibbons = Native to eastern Bangladesh, Northeast India and Southwest China + The
tailless Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in India + In the areas of high tree canopies, the
gibbons swing from branch to branch + They cannot adapt to living on the ground and cannot bear
the high temperatures brought about by the loss of green cover + The Hoolock Gibbon is categorized
into two types:
 Western hoolock gibbon - It inhibits in all the states of the north-east, restricted between the
south of the Brahmaputra River and east of the Dibang River + Endangered.
 Eastern hoolock gibbon - It inhabits specific pockets of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in India,
and in southern China and north-east Myanmar outside India + Vulnerable + In India, both the
species are listed on Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972
93. Indian Grey Hornbill = It is a common hornbill found on the Indian subcontinent + It is commonly
sighted in pairs. These birds are known to be arborea i,e., spend most of their time on tall trees, but
may descend for food and to collect mud pellets for nesting + Unlike a lot of other birds, the male
and female look similar + It is one of the few hornbill species found in urban areas in many cities
where they are able to make use of large trees in avenues + Distribution: Indian subcontinent; found
from north-east Pakistan and south Nepal east to north-west Bangladesh and south throughout most
of India except in Assam + IUCN: Least Concern.
94. Pilot Whales = Despite their name, pilot whales are one of the largest members of the dolphin
family. They belong to the dolphin family Delphinidae + Pilot whales are so named because it was
once believed that each observed group was navigated by a pilot or leader + There are two species of
pilot whales: Short finned pilot whales, which are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate
regions, and long-finned pilot whales, which inhabit colder waters + IUCN Status of both: Least
Concern + Seventy-eight long-finned pilot whales, a species of oceanic dolphins, were slaughtered
near the capital of Faroe Islands recently + Please Note: The Faroe Islands are an autonomous
territory of Denmark. It is located in between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean.
95. Blue whale = Blue whales are the largest animals ever to live on our planet + Whales are at the top
of the food chain and have an important role in the overall health of the marine environment + They
are found in all oceans except the Arctic Ocean + The average lifespan is estimated at around 80 to
90 years + IUCN: Endangered + Recently, the carcass of a blue whale washed ashore at
Meghavaram beach of Santabommali mandal in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
96. Sperm Whale = Sperm whales are the largest of the toothed whales and have one of the widest
global distributions of any marine mammal species + It is dark blue-Gray or brownish, with white
patches on the belly + It is thickset and has small paddle like flippers and a series of rounded humps
on its back + It is found in temperate and tropical waters throughout the world + IUCN: Vulnerable
+ CITES: Appendix I + Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: schedule 2.
97. Ambergris = (French for grey amber) + generally referred to as whale vomit + preternaturally
hardened whale dung + produced only by 1% of sperm whales + sperm whale eats several thousand
squid beaks a day + Occasionally, a beak makes it way to whale’s stomach and into its looping
convoluted intestines where it becomes ambergris through a complex process, and may ultimately be
(Revision Notes)
excreted by whale + it is a solid waxy substance that floats around surface of water body and at
times settles on coast + This excretion is so valuable that it is referred to as floating gold, because of
its use in perfume markets (like Dubai), especially to create fragrances like musk + also used in
traditional medicines.
98. White’s Seahorse = It is commonly seen holding onto the nets of swimming enclosures. The species
was named after John White, Surgeon General to the First Fleet. Seahorses are often considered a
flagship species for conservation. Male seahorses can be recognised by the presence of a pouch
below the abdomen which is absent in females. It is usually very well camouflaged in various shades
of brown, grey and black + These are endemic to Australia + IUCN: Endangered.
99. Cicada = Cicadas are hemipteran insects known for their loud, complex and species-specific
acoustic signals or songs + The generic diversity of cicadas in India and Bangladesh ranks the
highest in the world, followed by China + Most cicadas are canopy dwellers and are found in natural
forests with large trees + Scientists divide the over 3,000 cicada species into two groups: annual and
periodical. Annual cicadas emerge from the ground at different times each summer + The insect
species that has now been named as Purana cheeveeda (after its Malayalam name Cheeveedu) used
to be mistaken for Purana tigrina, a species that was first described in Malaysia in 1850.
100. Gucchi Mushroom = It is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae of the Ascomycota + It
is also known as morel + They are pale yellow in colour with large pits and ridges on the surface
of the cap, raised on a large white stem + It cannot be cultivated commercially and grow in conifer
forests across temperature regions, and the foothills in Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Jammu
and Kashmir + These mushrooms usually grow in clusters on logs of decaying wood, leaves or
humus soil + It is known to be one of the most expensive mushrooms.
101. Gambusia Fish = It is also known as mosquito fish, is widely used as a biological agent for
controlling mosquito larvae + It is native to the waters of the south-eastern United States + It has
been a part of mosquito-control strategies for over a century in various parts of the world,
including India + Also, it has been part of various malaria control strategies in India since 1928,
including the Urban Malaria Scheme + The International Union for Conservation of Nature declare
Gambusia one of the 100 worst invasive alien species in the world + Recently, the Andhra Pradesh
government has released approximately 10 million Gambusia fish into the state’s water bodies to
combat mosquito-borne diseases like Malaria and Dengue.
102. Cymbidium Lancifolium = Recently, an extremely rare and terrestrial orchid species Cymbidium
lancifolium was discovered in the Chopta valley of the Western Himalayan region of Uttarakhand
+ This is one of the beautiful species of Cymbidium, also known as Lance leafed Cymbidium +
This species is found naturally in India in Himalayas, Assam, Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, China,
Taiwan, Japan and many of the SE Asian countries + They are highly valued in horticulture and
are commonly sold as cut flowers and potted plants on a commercial scale.
103. Tiger Orchid = It is the largest orchid species in the world + It is called Tiger Orchid because of
its splendid flowers which sport striking brown spots against a yellow backdrop, bringing to mind
tigers + CITES : Appendix II + They grow in Terrestrial (Primary Rainforest, Freshwater Swamp
Forest, Riverine) habitats + Distribution: Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar and Laos.
104. Sea Grasses = Seagrasses are flowering plants that grow submerged in shallow marine waters like
bays and lagoons + They have roots, stems and leaves, and produce flowers and seeds + They are
considered to be ‘Ecosystem Engineers’ + They inhabit all types of substrates (layers) from mud to
rock and they are found extensively in muddy and sandy substrates + Seagrass reproduce through
both sexual and asexual methods + Seagrass reproduce through both sexual and asexual methods +
It occurs all along the coastal areas of India and are abundant in the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar
in Tamil Nadu, however threatened now + They are found on all continents except Antarctica
(Revision Notes)
105. Silver Cockscomb = It is a short-lived 50-60 cm-tall plant considered as a weed + Also known as
lagos spinach which belongs to the Amaranthaceae family, which includes economically important
plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea), beetroot and quinoa + The plant is known as Celosia
argentea, kurdu in Marathi and pannai keerai in Tamil + It grows well even on fallow land and in
drought-like conditions + Soliga tribal community uses silver cockscomb, which is often
considered to be a weed but has been discovered to have advantages + Soliga are an indigenous
tribe of Karnataka. They reside in the peripheral forest areas near Biligiri Rangana Hills and Male
Mahadeshwara in the Chamarajnagar district of Karnataka. They are the first tribal community
living inside the core area of a tiger reserve in India to get their forest rights officially recognised
by a court of law.
106. New Millipede species = Recently, a new species of millipede has been discovered crawling
underneath the city of Los Angeles in the United States + The newly found species is a thread
Millipede + Its scientific name is Illacme socal + Millipede are member of the arthropod class
Diplopoda. They are cylindrical or slightly flattened invertebrates + Their bodies are split into a
number of segments, and each segment has two sets of legs that attach to the body's underside.
107. Pedicularis Revealiana = New Plant Species + Sikkim + Recently, scientists from the Botanical
Survey of India (BSI) Prayagraj Centre have discovered a new plant species Pedicularis
Revealiana, in the state of Sikkim + It is stout and woody stems, bears minute flowers of pinkish-
purple colour + It is a hemiparasitic plant species + perennial herb.
108. Ludwigia Peruviana = Recently, wildlife scientist said that Ludwigia Peruviana , an invasive
weed threatening the elephant habitats and foraging areas in Valparai, Tamil Nadu + It is popularly
called primrose willow, Ludwigia Peruviana, is a native of Central and South America + It is an
aquatic plant, which is now challenging the existence of local vegetation in various swampy areas
around the world + It is among the 22 priority invasive plants in Tamil Nadu.
109. Clouded Leopard = The clouded leopard is categorised into two species: the mainland clouded
leopard distributed from central Nepal to peninsular Malaysia, and the Sunda clouded leopard
(Neofelis diardi) native to Borneo and Sumatra + The mainland clouded leopard is tagged
Vulnerable on IUCN List + The mainland clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is often likened to
the Ice Age sabretooth because it has the largest canines in proportion to its skull size among all
cat species + It is the State animal of Meghalaya + They seemed to go wherever they pleased
without worrying about other predators, primarily because of their ability to climb trees, even hang
upside down from large branches + It most often inhabits primary evergreen tropical forests and
also lives in secondary forests, logged forests, dry tropical forests, grassland, mangrove swamp,
scrubland, and coastal hardwood forest + In India, it is found in Sikkim, northern West Bengal,
Meghalaya subtropical forests, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal
Pradesh.
110. Kashmir Stag = also called Hangul + subspecies of Central Asian red deer + Endemic to Kashmir
and surrounding areas + found in dense riverine forests in the high valleys and mountains of
Jammu and Kashmir and northern Himachal Pradesh + In Kashmir, it is found primarily in the
Dachigam National Park where it receives protection. A small population has also been witnessed
in Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary in south Kashmir + IUCN: Critically Endangered + CITES :
Appendix I
111. White-Tailed Deer = They are the smallest members of the North American deer family + They
are found in North America from southern Canada through Central America + It is tan or brown in
the summer and greyish brown in winter + Only male deer grow antlers, which are shed each year
+ IUCN Status: Least Concern.
112. Sloth Bear = Sloth bears are one of the eight bear species found across the world + Their range
includes India, Sri Lanka and southern Nepal. 90% of the global Sloth Bear population is found in
(Revision Notes)
India + They live in a variety of dry and moist forests and in some tall grasslands, where boulders,
scattered shrubs and trees provide shelter + IUCN: Vulnerable + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:
Schedule I + They have long, shaggy dark brown or black fur and curved claws, which are the
longest out of any of the bear species. They use their claws to excavate termites and ants.
113. Lion-tailed Macaque = Old World monkey + One of the distinguishing features of this species is
that males define the boundaries of their home ranges by calls. Overall, their communication
system contains as many as 17 vocalisations + They are sometimes called bearded monkeys + The
magnificent Lion-tailed macaque is named due to its lion-like, long, thin, and tufted tail + In the
wild, these are only native to India. It is a primate endemic to small and severely fragmented
rainforests of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu + IUCN: Endangered +
CITES: Appendix I + The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
114. Indian Flying Fox Bat = It is a species of flying fox native to the Indian subcontinent. It is one of
the largest bats in the world + The nectar and fruit-eating flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) is
generally considered vermin as they raid orchards + It is a keystone species causing seed dispersals
of many plants in tropical systems + IUCN: Least concern + The Wildlife (Protection) Act of
1972: Schedule II + These bats are endemic to South Central Asia, found from Pakistan and China
to the Maldives Islands.
115. Heronry & Herons = Heronry is the breeding grounds of herons + Herons are long-legged, long-
necked, freshwater and coastal birds some of which are referred to as egrets or bitterns rather than
herons + Herons, by evolutionary adaptation, have long beaks + IUCN: Least Concern + These are
widely distributed over the world but are most common in the tropics + Recently, The annual
heronry count jointly organised by WWF-India in association with the Forest department in
Thiruvananthapuram district has recorded more heronries that in the past.
116. White-Bellied Sea Eagle = It is a large diurnal bird of prey + They are found throughout
Southeast Asia. They range north to south from southern China to Australia and Tasmania, and
west to east from India to New Guinea. Their range includes the islands of Southeast Asia, such as
Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines + They live primarily in terrestrial habitats near the
ocean, especially coasts, islands, and estuaries + IUCN: Least Concern + A diurnal bird is a bird
species that is primarily active during the daytime, as opposed to nocturnal birds, which are active
at night. Diurnal birds are adapted to forage, hunt, and carry out various activities during daylight
hours.
117. Black Eagle = They soar over forests in the hilly regions of tropical and subtropical South and
