Ngetich denis kibet Mobile;

0704161965
Email:denizongetich12@gmail.com

COURSE OUTLINE

DEPARTMENT: Building and Civil Engineering

CLASS: CBT21
SUBJECT: CARPENTRY WORKS
TERM: 1
ROOM NO: G3
LECTURER’S NAME: NGETICH DENIS
MOBILENO: 0704161965
EMAIL ADDRESS: denizongetich12@gmail.com

COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this term the trainee should be able to:
 . Apply appropriate finishes to building fabric
 Select and use tools and equipment for carpentry
 Operate wood working machines
 Construct timber frames and temporary structures for use in site works
 Observe health and safety regulations in work place
 Design and construct joinery components using appropriate jointing techniques
ASSESSMENT
A minimum of one Continuous Assessment tests will be given.
N/B: No makeup CAT in case a student misses any CAT
DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS
CATS 30 marks Total 100 marks
End of term examinations 70marks

Reference materials

PREPAED BY: NGETICH DENIS

APPROVED BY…………………………NAME…………………… SIGN………………….

COURSE REQUIREMENTS
 i. Learners to attend 80% of lecture hours
ii. Learners to sit for all exams and CATs.
WK TOPIC SUB TOPIC OBJECTIVES REMA
RKS
Arrival of students and Issuing of course outline
&5 Safety By the end of the sub topic students should
 Definition be able to
 General safety  Define term safety
 Site and workshop  Explain general safety precautions
safety  List factors enhance work place
 Procedures for first  Explain procedures of carrying out first aid
aid  Distinguish different types of fire
 Fire prevention  Explain statutory regulations that govern
 Regulations work place safety
7 Wood working tools,  Hand tools By the end of the sub topic students should be able to
equipment and  Workshop  Explain uses of various hand tools
machines equipment  List wood working workshop
 Portable power tools equipment
 Wood working  Describe portable wood working
machines power tools
 Describe wood working machines

CAT 1 The trainee should be able to

attempt all the questions
Joints and material
1 &12 preparation  Classification By the end of the sub topic students should be able to
 Uses  Classify various joints used in woodwork
 Material preparation  State areas where joints are used in carpentry
 Strengthening joints  Explain the procedure of preparing materials
 Quality control for making joints
 Material estimation  Explain methods of strengthening joints
and job costing
 Maintain quality in joint construction
 Estimate and cost for materials used in joint
construction

Foundations  Foundation’s By the end of the sub topic students should be able to 
systems  Describe various foundations systems
 Foundations for  Illustrate foundations for suspended
suspended timber timber structure
structure  Outline methods of anchoring
 Methods of
 Explain methods of construction of
anchoring
suspended floors
 Methods of
construction of
suspended floors
3 Timber frame  Definition By the end of the sub topic student should be
construction  Methods of able to
construction  Define terms involved in timber frame
 Materials construction
 Setting out  Explain methods of timber frame
 Fixing devices construction
 Treatment and  Identify various materials used in timber
preservation frame construction
 Outline procedure of setting out
 Regulations
 Identify types of fixing devices
 Explain regulations that affect timber frame
construction
Temporary  Definition By the end of the sub topic student should be
structures  Forms of temporary able to
structures  Define terms related to temporary
 Material for structures
construction of  List different types of temporary
temporary structures structures
 Safety requirements  State materials used in temporary
 By law and structures
requirements  State safety rules to be observed
 Costing when working on temporary
structures
 Calculate the cost of constructing
temporary structures
Roof construction  Definition By the end of the sub topic student
 Terminologies should be able to
 Classification of  Describe term roof
roofs  Explain technical terms related to
 Roof layouts roofs
 Roofing materials  Distinguish different types of roofs
 By law  Sketch layout of roof members
requirements  Select appropriate roof covering
materials
 Explain by law requirements for
roofs
CAT The trainee should be able to attempt
all questions
External  Definition By the end of the sub topic student should be
Works  Types of gates and able to
fences  Define external works
 Materials  Identify different types of gates and
 Preservation fences
 Methods of  Outline materials used for
application construction of gates and fences
 Criteria for selection  Describe methods used in
of gates and fences preservation of gates and fences
 Explain methods used when applying
 Costing
preservation
 State criteria used when selecting
materials for making gates and
fences
 Calculate cost of installing a
particular gate
Rain water  Definition  Define term rain water goods
goods  Types of water  List types of rain water goods
goods  List types of material used in making
 Materials rain water goods
 Construction  Outline procedure of fabricating rain
methods water goods