Southeast Asia, as well as southeastern China + They are found in the Indian states of Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir, forests of the Eastern and Western Ghats in peninsular India +
Habitat: forested mountains and hills + IUCN: Least concern + Recently, a rare black eagle was
spotted for the first time in the lush Chail wildlife sanctuary located in Himachal Pradesh + (Chail
wildlife sanctuary = Himachal Pradesh + It comprises part of the catchment area of a tributary of
the Giri River)
118. Indian Eagle Owl = The Indian eagle-owl (Bubo bengalensis) has recently been recognized as a
distinct species, setting it apart from the Eurasian eagle-owl + The Indian Eagle Owl is one of the
largest owl species found in India + The female Indian eagle-owl is slightly larger, with a length of
up to two and a half feet and a wingspan of six feet + It is nocturnal in nature + It spans almost
entire Indian peninsula + The Indian Eagle Owl is widely distributed across the Indian
subcontinent, including India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka + The Indian Eagle Owl is classified
as a species of "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
119. Himalayan Vulture = Gyps Himalayensis + Categorised as ‘Near Threatened’ on the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) + CITES: Appendix II + The Himalayan
vulture is one of the largest Old World vulture species, boasting an impressive wingspan and
(Revision Notes)
formidable presence + Himalayan vulture is a common winter migrant to the Indian plains, and a
resident of the high Himalayas + Its range extends across several countries, including India, Nepal,
Bhutan, and China, where it thrives in challenging high-altitude environments + India has seen
decline in population of vultures due to use Ketoprofen and aceclofenac, which are two types of
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that are used to treat pain and inflammation in
animals, especially cattle + Recently, Researchers have recorded the first instance of captive
breeding of the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) in India at the Assam State Zoo,
Guwahati. It is the second such instance in the world, after France, where the species has been bred
in captivity.
120. Emperor Penguin = Emperor Penguins are the largest of all the different kinds of penguin and are
endemic to Antarctica + IUCN status- near threatened status + Penguins are a group of aquatic
flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, with only one species,
the Galapagos penguin, found north of the equator + Dozens of countries had backed giving the
world’s largest penguins special protection status at a 10-day meeting in Berlin of parties to the
Antarctic Treaty + The treaty was forged in 1959 to ensure that the continent remains the preserve
of science, and free of arms.
121. Yellow-Legged Hornet = Asian hornet, also known as the yellow-legged hornet or Asian
predatory wasp + hornet species indigenous to Southeast Asia + It is a predatory insect that
commonly feeds on other social bees and wasps, including honey bees + Invasive species + The
first live specimen of a yellow-legged hornet, which “poses a threat to honeybees and other
pollinators,” was recently detected in the wild in the United States.
122. Gilbert's Potoroo = Gilbert's potoroo or ngilkat is Australia's most endangered marsupial, the
rarest marsupial in the world, and one of the world's rarest critically endangered mammals, found
in south-western Western Australia + It is a small nocturnal macropod that lives in small groups.
123. Red Sand Boa = Non-venomous species + Found throughout the dry parts of the Indian
subcontinent + It is ovoviviparous and nocturnal and spends the majority of its time under the
ground + The species is endemic to Iran, Pakistan, and India + IUCN: Near Threatened + Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule IV + CITES: Appendix II.
124. Sahyadriophis Uttaraghati = New genus and species of colubrid snakes + Found within the
biodiverse Western Ghats + A colubrid is any of the numerous, diverse, largely nonvenomous
snakes that comprise the reptile family Colubridae. They are characterised by the absence of hind
limbs. They are found in various regions around the world, except for Antarctica and some remote
oceanic islands.
125. Tachymenoides Harrisonfordi = Recently, researchers have named a recently discovered species
of snake after actor Harrison Ford + It was discovered in the Peruvian Andes mountain region +
(Andes mountain region = South America + The mountain range spans seven countries —
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina + The highest peak of this
range is Mount Aconcagua(6,959 metres) on the border of Argentina and Chile)
126. Ophidascaris Robertsi = parasitic roundworm typically found in carpet pythons + It typically
lives in a python’s oesophagus and stomach and sheds its eggs in the host’s faeces + In humans,
they can cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, appetite and weight loss, fever and tiredness.
This infection is not transmitted between people + Recently, researchers found a live eight-
centimetre Ophidascaris robertsi roundworm in the brain of a 64-year-old Australian woman.
Humans infected with Ophidascaris robertsi larvae would be considered accidental hosts.
127. Tylototriton Zaimeng = a new species of salamander + discovered in the Zaimeng Lake of
Manipur + This had earlier been mistaken for its close relatives — the T. himalayanus and the T.
verrucosus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the new salamander is a sister species of the T.
panwaensis and T. houi found in northern Myanmar and southern China + (Zaimeng Lake = It is
(Revision Notes)
situated on top of Khongtheng mountain ranges + Zaimeng in the Liangmai Naga dialect means
“puzzle” or “mystery” + The greater part of the lake is basically a marshy mass of thick grass like
weeds, mixed with reeds and green mosses)
128. Perucetus Colossus = The newly discovered Perucetus colossus, an ancient species of whale, is
thought to be one of the largest and heaviest animals on record + The animal is modelled from a
partial skeleton, including 13 vertebrae, 4 ribs and 1 hip bone, discovered in Southern Peru and
estimated to be approximately 39 million years old.
129. Tharosaurus Indicus = It is a long-necked, plant-eating dicraeosaurid dinosaur found in
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan by India Scientists + It is named after the ‘Thar desert’ of Rajasthan where it
was found + It is 167 million years old and belongs to a new species, unknown to scientists thus
far + Theories so far had suggested that the oldest dicraeosaurid was from China (about 166-164
million years old) + Also, fossils of dicraeosaurid dinosaurs have been found previously in North
and South Americas, Africa and China.
130. Mithun = Mithun or gayal (Bos frontalis) is considered a descendant of the Indian Gaur or bison +
It plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of tribes such as the Nyishi,
Apatani, Galo and Adi in Arunachal Pradesh + It is distributed in Northeast India, Bangladesh,
northern Myanmar and in Yunnan, China + It is known as the ‘cattle of the mountain’ + The gayal
is the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland + IUCN: Vulnerable + CITES: Appendix I
+ Recently, Mithun gets a ‘food animal’ tag from the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) + Food animals are those that are raised and used for food production or consumption by
humans. The move is expected to help check decline in the population of the high-altitude bovine
animal by making it a part of the conventional milk and meat industry.
131. Yak = Yak (Poephagus grunniens) is the lifeline of highland ethnic communities living in the
Himalayan and trans-Himalayan regions + It is found on the heights of Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, and Ladakh + Yak milk and milk products are the integral components
of the diet of these highland communities thriving in an extremely hypoxic and harsh environment
without vitamin and mineral supplements + In general, yak milk is considered naturally
concentrated milk enriched with a higher nutrient density and loaded with omega-3 fatty acids,
amino acids, and antioxidants + Recently, the Indian Council for Agricultural Research-National
Research Centre on Yak has established a first-of-its-kind parlour for Yalk milk in Nyukmadung
village, Arunachal Pradesh.
132. Nilgiri Tahr = This species is locally known as Varaiaadu + Nilgiri Tahr are the only Caprinae
species found in the tropical mountains of southern India + IUCN – Endangered + WP Act, 1972 -
Schedule I + State animal of Tamil Nadu + They are endemic to the Western Ghats and used to
inhabit a large part of the Western Ghats between Kerala and Tamil Nadu + The Nilgiri Tahr had
multiple references in Tamil Sangam literature. The late Mesolithic (10,000-4,000 BC) paintings
also highlight the Nilgiri Tahr’s cultural significance + It is southern India’s only mountain
ungulate. It prefers montane grasslands, with steep and rocky terrains at an altitude between 300
metres and 2,600 metres above sea level.
133. Sambar Deer = Sambar (Rusa unicolour) is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia + They are quite elusive and are most active at dusk and at night + They are found
in a broad range of forest habitats like dry deciduous forests, rainforests and mixed forests + Their
range is distributed from the foothills of the Himalayan Mountains across southern Asia and
reaching the islands of Taiwan, Sumatra and Borneo + IUCN: Vulnerable + Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972: Schedule-III.
134. Stump-Tailed Macaque = also called the bear macaque, is a species of Old-World monkey found
in South Asia + They are found in tropical and subtropical evergreen forests + They are native to
Cambodia, southwest China, northeast India, Laos, Myanmar, northwest Peninsular Malaysia,
(Revision Notes)
Thailand, and Vietnam + In India, it is found south of the Brahmaputra River, in the northeastern
part of the country. Its range in India extends from Assam and Meghalaya to eastern Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura + IUCN Red List: Vulnerable + Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule II.
135. Indian Skimmer = It is an odd bird which belongs to the family of skimmers, Rynchopidae + It
occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent marshes and, in the
non-breeding season, in estuaries and coasts + These skimmer species were distributed in north
Indian rivers, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam +
Now, much of the population is confined to north Indian River systems and Pakistan. About 20%
of the total population nest along river Chambal + IUCN Red List: Endangered.
136. Greater Sand-Plover = Migrant Bird + It is known for long distance migration + It breeds in
high-elevation areas, where it favors arid, open habitats, sometimes near water. It breeds during
April to May in central Asia, late March to late May in Turkey and upto late June in Armenia + It
winters on coastal mudflats and estuaries. It winters in the shores of Indian and Australian Oceans
after the breeding + IUCN: Least Concern + Recently, a Greater sand-plover (Charadrius
leschenaultii) that normally prefers sea shores, has been spotted in an urban tank in Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu.
137. Broadnose Sevengill Shark = It is a large seven-gilled with a wide head and short, blunt snout
shark + It is related to sharks that lived in the Jurassic Period about 300 million years ago + They
prefer tropical, temperate, shallow waters + It is found in all oceans except the North Atlantic and
the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Pacific Ocean, they are found from southeastern Alaska to
southern Baja California, Mexico and from Colombia to Chile + IUCN: Vulnerable.
138. Indian-Spot Billed Duck = Non-migratory breeding duck throughout freshwater wetlands in the
Indian subcontinent + It is a resident throughout Pakistan and India in freshwater wetlands. They
inhabit both inland and coastal wetlands such as ponds, lakes, pools, streams, creeks, estuaries,
tidal flats and marshes. They tend to avoid very large patches of open water and prefer medium-
sized wetlands with vegetation cover + IUCN Red List: Least Concern + They mostly feed on
grasses and other vegetations. Sometimes they may feed on insects.
139. Red Sand Boa = The red sand boa (Eryx johnii) is a non-venomous snake that lives in the dry
parts of the Indian subcontinent + It’s also known as the Indian sand boa + The red sand boa is a
thick-set snake that’s usually reddish-brown, known for its blunt tail, which it uses to mimic its
head when it senses a threat + Classified as ‘Near Threatened’ by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with a declining population trend + The red sand boa is highly
sought after in the illegal wildlife trade due to its demand in the pet trade and its use in black
magic.
140. Kakapo (owl parrot) = It is a large, nocturnal, flightless, lek-breeding parrot + These are
remarkable and unusual birds found only in Aotearoa, New Zealand + They only breed every few
years, triggered by the availability of certain forest foods such as the fruits of the native rimu tree +
This bird suffers from diseases such as the fungal infection aspergillosis, and many of their eggs
are infertile + IUCN: Critically Endangered.
141. Bolson Tortoises = It is the largest and rarest land reptile, as well as the rarest of the six Gopherus
species native to the North American Continent + Adult males are generally smaller than females
in this species + This species at present, is restricted to a relatively small area of the grasslands of
north-central Mexico + IUCN: Critically Endangered.
142. Tasmanian Tiger = Tasmanian tiger, or thylacine (a dog headed pouched dog) was an exclusively
carnivorous marsupial that is considered to be extinct (also the IUCN status) + It is also known as
the Tasmanian Wolf and bears some resemblance to a dog + It was confined to Tasmania in recent
times and disappeared from mainland Australia over 2000 years ago, mainly because of over-
(Revision Notes)
hunting by humans, diseases and competition from the Dingo (Canis lupus), a wild dog native to
Australia + A recent study represents the first instance where RNA (Ribonucleic Acid), a molecule
less stable than DNA, has been extracted from extinct species such as the Tasmanian Tiger.
143. Chitala Fish = It is an obligate, typically nocturnal, predator feeding on smaller fishes + It is
mostly known from major river channels and freshwater lakes but has also been observed in
swamps + It is found in the Indus, Ganges-Brahmaputra and Mahanadi river basins in India +
IUCN: Near Threatened.
144. European Bumblebee = More than 75% of European bumblebee species may be threatened in the
next 40-60 years according to a paper published in Nature + The bumblebee (Bombus) is a genus
of bees important for the pollination of crops in the cold and temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere + European honeybees (Apis mellifera) commonly referred to as the Western honey
bee, possess two pairs of wings and usually display black or brown coloring with distinctive
yellow stripes on its abdomen. They prefer to nest in a cavity such as a hollow tree or house wall +
They are assessed as "Data Deficient" on the IUCN Red List.
145. Walking Leaves = They are usually green insects and are known for their leaf-like appearance +
Distribution: Islands in the Indian Ocean, across parts of mainland South Asia and Southeast Asia,
to Papua New Guinea and Australia in the western Pacific + Males tend to be smaller than females
+ Recently, An international research team has described seven previously unknown species of
leaf insects(Phylliidae family), also known as walking leaves.
146. Ephemeral Plant = Ephemerals are plant species that wait throughout the year to bloom only
during the monsoon because they love rain + Two types of ephemerals: annual and perennial as
per International Union for Conservation of Nature - Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) +
Annual ephemerals form new individuals every year and are seen for a very short period. They
form seeds at the end of their life cycle, remaining dormant till the next year.
147. Balsams = Balsams (genus Impatiens) are fleshy orophytic herb with small, pink flowers which
bloom in Munnar, Kerala (Local Name: Kasithumba and Onappovu) + Balsams are known as
‘touch me not’ because of the bursting of mature seeds and seed distribution + Of 220 balsam
species in India, 135 are found in southern Western Ghats + Idukki (Balsam paradise) is known for
diversity of balsams + Anamudi (the highest mountain in the Western Ghats) and the surrounding
high ranges (balsams endemic to high ranges) are known for the diversity of wild balsams.
148. Fish Mint = It is an herbal plant full of medicinal properties and grown on the ground with wide
leaves + It has many names, such as Bishop’s Weed, Chinese Lizard Tail, Fish Wort, Fish Leaf,
Rainbow Plant and Chameleon Plant + Despite being called “fish mint”, it’s not a member of the
mint family. It does, however, spread aggressively like mint + Its native range extends from the
Himalayan foothills through Southeast Asia, China, Korea and Japan + It is used to treat digestive
issues, insect bites, fevers, coughs, influenza, kidney ailments and a host of other ailments + The
medicinal properties and benefits of fish mint have been documented in ancient texts of traditional
Chinese and Japanese medicine, as well as Ayurveda and Siddha.
149. Schizostachyum Andamanicum = Recently, the patent office of Government of India has granted
a patent to Botanical Survey of India for bamboo (Schizostachyum andamanicum) based reusable
straw + It is only found in some forested areas of Andamans + It grows primarily in the wet
tropical biome + This species of bamboo is characterized by a thin large hollow erect culm (stem)
with long internodes and has the potential to develop into a straw + It has small, white flowers that
are arranged in clusters + The seeds are small and black, and seedlings have thin, light green leaves
150. Antlion Species = Recently, a research team from Kerala discovered two new antlion species,
namely Nemoleon ghoshi and Nemoleon madayiensis + Antlions are commonly known for their
pit-building habit + Antlions can be easily distinguished by their long, distinct antennae + These
are found throughout the world, primarily in dry, sandy regions.
(Revision Notes)
151. Manis Mysteria = newly discovered Pangolin species + The newly identified pangolin species
emerged from a detailed study of scales seized in China’s Yunnan province in 2015 and 2019 +
This new species is believed to have diverged from its Philippine and Malayan relatives
approximately five million years ago.
152. Chilobrachys Natanicharum = New species of tarantula found in the forests of Thailand + It has
a "blue-violet hue resembling the color of electrical sparks + It is both terrestrial and arboreal -
lives within tree hollows.
153. Armageddon Reedtail = New Damselfly Species + Discovered in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
(Western Ghats) + The name, Armageddon Reedtail, is a direct reference to the concept of
“Ecological Armageddon”, a term used to describe the devastating decline of insect populations
around the world + Its only habitat is primary montane streams, where it thrives beneath dense
canopy cover + Damselfly are insects in the sub-order Zygoptera (meaning “paired-wings”). These
are found mainly near shallow, freshwater habitats and are generally smaller, more delicate, and
fly weakly in comparison with dragonflies.
154. Batillipes Kalami = New species of marine tardigrade + Newly discovered species from
Mandapam in southeast Tamil Nadu + It has been named after the late former President and
scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam + It is the second marine tardigrade to be discovered in Indian waters
and the first one from the east coast.
155. Pterygotrigla Intermedica = Recently, the scientists of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) have
discovered a new species of vibrant orange-colored deep-water marine fish from Digha Mohana in
West Bengal + It is commonly known as gurnards or sea-robins and belongs to the family
Triglidae. It is the fourth species of Pterygotrigla genus reported in India so far, and there are a
total of 178 species of the Triglidae family worldwide.
156. Fujianvenator Prodigiosus = Around 148 to 150 million years old, Bird like dinosaur + Scientists
in Fujian Province of China unearthed the fossil of a Jurassic Period dinosaur they named
Fujianvenator prodigiosus: a creature critical for the evolutionary stage in the origin of birds +
Please Note: The oldest ¬known bird, Archaeopteryx, dates back to roughly 150 million years ago
in Germany.
157. Tharosaurus Indicus = The Oldest fossils of a plant-eating dinosaur have been found in the Thar
desert near the Jaisalmer Basin, Rajasthan by the Geological Survey of India + The scientists
discovered the remains of a Sauropod dinosaur, which is the same clade as the long-necked
herbivores in Jurassic Park – these happened to be the oldest known fossils of this particular kind
of sauropod + The fossils belong to the family Dicraeosauridae and from the superfamily
Diplodocoidea. These are the first Dicraeosaurid sauropods to have been found in India + The
scientists named the dinosaur Tharosaurus indicus, with Tharo deriving from the Thar desert;
saurus from the Greek ‘sauros’, or lizard; and indicus from its Indian origin.
158. Igai Semkhu = It belongs to a diverse group of long-necked plant-eating dinosaurs called
Titanosauria + Igai semkhu roamed the earth during the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous
epoch, approximately 75 million years ago + The group is known for large body sizes, long necks
and wide stance. It includes species ranging from the largest known terrestrial vertebrates to
‘dwarfs’ no bigger than elephants + Igai semkhu constitutes one of the most informative dinosaurs
yet recovered from the latest Cretaceous of Afro-Arabia.
159. Kylinxia Zhangi = Kylinxia is related to the arthropods + Researchers have investigated a nearly
520-millionyear-old fossil of Kylinxia zhangi (found in China) + The fossil is part of the Cambrian
Chengjiang biota, a group of exceptionally preserved animals.
160. Red Fire Ant = Red fire Ant - one of the world’s most invasive species, has been found in Europe
for the first time + Native: South America however, spread in United States, Mexico, the
(Revision Notes)
Caribbean, China, and Australia + Communication: through chemical secretions and stridulation
(sounds produced by rubbing or drumming one body part against another)
161. Caribbean False Mussel = A recent report from the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) said that the spread of an invasive species, the Caribbean false
mussel (Mytilopsis sallei), is wiping out the native clams and oysters in Kerala + It is originally
from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South and Central America + This invasive species has
spread across estuaries from Thiruvananthapuram to Kasaragod + It reproduces rapidly, is very
tolerant, and can even survive in freshwater.
162. Tilapia Fish = The report on the status of invasive alien species pointed out that the spread of
water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) in Lake Victoria has affected the population of tilapia fish +
Tilapia fish is a common name used for certain species of fishes belonging to the family Cichlidae
(order Perciformes), represented by numerous, mostly freshwater species native to Africa + It has
emerged to be one of the most productive and internationally traded food fish in the world.
163. Sea Cucumber = This species is a part of a larger animal group called echinoderms and is
invertebrates that lives on the seafloor + Found in both tropical and temperate oceans +
Distribution: Lakshadweep islands and Andaman Nicobar islands, the Gulf of Mannar at the
confluence of the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu is also home to sea cucumbers +
It has no limbs or eyes, or blood + Status: Schedule 1 of WPA- > Trade is banned + CITES:
Appendix II + MoEFCC imposed a total ban on harvesting and transporting sea cucumbers in 2001
+ Lakshadweep has created the world’s first conservation area for sea cucumbers + Beneficial to
the benthic animals as they release inorganic nitrogen and phosporus, also plays an important role
in preserving coral reefs + Contain high levels of a chemical called fucosylated glycosaminoglycan
in their skin + They exhibit both sexual and asexual reproduction.
164. Paintbrush Swift Butterfly = It is a butterfly species of the Hesperiidae family + Its habitat is
distributed in northeast, central and south India, and rare in Uttarakhand + This species is legally
protected in India under Schedule IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972This species is legally
protected in India under Schedule IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + Recently, the
paintbrush swift butterfly has been photographed and documented for the first time in Himachal
Pradesh’s Chamba district.
165. Grey Whales = They are found mainly in shallow coastal waters in the North Pacific Ocean,
although during migration, they do sometimes cross deep waters far from shore + They are a type
of baleen whale, which means they filter food from the water through special bristly structures in
their mouths + IUCN: Western Grey whale (Critically endangered) and Eastern Grey whale (Least
concern) + As per a new study, population swings in eastern North Pacific grey whales — some of
which have resulted in recent mass mortality events — are driven by changing prey biomass and
ice cover in the Arctic.
166. Leopard Toby Puffer Fish = It is a deepwater reef species that lives in deep water caves and reef
slopes + It is also known as blowfish + It is believed to have a thriving population in its deep-sea
habitat + IUCN: Least Concern + It is usually found in the waters of the Philippines, Indonesia,
Guam, and Micronesia + Recently, a "super rare" creature, the Leopard Toby Puffer Fish, that
roams in the depths of the ocean, has been spotted off the coast of Australia.
167. Crab Plover = Recently, for the first time, breeding nests of crab-plovers spotted at Great
Vedaranyam Swamp near Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu + It is a long-legged, black and white bird
of Indian Ocean coasts + This is the only shorebird that lays white eggs, and chicks remain inside
the burrows until the fledging stage + They are residents of the coasts and islands of the Indian
Ocean. They breed around the Arabian Sea of Pakistan, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf,
Red Sea, Somalia, the Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and Madagascar + These birds
inhabit sandy coastlines, mudflats, estuaries, lagoons, exposed coral reefs, and rocky shorelines +
(Revision Notes)
IUCN: Least Concern + It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of
African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
168. Epithemis Wayanadensis = Recently, a new dragonfly species has been discovered in the verdant
landscapes of Wayanad, Kerala + It is also known as Red-rumped Hawklet + This is the first
instance of an Indian dragonfly being documented with genetic evidence substantiating
morphological distinctions.
169. Eumasia Venefica = new species of bagworm moth + discovered near the Nariyampara falls in
Idukki district, Kerala + The new species has been named due to the peculiar shape of its bag,
which resembles a wizard’s hat. It is the fourth species of this genus to be discovered from India.
170. Alcalus Fontinalis = Researchers recently discovered a new species of frog named Alcalus
fontinalis in the northeast Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh + It was discovered in the Namdapha
Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh + The frog appeared to be a mix of a bush frog and a water frog.
171. Bufoides Bhupathyi = A new species of toad, called Bufoides bhupathyi, has been discovered in
the Dampa tiger reserve of Mizoram, India + his marks the third species in a genus found in the
north-eastern region of India. The previous two species, Bufoides meghalayanus and Bufoides
kempi, were found in Meghalaya.
172. Badis Limaakumi = A new fish species named ‘Badis limaakumi’, was recently discovered in the
Malak River in Nagaland + It is locally known by many names, like “Tepdang” or “Akngashi
(Chungli)” or “Aokngatsü (Mongsen)” or “Sempi” etc + have emarkable ability to change colour.
173. Ghatiana Sanguinolenta = Researchers recently discovered a freshwater crab species, ‘Ghatiana
sanguinolenta’ from the Balekoppa village of Sirsi district in northern Karnataka + It is a newly
discovered species of freshwater crab.
174. Sporanaerobium Hydrogeniformans = Recently, researchers found a new genus of anaerobic
lignocellulose-degrading bacteria in the hot spring of Aravali, located in Ratnagiri district of
Maharashtra + It is part of the Lachnospiraceae family, whose members are known as the most
effective polysaccharide degraders due to their capacity to synthesise free or complicated
hydrolytic enzymes.
175. Mytella Strigata = Invasive mussel species + It is a moderately large and symmetrical shelled
mussel. It is generally observed in the middle intertidal and subtidal waters of estuaries and near
coastal environments. These mussels attach themselves to surfaces using byssus threads +
Recently, NGT seeks report on removal of invasive mussel species from Ennore-Pulicat wetland.
176. Prosopis Juliflora (vilayati kikar) = Vilayati kikar is a Mexican invasive species introduced by the
British in the 1930s in Delhi + It is a shrub or small tree in the family Fabaceae, a kind of
mesquite. It is native to Mexico, South America and the Caribbean. It is one of the most invasive
species in arid and semi-arid areas + In India it is known locally by many names such as Bellary
jaali, seemai karuvelam, seemai jaali, gando baval, vilayati kikar + It has a very wide ecological
adaptability which can grow on soils from sand dune to clay soil, and from saline to alkaline soil