Finishes  Timber floor By the end of the sub topic student should be
finishes able to
 Application of floor  List types of timber floor finishes
finishes  Explain how timber floor finishes are
 Wall finishes applied
 Ceiling finishes  List types of finishes applied to walls
 Safety in  List types of finishes applied to
preservatives ceilings
application  Compare the effectiveness of
 Precision and different types of preservatives
quality control  Explain safety precautions to be
observed when applying preservative
 State factors that influence efficient
work organization and adherence to
quality control
 Portable power tools  Types of portable
power tools
 Description and use
 Care a and
maintenance
 Safety measures
 Identify portable power tools
 Describe the operation of portable
power tools
 Explain maintenance requirements
for portable power tools
 List down safety precautions to be
observed when handling portable
power tools

SAFETY
This is the condition or feeling of being safe, security
General safety precautions
i. Personal safety
 Dressing properly for work in workshop with an apron, earphone, goggles
 Tuck in or remove ties and roll up sleeves
 Wear strong leather shoes with thick soles
 keep long hair short
 do not wear jackets or coats in the workshop
 remove rings and loose jewelry before operating machinery
ii. workshop safety habit
 do not run in the workshop
 always use a brush to clean the benches
 keep the benches free from scops, chips and excess tools and materials
 concentrate on what you are doing
 do not play in the workshop
 report any accident at once
 never depend on your back muscles in lifting heavy objects
 note the position of
a) first aid box
b) fire extinguisher
c) main switch
 do not smoke
 do not blow dust or chips off the job
 always cut away from you
 no food or drink in the workshop
 ask how to use the tools safely
Hand tools safety
 Do not carry many tools or materials at once
 Do not carry sharp edged or pointed tools in your pockets
 When carrying sharp or pointed tools like chisel, hold them close to the body and point down the floor
 When passing sharp edged or pointed tools to a fellow worker, pass the handle first
 Store tools and equipment at right place
 Tools should be kept clean, free from grease of dirt after used
Using head tools
 Keep the job under control by holding with vice or cramps
 Do not use dull tools
 Make sure handles are securely fastened on planes, hammers, mallets and files
 Always cut away from you

Material safety
 Put waste pieces of timber in the scrape box or in the storage rack
 Store timber, part of project and completed project in a well-ventilated store or timber rack
 Any flammable fluids should be kept away to prevent possible fire outbreaks
 Paints and varnishes should be kept in shelves or lockable cabinet

Procedure for first aid

Cuts
1.wash your hands helps to avoid infection
2.stop the bleeding, minor cuts and scrapes usually stops on their own
3.clean the wound, rinse the wound with water
4.apply an antibiotic or petroleum jelly
5.cover the wound
6.change the dressing
7.get a tetanus shot
8.watch the signs of infection

Fractures
-Happens when one of your bones become cracked or broken into multiple pieces.
A broken bone signs and symptoms
-Intense pain in the injured area that gets worse when you move
-numbness in the injured area
-bluish in color, swelling, or visible deformity in the injured area
-bone protruding through the skin
-heavy bleeding at the injury site