type + It can grow below 200 to above 1500 m above sea level, and with a mean annual rainfall
ranging from 50 to 1500 mm + It is characterized by vigorous growth which helps them to
outcompete indigenous plant species.
177. Lorrainosaurus = Researchers have identified fossils of a 170-million-year-old ancient marine
reptile as the oldest-known mega-predatory pliosaur (a group of ocean-dwelling reptiles) + This
pliosaur genus, named Lorrainosaurus, was found in northeastern France + Pliosaurs were a type
of marine reptile that lived over 200 million years ago (during the early Middle Jurassic period).
They were known for their short necks, large conical teeth and massive skulls.
178. Cheetah: The cheetah is the fastest land animal, which has the fastest running speed record of 93
and 98 km/h (58 and 61 mph) + It is considered to be a big cat and belongs to the Felidae family +
(Revision Notes)
They have a small rounded head, a lightly built body, and a roundly spotted coat + They have long
thin limbs and long tails.
Difference between Africa Cheetah and Asiatic Cheetah
Parameter African Cheetah Asiatic Cheetah
IUCN Status Vulnerable Critically Endangered
CITES Status Appendix I Appendix I
Habitat Around 6,500-7,000 African 40-50 found only in Iran.
cheetahs present in the wild.
Physical Bigger in size as compared to Smaller and paler than the African
Features Asiatic Cheetah. cheetah. Has more fur, smaller head and
longer neck. Usually have red eyes and
they have a more cat-like appearance
179. Black Leopard = or Black Panther (Ghost of the Forest) is a melanistic colour variant of spotted
any Panthera, particularly of the leopard in Asia and Africa, and the jaguar in the Americas +
Found mainly in Southwestern China, Burma, Nepal, Southern India, Indonesia, and the southern
part of Malaysia(I.e mainly in the regions with the highest rainfall and dense foliage) + Most of the
records about the existence of black leopards in India has been from North East India and Western
Ghats + Sightings of rare Black Leopard (Melanistic Leopard) were reported in Navegaon Nagzira
Tiger Reserve (NNTR), Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Pench Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra and
the Nagarhole National Park (kabini) in Karnataka + IUCN Status: Vulnerable
180. Fishing Cat = Nocturnal (active at night) + In India, fishing cats are mainly found in the mangrove
forests of the Sundarbans, on the foothills of the Himalayas along the Ganga and Brahmaputra
river valleys and in the Western Ghats + Despite multiple threats, the Fishing Cat was recently
down listed to “Vulnerable” from “Endangered” in the IUCN Red List species assessment +
Appendix II of CITES + In 2012, the West Bengal government officially declared the Fishing Cat
as the State Animal + Earlier, Wildlife Institute of India (WII-Dehradun) and the Andhra Pradesh
Forest Department are has planned for a maiden exercise of collaring 10 fishing cats in the Coringa
Wildlife Sanctuary(Andhra Pradesh). The project aims to capture the fishing cats and collaring
them with light weight equipment containing the Geographical Information System + Recently,
Chilika Development Authority (CDA) designated the Fishing Cat as ambassador of Chilika Lake,
Odisha in a step towards conservation of the feline species
181. Gangetic Dolphin = Popularly known as ‘Susu’ of rivers + Only live in freshwater and are
essentially blind + They are reliable indicator of the health of the entire river ecosystem + It is also
National Aquatic Animal of India + It can be found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and
Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh + In India, it covers seven states
namely, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal +
It prefer deep waters, in and around the confluence + Major threats to dolphins in India include
overfishing in the habitat, pollution, infrastructure etc. + Gangetic dolphins are one among the 21
species identified under the centrally sponsored scheme, “Development of Wildlife Habitat” +
India’s national aquatic animal (declared in 2009) + IUCN: Endangered + Schedule I of
WPA,1972 & Appendix 1 of CITES + The species is a reliable indicator of the health of the entire
river ecosystem + The Gangetic Dolphin is endemic to the Indian sub-continent and has a fairly
extensive distribution range. It is found in the Ganga -Brahmaputra - Meghna and Karnaphuli-
Sangu river systems of India and Bangladesh, while a few individuals survive in the Karnali, and
the Sapta Kosi Rivers in Nepal + It is blind and finds its way and prey in river waters through
echolocation + Being a mammal, the Ganges River dolphin cannot breathe in water and must
surface every 30-120 seconds + It is one of four freshwater dolphin species in the world. The other
(Revision Notes)
three are: 'Baiji' in Yangtze River in China (Functionally extinct since 2006) + 'Boto' in Amazon
River + 'Bhulan' in Indus River in Pakistan
182. Rescue guide for Ganges River Dolphin = released by Jal shakti Ministry + The document has
been prepared by the Turtle Survival Alliance and the Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Department (EFCCD) of the Uttar Pradesh Government + The manual is endorsed by the IUCN
Cetacean Specialist Group (IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group (CSG) is one of the more than
100 Specialist Groups and Task Forces that constitute the IUCN Species Survival Commission
(SSC)) + Please Note: Cetaceans are aquatic mammals constituting the infraorder Cetacea,
including whales, dolphins, and porpoises
183. National Dolphin Research Centre(NDRC) = India's and Asia's first National Dolphin Research
Centre (NDRC) is coming up in the premises of Patna University, Bihar + centre is being set up on
banks of Ganges, as per recommendation of a steering committee constituted for implementation
of Project Dolphin + As per the committee, Bihar had a natural advantage as it accounted for 50%
of the world’s river dolphin population + It was first time proposed in 2011.
184. Irrawaddy Dolphin (Snubfin dolphin) = Endangered + Besides the Irrawaddy River, it is also
found in India’s Ganges, Chilka Lake and Southeast Asia’s Mekong River + They prefers to live in
estuaries and brackish water near coasts + Irrawaddy dolphins fall under Schedule I of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
185. Crocodiles = India is home to three crocodilian species + Indian Crocodile Conservation Project
was launched in 1975 in different States
186. Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): Vulnerable + reptilian species also called marsh
crocodile or broad-snouted crocodile and is one of the three-crocodile species (Saltwater Crocodile
and Gharial) found in India + It is extinct in Myanmar and Bhutan, and possibly extinct in
Bangladesh + Its habitat includes wetlands (inland), marine neritic (shallow part of ocean),
artificial/aquatic & marine + It is a hole-nesting species, with egg-laying taking place during the
annual dry season + Vadodara is the only city in India where crocodiles live in their natural habitat
amidst human population + Threat: Water pollution, food for human consumption, illegal use and
trade such as for medicinal purpose, apparel/accessories etc + Appendix 1 of CITES + Vulnerable
+ schedule 1 of WPA,1972 + Last year, Gujarat relocated the Mugger crocodile from Sardar
Sarovar dam to facilitate a seaplane service at the Statue of Unity
187. Saltwater Crocodile: Least concern(IUCN) + largest of all living reptiles + found throughout the
east coast of India
188. Gharial: Critically Endangered (IUCN) + fish eating crocodile + native to the Indian subcontinent
+ Population of Gharials are a good indicator of clean river water + Natural Habitat: Fresh waters
of the northern part of India + Primary Habitat: Chambal river + Secondary Habitat: Ghaghra and
Gandak river, Girwa river (Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh), the Ramganga river
in Jim Corbett National Park and the Sone river
189. Northern River Terrapin (Batagurbaska) = Brackish water species + One of the largest turtles
to be found in Southeast Asia + Earlier, they were found in the river mouths of Odisha and the
Sunderbans + Described as the world’s second most endangered turtle (Yangtze giant soft shell
turtle being the most endangered freshwater turtle) + It is regionally extinct in Myanmar,
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. + IUCN: Critically Endangered + CITES: Appendix I +
Wildlife Protection Act : Schedule I
190. Black Squirrel = According to recent report, a rare black squirrel captured from Kerala in 2008, is
a variant of the Indian three-striped palm squirrel + Recently scientists tries to find out the reason
for the color change in this species. Color change was caused by gene mutation. MelanoCortin-1
Receptor(MC1R) gene in animal is responsible for activating change in pigmentation, and making
it black [Just Remember MC1R gene & Read about Indian Palm squirrel]
(Revision Notes)
191. Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centres (VCBC) = Vulture Conservation Breeding
Centre (VCBC) is a joint project of the Haryana Forest Department and the Bombay Natural
History Society (BNHS) + It is a collaborative initiative to save the three species of vultures, the
White-backed, Long-billed and Slender-billed, from looming extinction + At present there are nine
Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centres (VCBC) in India, of which three are directly
administered by Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) + the three species of vultures bred in
the VCBC are the White-backed, Long-billed and the Slender-billed vulture + The major reason
behind the vulture population getting nearly wiped out was the drug Diclofenac, found in the
carcass of cattle the vultures fed on. The drug, whose veterinary use was banned in 2008, was
commonly administered to cattle to treat inflammation + the objective of the VCBCs was not only
to look after the vultures and breed them in captivity, but also to release them into the wild. The
first objective of the VCBC was to produce a few hundred pairs of each of the three species of the
endangered vultures + (To study the cause of deaths of vultures, a Vulture Care Centre (VCC) was
set up at Pinjore, Haryana)
192. Vulture Restaurants = The first vulture restaurant was built in South Africa in 1966 + Vulture
restaurants functions in many countries including India + Phansad Wildlife sanctuary (Maharshtra)is
India’s 1st ever Vulture restaurant(2015) (Don’t Confuse with 1 st Vulture Conservation and
Breeding Centres (VCBC) located in Pinjore, Haryana)
193. Kadaknath = or Kali Masi is breed of chicken originating from Jhabua and Dhar districts of
western Madhya Pradesh + received GI tag in 2017 + popular for its black meat which is famous
for its meat quality + also famous for its low cholesterol and high protein content.
194. Amur Falcon = Least Concern + Small raptor of the falcon family + It is the world’s longest
travelling raptors. It starts journey for about 22,000 kms with the onset of winters + It breeds in
south-eastern Siberia and northern China before migrate a long distance across India and over the
Arabian sea to winter in Southern and East Africa + They get their name from the Amur River that
forms the border between Russia and China + Doyang Lake (Nagaland) is known as a stopover for
the Amur falcons during their annual migration from their breeding grounds to warmer South
Africa. Amur Falcon stays for a month in Nagaland and helps in maintaining the ecosystem by
feeding on a large number of insects, thus controlling the population of insects + Nagaland is also
known as the “Falcon Capital of the World”
195. Bhungloti = Bhungloti is a creeper that in combination with the pith of the roots of a jackfruit tree
yielded a saffron dye. This was mainly used by Buddhist Bhikkus in Assam + Recently, a 'Buddhist
village' in Charaideo district of eastern Assam has adopted ‘Chala Reserve Forest’ to conserve the
traditional sources of colours from Bhungloti
196. Tardigrade = also called water bear or moss piglet refer to any of more than 1,100 species of free-
living tiny invertebrates belonging to the phylum Tardigrada + They are considered to be close
relatives of arthropods (e.g., insects, crustaceans) + Recently, Scientists have identified the first
“quantum entangled” animal in history-frozen tardigrade, in a recent study. Frozen tardigrade are
microscopic multicellular organisms known to tolerate extreme physiochemical conditions througha
latent state of life known as cryptobiosis + Cryptobiosis: Also known as anabiosis, it is a metabolic
state of life entered by an organism in response to adverse environmental conditions such as
desiccation, freezing, and oxygen deficiency. In the cryptobiotic state, all measurable metabolic
processes stop, preventing reproduction, development, and repair. When environmentalconditions
return to being hospitable, the organism will return to its metabolic state of life as it wasprior to the
cryptobiosis
197. Propolis = Generally, propolis is used by honey bees to protect it from rainwater and drafts +
Honeybees use this resin produced from substances they collect from plants and buds, to plug tiny
gaps in hive from gases of the volcano + Recently, About 50 days after Cumbre Vieja volcano in
(Revision Notes)
the Canary Islands erupted, tens of thousands of bees were found alive inside hives that had been
covered in volcanic ash due to Propolis
198. Yellow Gold 48 = Recently, Bayer (German agrochemicals major) has launched the first-ever
yellow watermelon variety Yellow Gold 48 under Seminis brand in India + It has been developed
from superior germplasm as part of Bayer's global research and development efforts + It is best
suited for cultivation from October to February and for harvest from April onwards and will be
available in the market until mid-July + It has been commercially introduced in India following
two years of local trials.
199. Mishri Cherries = The first commercial shipment of Mishri variety of cherries from Kashmir
valley has been exported to Dubai from Srinagar + Mishri varieties of Cherries not only taste
delicious but also contain vitamins, minerals, and plant compounds with health benefits + The
Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir produces more than 95% of India’s production of
commercial varieties of cherries. It produces four varieties of cherry — Double, Makhmali, Mishri,
and Italy.
200. Sloth Bear = First World Sloth Bear Day on October 12, was observed Ministry of Environment,
Forests and Climate Change and the Central Zoo Authority + Features of sloth bear : Identified by
their very distinct long, shaggy dark brown or black fur, and distinct white V or Y shaped chest
patch + Solitary creatures and generally nocturnal in nature + Diet: Omnivore + Life span: Up to
40 years + Habitat Range endemic to the Indian subcontinent with small populations in Nepal and
Sri Lanka + Conservation status + Listed under Schedule I of (Wildlife Protection) Act, 1972 +
Vulnerable on IUCN Red List.
201. Monarch Butterfly = The International Union for the Conservation of Nature added the migrating
monarch butterfly for the first time to its red list of threatened species and categorized it as
"endangered" + This is one of the most recognisable butterflies in the world + In North America,
millions of monarch butterflies undertake the longest migration of any insect species known to
science
202. Snow Leopard = According to a study by the Zoological Survey of India, snow leopard regulates
the populations of its herbivores prey species Siberian ibex and blue sheep + Schedule-I species of
the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + IUCN Red list status: Vulnerable + Habitat:
mountainous landscape of central Asia covering Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and
Sikkim.
203. Light-mantled Albatross (Phoebetria Palpebrate) = Asia’s first sighting of the Light-mantled
Albatross, a seabird native to the Antarctic seas, was recorded near Rameswaram coast (Tamil
Nadu) + This seabird habits over a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean and forages
over the cold Antarctic + IUCN status: Near Threatened.
ISLANDS/VALLEYS/LAKES IN NEWS
1. Barren Island = It is part of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is located in the Andaman Sea,
around 140 kilometres northeast of Port Blair + Barren Island is India’s and South Asia’s only active
volcano + The volcano erupted for the first time in 1787 and latest in 2017 + It is a barren landscape
and uninhabited by humans + It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district.
2. Deepor Beel = It is a permanent freshwater lake, in a former channel of the Brahmaputra River, to
the south of the main river in Assam + It is a wetland under the Ramsar Convention which has been
listed since November 2002 + It is also a bird sanctuary and important bird area inhabiting many
migrant species + In 2021, the Environment Ministry notified it as an Eco-sensitive zone.
3. Ashtamudi Lake = Located in the Kollam district of Kerala + 2nd largest lake in Kerala (after
Vembanad Lake) + Ashtamudi Lake is regarded as the “Gateway to Kerala Backwaters” + The lake
(Revision Notes)
is fed by the River Kallada that originates in Kulathupuzha in the Western Ghats + In 2012, the
brackish water Ashtamudi Lake with eight creeks was declared a Ramsar site by designating it as a
wetland of international importance.
4. Loktak Lake = Largest freshwater lake in Northeast India + It is famous for the phumdis floating
over it + Phumdis are the heterogeneous mass of vegetation, soil and organic matter at various stages
of decomposition + Loktak lake was initially designated as a wetland of international importance
under the Ramsar Convention in 1990. Later it was also listed under the Montreux Record in 1993.
5. Coco Islands = Bay of Bengal + part of the Yangon Region of Myanmar + It is geologically an
extended division of the Arakan Mountains or Rakhine Mountains, submerges as a chain of islands
in the Bay of Bengal for a long stretch and emerges again in the form of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. They are part of the same topography as India’s Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
6. Tampara Lake = It is one of the largest fresh water lakes in the State of Odisha + It is an important
habitat for vulnerable species such as Cyprinus carpio, common pochard (Aythya ferina), and river
tern (Sterna aurantia) + It is already placed in the Wetland Atlas prepared by Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2010 + Recently, the National Green Tribunal, Eastern
Zone, has directed the Odisha government not to go ahead with ‘illegal’ construction in and around
Tampara Lake.
7. South Lhonak Lake = Located in Sikkim’s far northwestern region + South Lhonak lake, situated
about 5,200 meters above sea level, was formed from the gradual melting of a Himalayan glacier +
Recently, the South Lhonak lake suddenly overflowed into the Teesta river, creating flash floods that
destroyed the Chungthang dam ( a key component of Sikkim's largest hydroelectric project) +
Chungthang Dam Chungthang Dam is the largest hydropower project in Sikkim. This dam is part of
the 1,200-megawatt (MW) Teesta Stage III Hydro Electric Project, in which Sikkim government is
the majority stakeholder.
8. Kanwar Lake = It is Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake and Bihar’s only Ramsar site + It is also
known as Kabartal jheel + It is a residual oxbow lake, formed due to the meandering of Gandak
river, a tributary of Ganga + It is covering the majority of the Indo-Gangetic plains in northern
Bihar, The Wetland is an important stopover along the Central Asian Flyway, with 58 migratory
waterbirds using it to rest and refuel.
9. Chilika Lake = Odisha + Chilika is Asia’s largest and world’s second largest lagoon + It is the
largest wintering ground for migratory birds on the Indian sub-continent and is home to a number of
threatened species of plants and animals + In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian
wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention + Major attraction at Chilika is
Irrawaddy dolphins which are often spotted off Satpada Island + The large Nalabana Island (Forest
of Reeds) covering about 16 sq km in the lagoon area was declared a bird sanctuary in 1987 +
Kalijai Temple – Located on an island in the Chilika Lake
10. Pulicat Lake = Andhra Pradesh – Tamil Nadu Border + Recently, Increase in numbers of migratory
birds visiting the Pulicat Lake was noticed + It is the second largest brackish water lake in the
country; next only to Chilika lake + Greater flamingos and pelicans are some of the famous
migratory birds that visit this place + The region in which Pulicat lake is situated receives rainfall
from both South-West as well as North-East monsoon winds + Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary(Andhra
Pradesh) is a famous bird sanctuary located near this lake + The lake is also home for black-headed
ibis, Asian openbill, black-crowned night heron, and little cormorant. Other migratory birds that visit
the sanctuary include northern pintail, common teal, little grebe, northern shoveler, Eurasian coot,
Indian spot-billed duck, grey heron, Oriental darter, black-winged stilt, garganey and gadwall+ The
presence of Barringtonia and Acacia nilotica plant species near the Pulicat lake region provides an
ideal breeding site for spot-billed pelicans + Flamingo Festival is held every year to promote tourism
in Pulicat and Nelapattu
(Revision Notes)
11. Pangong Tso Lake = Pangong Tso, which means ‘high grassland lake’, is a long boomerang-
shaped endorheic (landlocked) lake spanning eastern Ladakh and West Tibet + This landlocked lake
is the world’s highest saltwater lake + More than two-thirds is under Chinese control, while the
remaining one-third of the Lake lies in India + The lake is NOT a Ramsar site yet. It is in the process
of being identified under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance + The
Karakoram Mountain range, which crosses Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China and India, with
heights of over 6,000 meters including K2, the world’s second highest peak, ends at the north bank
of Pangong Tso. Its southern bank too has high broken mountains sloping towards Spanggur Lake in
the south + Recently, China is constructing a bridge in Ladakh connecting the north and south banks
of Pangong Tso (lake). Khurnak Fort, close to where China is building the new bridge, is near the
halfway mark of the lake. It is also under the Chinese control.
12. Sambhar Salt Lake = world famous Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan, which is constantly shrinking
with the degradation of soil and water quality and a decline in the population of migratory birds +
The lake, situated 80 km south-west of Jaipur, is the country’s largest inland saline water body
which attracts thousands of migratory birds every year + The death of more than 20,000 birds
belonging to about 10 species which migrate annually to the lake had made international headlines in
2019.The birds foraging in the Sambhar marshlands had died due to avian botulism(illness, caused
by a bacterium called Clostridium botulinum + It affects the nervous system of birds)
13. Madh Island = Located in the western suburbs of Mumbai, Maharashtra + The area is bounded by
the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Malad creek on the east + It is primarily inhabited by Kolis,
Marathis, and Roman Catholics + There are few beaches like Erangal Beach, Dana Pani Beach,
Silver Beach, Aksa Beach.
PROJECTS IN NEWS
1. Sardar Sarovar Narmada Dam = terminal dam and gravity dam built on Narmada River in Gujarat
+ took form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase irrigation and produce
hydroelectricity + second biggest dam in terms of volume of concrete used in it + third highest
concrete dam in India
2. Ken-betwa link project = It is the first project under National Perspective Plan for interlinking of
rivers + The project involves transferring of water from Ken river in Madhya Pradesh to Betwa river
in Uttar Pradesh, both tributaries of the Yamuna + The third meeting of the steering committee of
Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) was recently held + A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) called Ken-
Betwa Link Project Authority (KBLPA) will be set up to implement the project.
3. Sunni Dam Hydro-Electric Project = It is a run of the river type development proposes to harness
the hydel potential of river Satluj + It will be governed by Indus water Treaty signed between India
and Pakistan in 1960 as the project lies in Satluj basin + The objective behind generating
hydroelectric power resources is to produce as much energy as possible, with minimum cost and
fewer negative impacts on the environment.
4. Chanakha-Korata Barrage = It is a Telangana-Maharashtra joint project on the Penganga River
[Penganga River originates in the Ajantha ranges in Aurangabad district in Maharashtra. The famous
Sahastrakund falls on this river].
5. Krishnaraja Sagar (KRS) Dam = It is located below the confluence of river Kaveri with its
tributaries, Hemavati and Lakshmana Tirtha, in the district of Mandya in Karnataka + type of gravity
dam + The dam was constructed during the rule of the Maharaja of Mysore, Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV,
and it was named in his honour. The construction of the KRS Dam began in 1911 and it was
completed in 1931 + The dam was designed by Sir M. Visvesvaraya, a famous Indian engineer.
6. Dagmara Hydro Electric Project = largest hydropower project of Bihar on Kosi river + Run-of-
the- River hydro project + located near village Dagmara on the right bank and Simri on the left bank.
(Revision Notes)
7. Jangi Thopan Powari hydroelectricity Project = Himachal Pradesh + on Sutlej river + run-of- the-
river (ROR) project
8. Mekedatu Dam Project = Mekedatu is a deep gorge situated at the confluence of the rivers Cauvery
and Arkavathi river, about 100 km from Bengaluru, Karnataka + Mekedatu, meaning goat’s leap, is
a deep gorge situated at the confluence of the rivers Cauvery and its tributary Arkavathi + In 2013,
then Karnataka announced the construction of a multi-purpose balancing reservoir project for
drinking water needs and electricity generation + The project aims to store and supply water for
drinking purposes for the Bengaluru city and generate power + Tamil Nadu objected against the
project saying that the project would affect the flow of Cauvery water to TamilNadu and also said that
the project was in violation of the final award of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal.
9. Krishnaraja Sagar Dam = built across river Cauvery in 1924 + Karnataka + The dam is named for
the then ruler of the Mysore Kingdom, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV + The Chief Engineer, Sir M.
Vishveswaraya engineered the construction of the dam during the Wadeyarkings regime in 1932
10. Kaman Aman Setu = located at Uri in North Kashmir + Friendship Bridge between India and
Pakistan, is also the last point of the India-Pak border in the Uri district + India and Pakistan Armies
recently held a Flag meeting and exchanged sweets here.
11. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project = Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) + This
nuclear power plant is the largest nuclear power of India + Tamil Nadu + Construction started in
2002 + KKNPP is scheduled to have six VVER-1000 reactors. All these reactors have been built or
is being built in collaboration with Russian state company and Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Limited (NPCIL). Reactors have the installed capacity of 6,000 MW of electricity + Unit one and
two of kudankulam plant are already operational. Units three & four were inaugurated in 2016 +
India and Russia started talk for constructing two units of nuclear plant at same site under the
General Framework Agreement (GFA). GFA was signed in June 2017 for units five and six +
Recently, Russia started construction of fifth nuclear power unit at Kudankulam. It is going to be
India’s first light water reactor.
12. Mullaperiyar Dam Issue = Earlier, The Supreme Court has decided to consider the plea demanding
to reduce the water level in the Mullaperiyar dam during monsoon as there is a dangerof earthquakes
and floods in the area as monsoon progresses in the State. Supreme Court has directed the
Supervisory Committee to take an immediate and firm decision on the maximum waterlevel that can
be maintained at Mullaperiyar dam, amid torrential rain in Kerala + The dam is located on the
confluence of the Mullayar and Periyar rivers in Kerala + Although the dam is located in Kerala, it is
operated by Tamil Nadu following an 1886 lease indenture for 999 years (the Periyar Lake Lease
Agreement) that was signed between the Maharaja of Travancore and theSecretary of State for India
for the Periyar Irrigation works.
13. Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project (RLP) = It is approved by Cabinet + It is the first project
under the National Perspective Plan for interlinking of rivers + Ken-Betwa RLP transfers water from
Ken to Betwa River through the construction of Daudhan Dam + Both these rivers are tributaries of
river Yamuna + It will carry water from water surplus areas to drought prone and water deficit areas
in Bundhelkhand Region + Implementing Agency: Ken-Betwa Link Project Authority (KBLPA), a
Special Purpose Vehicle + However, there are concerns like the project will partly submerge the
Panna Tiger Reserve in MP and affect the habitat of vultures and jackals
14. Srisailam Reservoir = Constructed across the Krishna River + Andhra Pradesh
15. Indira Gandhi Canal = Longest canal of India + It starts from the Harike Barrage at Harike, a few
kilometers below the confluence of the Satluj and Beas rivers in the Indian state of Punjab + It
terminates in irrigation facilities in the Thar Desert in the north west of Rajasthan + Serve Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan
16. Hybrid Power Plant: Adani Green has commissioned the world's largest 600 MW Solar and 150
(Revision Notes)
MW wind power project in Jaisalmer + Hybrid Power Plants are those power plants which generate
electricity from two or more sources, usually renewable, with one connection point. E.g. Solar +
Wind, Solar + Hydraulic, Solar + Biomass etc.
17. Dark Sky Reserve = Department of Science & Technology has announced setting up of India’s first
dark sky reserve at Hanle in Ladakh as a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary + It will be one of
the world’s highest-located sites for optical, infra-red, and gamma-ray telescopes + It will promote
astronomy-tourism, giving a boost to local tourism and economy through science + Dark Sky
Reserve is a place that has policies to ensure that a tract of land or region has minimal artificial light
interference + International Dark Sky Association, a U.S.-based non-profit, designates places as
International Dark Sky Places, parks, sanctuaries and reserves, depending on criteria they meet.
TRIBES IN NEWS
1. Baiga Tribe = The Baiga (means sorcerers) is one of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
(PVTGs) + They mainly live in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh + Traditionally, the Baiga lived a semi-nomadic life and practiced slash
and burn cultivation. Now, they are mainly dependent on minor forest produce for their livelihood +
Tattooing is an integral part of Baiga culture, every age and body part has a specific tattoo reserved
for the occasion + Baiga tribe is the first community to get habitat rights in India.
2. Tharu Tribe = Tharu is a scheduled tribe in the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
+Tharus live in both India and Nepal (Terai region). In the Indian terai, they live mostly in
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar + Most of them are forest dwellers, and some practice
agriculture + Tharus worship Lord Shiva + Tharu women have stronger property rights than is
allowed to women in mainstream North Indian Hindu custom.
3. Konda Reddy Tribe = Konda Reddis are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) and one of
the most backward tribes mostly living in the Godavari gorges of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana +
Their mother tongue is Telugu with a unique accent + The Konda Reddis are known for their eco-
friendly practices such as use of household articles made of bamboo, bottle gourd, and seed.
4. Hakki-Pikki Tribes = literally bird hunters + Scheduled Tribes in Karnataka + semi-nomadic tribe
who have travelled and lived in various parts of the country + speak Indo Aryan language called
‘Vaagri’. UNESCO has listed 'Vaagri' as one of the endangered languages + follow a curious naming
practice, where the parents named their new born child after the 1st word that came to their mind +
They are known for knowledge of traditional and herbal medicine that is in high demand in African
countries + Hakki-Pikkis are said to be a matriarchal group.
5. Irula Tribe = Irula (people of darkness) inhabit mostly in the northern TN districts and some parts
of Kerala and Karnataka + Irulas are one of India’s oldest indigenous communities and they are a
particularly vulnerable tribal group + They speak the Irula language that is closely related to
Dravidian languages like Tamil and Kannada + knowledge of snakes and snake venom is legendary.
They can even locate snakes based on their tracks, smell, and droppings + The Irula Snake Catchers'
Industrial Cooperative Society is a major producer of anti-snake venom (ASV) in the country.
6. Bru Tribe = The Brus, also referred to as the Reangs, are spread across the northeastern states of
Tripura, Assam, Manipur, and Mizoram + In Tripura, they are recognised as a Particularly
Vulnerable Tribal Group + They belong to the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock. Their languages have an
affinity with Austro-Asiatic groups under the Tibeto-Burman family + Ethnically they are divided
into 2 major clans namely Meska and Molsoi + Their language is known as “Kaubru” which has a
tonal effect on the Kuki language though broadly it is the Kok-Borok dialect. It is of Tibeto-Burmese
origin + The Hojagiri folk dance of the Riang sub tribe is well known all over the world + ‘Buisu’,
(Revision Notes)
not ‘bihu’, is the most popular festival of the reang tribes + This tribal community traditionally are
endogamous and do not marry outside their community.
7. Kattunayakan Tribe = Found in parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Nilgiris and surrounding region)
+ They are one of the 75 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) of India + Language:
mixture of all Dravidian languages + Religion practices: strongly rooted in their culture and worship
animals, birds, trees, rocks and snakes and almost everything natural + Oscar award to documentary
Elephant Whisperers is a tribute to conservation legacy of the Kattunayakan tribe. [Watch our
YouTube Video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6Zm86vSaHA].
8. Gutti Koya Tribe = Koya population is concentrated in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
and Odisha + They speak the Koya, which is a Dravidian language + The most important fair
celebrated by Koyas is the Sammakka Saralamma Jatraonce in two years on full moon day of the
Magha Masam (January or February) + They practice Podu form of shifting cultivation.
9. Zo People = Zo people include all tribes of the Chin-Kuki-Mizo ethnic group spread across
Myanmar, India, and Bangladesh + Many sub-tribes and clans include the Chin, Kuki, Mizo, Lushei,
Zomi, Paitei, Hmar, Ralte, Pawi, Lai, Mara, Gangte, Thadou, etc + Tribes are believed to have
migrated from China through Tibet to settle in Myanmar + They speak a group of Tibeto-Burman
languages.
10. Rengma Naga Tribe = Rengma is a Naga tribe found in Nagaland, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh+
first official recording of the Rengma Nagas staying in Assam’s Karbi Hills (then known as Mikir
Hills) was made in 1855 + The harvest festival of the Rengmas is called Ngada
11. Sumi Nagas = Sümi tribe are the major ethnic group among Nagas, who are Indo-Mongoloid tribal
groups, in Nagaland, India + Sümi Nagas practiced Aki Kiti (a semi-contact combat sport), and
headhunting like other Nagas before their conversion to Christianity + Sumis have two different clan
heads, Swu (Sumi) and Tuku (Tukumi) + They celebrate Tuluni Festival + Ahuna is a traditional
post-harvest festival of the Sumis + Sümi is one of the recognised scheduled tribes of India.
12. Konyak Tribes = Konyaks are the largest of Naga tribes. They are traditional hunters and warriorsof
Nagaland + They inhabit the area extending from Nagaland into Arunachal Pradesh, Myanmar as
well + Konyaks were animists, worshipping elements of nature, until Christian missionaries arrived
in the late 19th Century.The society is mostly Christian now + Aoleng Manyu Festival is the biggest
festival of the Konyaks + 'Lao Ong Mo' Festival is the traditional harvest festival
13. Apatani Tribes = Arunachal Pradesh + Apatani, or Tanw, also known by Apa and ApaTani, are
known for their fish and paddy culture, along with cane and bamboo crafts + Their vibrant
traditional village councils are called bulyañ + They speak a local language Tani and worship the sun
and the moon + Festivals areMarun, Myako, Dree, and Yapung + The elders in the tribe propagate
knowledge through folk stories, songs, couplets in the form of Miji-Migun, Busi-Ayu + They were
the first tribe in India to come in contact with the British in the 12th century + The UNESCO has
proposed the Apatani valley for inclusion as a World Heritage Site for its “extremely high
productivity” and “unique” way of preserving the ecology.
14. Tai Khamti = One of the major tribe of Arunachal Pradesh + The word ‘Khampti’ means ‘a landfull
of gold’ + They follow Theravada Buddhism and have their own script which the people call it Tai
script (Lik-Tai) + Khampti dance is also known as kapung (ka implies dance and pung meansstory)
15. Chakma and Hajong Communities = Chakmas and Hajongs were originally residents of
Chittagong Hill Tracts in the erstwhile East Pakistan. They left their homeland when it was
submerged by the Kaptai dam project in the 1960s + The Chakmas, who are Buddhists, and the
Hajongs, who are Hindus, also allegedly faced religious persecution and entered India through the
then Lushai Hills district of Assam (now Mizoram). The Centre moved the majority of them to the
North East Frontier Agency (NEFA), which is now Arunachal Pradesh + At present, they don’t have
citizenship and land rights but are provided basic amenities by the state government.
(Revision Notes)
16. Dongria Kondhs = a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) + tribe located in the Niyamgiri
hill range in the state of Odisha + They converse among themselves in the Kui Language that does
not have a written script but is spoken among the Kondh tribe.
17. Meitei Community = also known as the Manipuri people, are the predominant ethnic group of
Manipur State + They speak the Meitei language (officially called Manipuri), one of the 22 official
languages of India and the sole official language of Manipur State + Meiteis primarily settled in the
Imphal Valley region , though a sizable population has settled in the other Indian states of Assam,
Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram + There is also a notable presence of Meitei in the
neighbouring countries of Myanmar and Bangladesh + They are divided into clans, the members of
which do not intermarry + Rice cultivation on irrigated fields is the basis of their economy + A
majority follow Hinduism, while more than 8% are Muslims
18. Kukis = They are an ethnic group comprising multiple tribes who originally inhabited the North-
Eastern states of India, parts of Myanmar, and Bangladesh + Kuki is not a term coined by the ethnic
group itself but is used generically for tribes associated with it under colonial rule + They are present
in all Northeast Indian states except Arunachal Pradesh + Around fifty tribes of Kuki peoples in
India are recognised as scheduled tribes + The Chin people of Myanmar and the Mizo people of
Mizoram are kindred tribes of the Kukis and are collectively known as the Zo people + The first
resistance to British hegemony by the Kuki people was the Kuki Rebellion of 1917-19, after which
their territory was subjugated by the British and divided between the administrations of British India
and British Burma. Up until their defeat in 1919, the Kukis had been an independent people ruled by
their chieftains.
19. Khasi People = indigenous ethnic group of Meghalaya + have significant population in the
bordering state of Assam, and in certain parts of Bangladesh + They inhabit the eastern part of
Meghalaya, in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Khasis residing in Jaintia hills are now better known as
Jaintias. They are also called Pnars + The Khasis occupying the northern lowlands and foothills are
generally called Bhois. Those who live in the southern tracts are termed Wars + The Khasi people
form the majority of the population of the eastern part of Meghalaya, and is the state’s largest
community, with around 48% of the population of Meghalaya + They are divided into several clans.
They have a matrilineal society + The traditional Khasi male dress is “Jymphong” or a longish
sleeveless coat without collar.
ANIMAL CONSERVATION
1. Operation Olivia = conducted by Indian Coast Guards (ICG) + to protect turtles as they arrive to
nest in Odisha + initiated in the early 1980s + It involves round-the-clock surveillance from
November till May using fast patrol vessels, air cushion vessels, interceptor craft etc. + Please Note:
All five species of sea turtles found in India are included in Schedule I of Indian Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972, and in Appendix I of CITES
2. Conservation Assured Tiger Standard (CATS) = Recently, MoEFCC announced Conservation
Assured Tiger Standards (CATS) accreditation for 14 out of India’s 51 53 tiger reserves (53rd tiger
reserve : Guru Ghasidas National Park (Chattisgarh) + 52nd : Ramgarh Vishdhari Wildlife Sanctuary
(Rajasthan) + The theme for this year International Tiger Day is- "Their Survival is in our hands”.
This day is celebrated on 29th July on anniversary of agreement of Saint Petersburg Tiger Summit in
Russia in 2010 + CATSare globally accepted conservation tool that sets best practices and standards
to manage tigers + Itwas launched in 2013, implemented across 125 sites, including 94 in India +
Global Tiger Forumand WWF India are implementing partners of the National Tiger Conservation
Authority (NTCA) for CATS assessment in India + The 14 reserves are Manas, Kaziranga, and
Orang (Assam); Sundarbans (West Bengal); Valmiki(Bihar); Dudhwa (Uttar Pradesh); Panna,
(Revision Notes)
Kanha, Satpuda and Pench (Madhya Pradesh); Anamalai and Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu);
Parambikulam (Kerala) and Bandipur (Karnataka)
3. 4th Asia Ministerial Conference (AMC) on Tiger Conservation = recently organised by the
Government of Malaysia and Global Tiger Forum (GTF) + The conference is an important event for
reviewing progress towards the Global Tiger Recovery Programme and commitments to tiger
conservation + Kuala Lumpur Joint Statement was adopted + AMC is a meeting of 13 tiger range
countries to discuss the plight and plans for conservation of the wild tiger population + TRCs consist
of Malaysia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal,
Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam + According to the St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation
(2010), TRC agreed to Global Tiger Recovery Programme (GTRP) which envisages doubling the
wild tiger population by 2022
4. Dragonfly Census = Conducted by World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF-India) in partnership with
Bombay Natural History Society(BNHS), United Nations Environment Programme, Zoological
Survey of India and others + The first Dragonfly census was carried out in 2018 which revealed a
total of 51 different species of these insects in New Delhi and NCR.
5. Asian Waterbird Census (AWC) = Asian Waterbird Census (AWC) 2023 is being conducted in
India + AWC, an annual event, is a citizen science programme supporting conservation and
management of wetlands and waterbirds + AWC is part of global International Waterbird Census
(IWC) coordinated by Wetland International (WI). It was initiated in 1987 in Indian subcontinent +
In India, AWC is jointly coordinated by Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and WI (global
not-forprofit organisation) + Please Note: BNHS, formed in 1883, is a non-governmental
organization engaged in conservation of biodiversity research. BNHS has been designated as a
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (SIRO) by Department of Science & Technology.
6. Global Declaration for River Dolphins = Recently, 11 Asian and South American countries signed
a landmark deal in Bogota, Colombia to save the world’s six surviving species of river dolphins
from extinction + It aims to halt the decline of all river dolphin species + It outlines measures such
as eradicating gillnets, reducing pollution, expanding research initiatives, and creating protected
areas to safeguard the remaining river dolphin species + Countries that adopted the declaration
include: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Peru,
and Venezuela.
ENVIRONMENT AND THE WORLD

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) = International body for assessing the
science related to climate change + It was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide policymakers with regular
assessments of the scientific basis of climate change + IPCC assessments provide a scientific basis
for governments at all levels to develop climate related policies, and they underlienegotiations at the
UN Climate Conference – the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) + Every few years (about 7 years), the IPCC produces assessment reports that are the
most comprehensive scientific evaluations of the state of earth’s climate + So far, five assessment
reports have been produced, the first one being released in 1990. The fifth assessment report had
come out in 2014 in the run up to the climate change conference in Paris + IPCC don’t conduct any
research of its own.
2. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) =
Often described as the “IPCC for biodiversity” IPBES + an independent intergovernmental body
comprising 129 member Governments + It provides policymakers with objective scientific
assessments about the state of knowledge regarding the planet’s biodiversity, ecosystems +
(Revision Notes)
Established in 2012 by UN, but functions independently, HQ in Bonn, Germany

3. Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) Initiative = by UNEP + Launched in 2002 atthe
World Summit on Sustainable Development + global public-private initiative to reduce vehicular air
pollution through promotion of cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing countries + PCFV worked
towards global elimination of leaded petrol (graduated decline of Sulphur as well) by providing
support in different areas. (In India, it was phased out in 2000).
4. Turtle Survival Alliance(TSA) = TSA was formed in 2001 as an International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) partnership for sustainable captive management of freshwater turtles
and tortoises + The TSA arose in response to the rampant and unsustainable harvest of Asian turtle
populations to supply Chinese markets, a situation known as the Asian Turtle Crisis + Mission:
‘Zero Turtle Extinctions in the 21st Century
5. Indian Ocean Sea Turtle Agreement (IOSEA) = non-binding intergovernmental agreement + aims
to protect, conserve, and recover sea turtles and their habitats in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia
+ The agreement falls under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals + India is signatory to IOSEA of the convention in Migratory Species (CMS), a United
Nation backed initiative + It puts in place a framework through which states of Indian Ocean and
South -East Asian region, as well as connected states, can work together to conserve and replenish
depleted marine turtle populations for which they share responsibility.
6. Bonn Challenge = Launched by the Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011 + Bonn Challengeis a
global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into
restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030 + The Challenge surpassed the 150-million-
hectare milestone for pledges in 2017 + At the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP) 2015 in
Paris, India also joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge pledge to bring into restoration 13 million
hectares of degraded and deforested land by the year 2020, an additional 8 million hectares by 2030 +
India has pledged to restore 21 million ha of degraded and deforested land by 2030.
7. Dublin Statement = on Water and Sustainable Development, 1992 + In 1992 the International
Conference on Water and the Environment was held in Dublin, Ireland + The output from this
conference was a declaration regarding water that was presented to the United Nations Conferenceon
Environment and Development (UNCED) that was held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 also known
as the “Earth Summit” + Dublin statement considers water as an economic good + (PleaseNote: In
December 2020, for the first time in history, a tradable water price futures index was launched on the
Chicago Stock Exchange on the Nasdaq Veles California Water Index (NQH2O).Nasdaq developed
the NQH2O Index in partnership with Veles Water Limited) + (Indian Constitution: While no
particular provision in the Indian Constitution categorically recognises water as a positive human
right, the judiciary has interpreted right to water as a fundamental right)
8. Kunming Declaration = The “Kunming Declaration” was adopted by over 100 countries in the
ongoing virtual 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) + Kunming declaration calls upon the parties to
“mainstream” biodiversity protection in decision-making and recognise the importance of
conservation in protecting human health. The declaration made a reference to the ’30 by 30′ target
which is a key proposal being debated at the COP15, that would afford 30% of the Earth’s land and
oceans protected status by 2030 + Theme of the COP-15: “Ecological Civilization: Building aShared
Future for All Life on Earth” + Main objective of CoP 15 is to develop and adopt a post2020“Global
Biodiversity Framework” with a to replace and update the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (SPB)
2011-2020 and Aichi Biodiversity Targets
9. Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) 1972 = legally binding treaty that outlaws
biological arms + The BWC is the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of
weapons of mass destruction + BWC opened for signature in 1972, and entered into force in 1975 +
(Revision Notes)
It currently has 183 states-parties, including Palestine, and four signatories. Ten states have neither
signed nor ratified the BWC + India ratified this treaty in 2015 + The State parties review the
operations of this treaty at the Review Conferences. So far 8 review conferences have been held.he
next review conference i.e. 9th review conference will be held in Geneva in 2021 + It has no
implementing body + The BTWC does not have a verification clause, nor does it have clearly laid
down rules and procedures to guide research in this field + It bans “microbial or other biological
agents, or toxins, whatever their origin or method of production” that “have no justification for
prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes”. In other words, while bio- weapons are banned,
research for medical and bio-defence purposes are allowed + There is traditional distinction at the
international institutional level between biological weapons (a field governed by the BTWC) and
diseases (a domain under the World Health Organization) + Please Note: India has multiple
institutions dealing with biosafety and biosecurity threats.
10. UN Food Systems Summit = UN Food Systems Summit is taking place in New York. It will seekto
set the stage for global food systems transformation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals
by 2030 + Originally announced in 2019 by UN Secretary-General António Guterres, the UN Food
Systems Summit was conceived following conversations with the joint leadership of thethree Rome-
based United Nations agencies – the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Fund for
Agricultural Development and the World Food Programme – at the High- level Political Forum in
2019 + The term “food system” refers to the constellation of activities involved in producing,
processing, transporting and consuming food
11. World Food Programme(WFP) = It was established in 1961 by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and became a fullfledgedUN
programme in 1965 + Headquarter: Rome, Italy + World Food Programme (WFP) is the food-
assistance branch of the United Nations + It is the world's largest humanitarian organization, the
largest one focused on hunger and food security + In addition to emergency food relief, WFP offers
technical assistance and development aid, such as building capacity for emergency preparedness and
response, managing supply chains and logistics, promoting social safety programs, and
strengthening resilience against climate change + The agency is also a major provider of direct cash
assistance and medical supplies, and provides passenger services for humanitarian workers
12. Net zero or Carbon neutrality = It is achieved when more carbon is sucked out from the
atmosphere or prevented from being emitted than what a country emits + It is critical to ensuring that
the planet does not heat up an additional half a degree by 2100 + A little over 120 countries have
committed, with varying degrees of firmness, to reaching carbon neutrality by 2050. Five countries
have net zero pledges set for after 2050, including Australia and Singapore, which havenot set a firm
target yet + China, the world’s biggest emitter, has committed to peaking its emissions before 2030
and achieving net zero by 2060 + The United States has said it would achieve net zero by 2050 and
nearly halve emissions by 2030 + Net zero is similar concept to Carbon Neutrality but they are not
same, Net Zero goes beyond just Carbon and is typically on a larger scale. Net Zero refers to when
all greenhouse gases being emitted into the atmosphere are equivalent to the greenhouse gases being
removed from the atmosphere on a global scale, where as Carbon Neutral means the amount of
Carbon being emitted is equal to the amount of carbon being absorbed from the atmosphere, due to
carbon sinks such as forests which absorb and store more carbon from atmosphere than they emit.
13. Global Methane Initiative (GMI) = India recently co-chaired GMI Steering Leadership Meeting +
International public-private partnership focused on reducing barriers to the recovery and use of
methane as a clean energy source + India joined GMI in 2004 + Hq: Washington DC + It was
created in 2004 and has membership from 45 countries
14. Global Methane Pledge : Recently at UNFCCC COP26 (Glasgow), the Global Methane Pledge was
launched that aims to cut down methane emissions by upto 30% from 2020 levels by 2030
(Revision Notes)
15. Methane Alert and Response System (UNFCCC COP 27) : A new satellite-based system to detect
methane emissions and tackle them to slow climate change + The data-to-action platform was set up
as part of the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) International Methane Emissions Observatory
(IMEO) strategy to get policy-relevant data into the right hands for emissions mitigation + The
system will be the first publicly available global system to connect methane detection to notification
processes transparently.
16. A-76 = A huge ice block has broken off from western Antarctica into the Weddell Sea, becomingthe
largest iceberg in the world and earning the name A-76 + It is the latest in a series of large iceblocks
to dislodge in a region acutely vulnerable to climate change, although scientists said in this case it
appeared to be part of a natural polar cycle + Slightly larger than the Spanish island of Majorca, A-
76 had been monitored by scientists since it began to separate from the Ronne Ice Shelf + It joins
previous world’s largest title holder A-23A.
17. Sea Snot Outbreak = slimy layer of grey or green sludge that floats up on surface of seas, whichcan
cause damage to marine ecosystem + It is marine mucilage formed when algae are overloadedwith
nutrients due to water pollution combined with effects of climate change + Over a period of time, it
could end up poisoning all aquatic life, including fishes, crabs, oysters, mussels, corals, sponges and
sea stars + Turkey’s Sea of Marmara, that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea, has witnessed
the largest outbreak of ‘sea snot’ + A ‘sea snot’ outbreak was first recorded in the Turkey in 2007.
18. Mission LiFE: Mission LiFE is an India-led global mass movement which aims to nudge individual
and collective action to protect and preserve the environment + Its concept was introduced by the
PM at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP-26 in
Glasgow + Objective: Mobilise at least 1 billion Indians and other global citizens to take individual
and collective action for protecting and preserving the environment in the period 2022 to 2027 + It
will run as a 5-year programme + NITI Aayog will curate and incubate Mission LiFE in the first year
then It will be implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
in a non-linear and non-sequential manner.
19. Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) : The GMA was launched in 2018 at the World Ocean Summit
by Conservation International (CI), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), The
Nature Conservancy (TNC), Wetlands International, and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) + Today, the
alliance includes more than 30 organizations + It has released its annual report, ‘The State of the
World’s Mangroves 2022’.
20. IUGS Geological Heritage Site : According to IUGS, a Geological Heritage Site is a key place with
geological elements and/or processes of scientific international relevance, used as a reference with a
substantial contribution to the development of geologicalsciences through history + The designation
of First 100 geological sites is done under the project International Geoscience Programme (IGCP-
731) + IGCP serves as a knowledge hub of UNESCO to facilitate international scientific cooperation
in the geosciences + Mawmluh Cave, in Meghalaya has been listed as one of the ‘First 100 IUGS
(International Union of Geological Sciences) Geological Sites’ in the world.
21. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) : It is an
intergovernmental knowledge and learning centre that develops and shares research, information,
and innovations to empower people in the eight regional member countries of the HKH –
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan + It aims to enable
sustainable and resilient mountain development for improved and equitable livelihoods through
knowledge and regional cooperation.
22. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) : It is
also known as seed treaty, is a major international agreement to conserve, use and manage Plant
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) around the world for benefit of people
everywhere + It is a legally binding agreement that was adopted by 31st session of Food and
(Revision Notes)
Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2001 and entered into force in 2004 + India is a party to the
treaty + It also provided international legal framework needed for establishment of Svalbard Global
Seed Vault in Norway + Funding for the treaty comes from its Contracting Parties and from FAO.
23. Declaration for Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture of the FAO Committee on Fisheries
(COFI) : It was developed to mark the 25th Anniversary of the (Food and Agriculture Organisation)
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries + COFI is a subsidiary body of the FAO Council,
established by the FAO Conference in 1965 + It is only global inter-governmental forum where FAO
Members meet to review and consider issues and challenges related to fisheries and aquaculture.
24. Global Alliance For Industry Decarbonization : International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA), co-founding partner Siemens Energy, and 13 companies including Tata Steel and Jindal
Steel Works have launched Global Alliance for Industry Decarbonization + New Alliance aims to
accelerate net-zero ambitions and decarbonization of industrial value chains in pursuit of Paris
Agreement climate goals + First meeting of Alliance, which was formed under Bali Declaration, is
planned to take place at COP27 in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt in Nov 2022 + Decarbonisation refers to
process of reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions resulting from human activity in atmosphere.
25. Innovation Roadmap of Mission Integrated Biorefineries (IRMIB) : India announced launch of
Innovation Roadmap of Mission Integrated Biorefineries” (IRMIB) at Global Clean Energy Action
Forum + IRMIB is developed by co-leads from Brazil, Canada, UK and European Commission +
IRMIB aims to fill the void by identifying gaps and challenges in current biorefining value chains
26. Mission Integrated Biorefineries (MIB): It is 7th mission under Mission Innovation (MI) which
was launched in April 2022 + MI is a global initiative catalyzing a decade of action and investment
in research, development and demonstration (RD&D) to make clean energy affordable, attractive
and accessible for all + MI consists of 22 countries and EU + India is a founding member + MIB
aims at greater international collaboration and financing for Energy RD&D during the next 5 years.
27. Green Fins Hub: It is a global digital platform that offers enhanced and global membership for
participating dive and snorkel operators to conserve the marine environment + Launched by: United
Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), along with UK-based charity Reef-World Foundation.
28. Coalition For Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) : It is a global partnership of national
governments, UN agencies and programmes, private sector, and academic and research institutions +
It was launched in 2019 by Indian Prime Minister at UN Climate Action Summit (New York) + It
aims to promote resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks, thereby ensuring
sustainable development + Currently, it has 31 Countries, 6 International Organisations and 2 private
sector organisations as members + It’ll work at intersection of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction and Paris Climate Agreement + India signed ‘Headquarter Agreement’ with CDRI,
thereby according the status of an 'independent and international legal entity' to CDRI.
29. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) :
Established in 2012, it is an independent intergovernmental body committed to strengthen science-
policy interface for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being
and sustainable development + Secretariat located in Bonn, Germany + It is not a United Nations
body. However, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides secretariat services to
IPBES + It now has 137 member countries including India + All States Members of the United
Nations are eligible for IPBES membership
30. UN Ocean Conference (UNOC): 2nd UNOC ended with Lisbon Declaration, a political declaration
entitled ‘Our Ocean, Our Future: call for action’ + It is co-hosted by Kenya and Portugal at Lisbon
+ In 2017, 1st UNOC was held at UN Hq in New York, co-hosted by Govts of Fiji and Sweden. +
As part of it, over 150 countries collectively agreed to scale up science-based and innovative actions
to address ocean emergency, supporting the implementation of SDG 14 (Life Below Water) + This is
in line with UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY ------------------------ 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

 Characteristics: It is zone of tension (as it has conditions intermediate to bordering ecosystems)

services to IPBES + Four complementary areas-> Assessments, policy support, Building

CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

 Pyramid of Biomass: Individuals in each trophic level

 Hydrological (Water) cycle: Continuous circulation of water in Earth-atmosphere system driven

o It is a process that implies the transformation of the relatively non-reactive atmospheric N2

o Secondary succession: Sequential development of biotic communities after complete or

CHAPTER 3: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1. Introduction: Interrelations between organisms and environment on land constitute terrestrial

o Natural vegetation: Predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest such as spruce,

▪ Most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land degradation neutrality

CHAPTER 4: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

1. Introduction: Ecosystems consisting of water as main habitat known as aquatic ecosystems.

20. Initiatives for protection of coral reefs

CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION

o Chemical oxygen demand: Measure of oxygen equivalent of requirement of oxidation of

o Pyrolysis: Process of combustion in absence of oxygen or material burnt under controlled

Fig: Photochemical Smog

● Pusa bio-decomposer: It is developed by scientists at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

o NCAP envisages reduction by 20-30% in PM 10 concentration over baseline in year 2017 by

3. National and Global initiatives to fight plastic pollution

CHAPTER 6: BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY

Fig: Megadiverse Countries

CHAPTER 7: INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE

CHAPTER 8: ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY

1. Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972

o Requirement for declaring an area as a protected forest, wildlife sanctuary or a national

of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and

CHAPTER 9: PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

1. Classification of the Plants

Fig: Nepenthes Khasiana Fig: Drosera

Fig: Pinguicula Fig: Bladderworts

Fig: Aldrovanda Fig: Genlisea

o Prosopis Chilensis = Prosopis chilensis, an alien invasive plant, is threatening to pulverize

9. Important Parasitic plants of India

CHAPTER 10: MARINE ORGANISMS

● Demonstration of processing technologies for edible seaweeds in line with consumer

CHAPTER 11: PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS

1. In-Situ conservation: It is on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant

 Category 3B: Include evergreen or semi evergreen forests of islands.

5. 5th International Marine Protected Areas Congress (IMPAC5) = Recently concluded in

10. Sacred Groves of North-East India in news

11. Eco-sensitive zones: These are buffer zones around

CHAPTER 12: NATIONAL PARKS, TIGER RESERVES AND ELEPHANT RESERVES IN

o Assam (Recently added National parks)

National Parks in News

3. Important Tiger Reserves

CHAPTER 13: MAJOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN NEWS

CHAPTER 14: RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION PARTNERS

BODIES ESTABLISHED BY CONVENTION

CRITERION FOR DESIGNATING A SITE AS RAMSAR SITE

or unique wetland example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found

RECENTLY ADDED RAMSAR SITES

RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA

Punjab Beas only Indian habitat of ● A 185-kilometre stretch of Beas River

Sanctuary leopard constructed as part of the Bhakra-Nangal

manages the site in conjunction with local

lapwing Baer's agriculture.