First aid
1.Stop any bleeding-if bleeding elevate and apply pressure to the wound using a sterile bandage, a clean cloth, or a clean
piece of clothing
2.immobilize the injured area- if you suspect broken bone in their neck or back, help them stay as still as possible or
broken bone in one of their limbs, immobilize the area using a splint or sling
3.Apply cold water to the area- wrap an ice pack or bag of ice cubes in a piece of a cloth and apply to the injured area for
up to10 minutes at a time
4.treat them for shock- help them to get comfortable position, rest, and reassure them, cover them with a blanket or
clothing to keep them warm
5.Get professional help

Burns
According to the depth of injury to the skin, we distinguish four types;
1.burns that affect only the superficial skin are known as superficial or first-degree burns
2.when damage penetrates into some of the underlying layers, it is a partial thickness or second-degree
burns
3.in a full thickness or third-degree burn, the injury extends to all layers of the skin
4.sometimes we talk about a fourth degree burns when the injury affects deeper tissues such as muscle or
bone

-Burns are thermal injury caused by exposure to excess heat

-For minor burns, limited to an area no larger than 8cm in diameter, take the following actions
1.cool the burn
-hold the burned area under cool, running water for 10 to 15 minutes or until the pain subsides
-if this is impractical, immerse the burn in cool water or cool it with cold compresses
-don’t put ice on the burn
2.cover the burn with a sterile gauze bandage
-wrap the gauze loosely to avoid putting pressure on burned skin
-bandaging keeps air off the burn, reduces pain and protects blistered skin
3.take an over-the pain reliever
-aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen
 -use caution when giving aspirin to children or teenagers
- talk to your doctor

For major burns

1.Dont remove burned clothing
-make sure the victim is no longer in contact with smoldering materials or exposed to smoke or heat
2.Dont immerse large severe burns in cold water
-doing so could cause a drop in body temperature and deterioration of blood pressure and circulation(shock)
3.Check for signs of circulation (breathing, coughing or movement)
-if there is no breathing or sign of circulation begin CPR
4.Elevate the burned body part or parts
-raise above heart level, when possible.
5.cover the area of the burn
-use a cool, sterile bandage, clean, moist cloth or moist cloth towels
First aid kit
-a variety of bandages
-needles and tweezers
-antiseptic ointment
-cotton swabs
Cotton balls
-eye drops or eye bath and wash
-a first aid handbook
-a chemical cold pack
-elastic bandages
-First aid tape
-Sterile gauze
-scissors

Introduction

Fire constitutes a great hazard both in the industry and at home. It has caused loss of huge sums

of money and numerous irreparable damages to human both physical and mentally. It is therefore

extremely important that we take all necessary measures to prevent fire out breaks.

How fire occurs

Fire or combustion is a process of burning. It is the interaction of a combustible substance in

oxygen at the appropriate temperature, resulting in the production of a flame. Simply put, fire

can be viewed as a reaction involving three elements. The elements are:

Fire- (combustible)

Air- (oxygen)

Heat- (ignite)

The three elements must be present in the proper concentration before fire can occur. This

condition for fire to occur is usually represented by a triangle popularly called the fire triangle.

Combustible substance or fuel: A combustible (fuel) is any material that burns, solid fuel: e.g.

wood, coal, paper, textiles, rubber etc.

Liquid fuel: e.g., petrol, kerosene, diesel oil, cooking oil, paints, spirits etc.
Gaseous fuel: cooking gas (LPG) Methane Acetylene, Hydrogen, Butane etc.

Oxygen: oxygen is contained in atmospheric air in a proportion of about 21% by volume. If this % falls below 16, fire is off.

HEAT

Heat (igniter): heat is needed to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition temperature

before it can burn. Since it is the vapour of the fuel that actually burns, heat is needed to produce

the fuel vapour. This is why combustibles which are already gaseous or that vaporizes at low

temperatures (e.g. petrol) easily cause fire out breaks.

Methods of fire extinction

All fire-fighting methods utilize one or more of the principles of fire extinguishments. Fire

extinguishments are based on three principles namely:

- Cooling

- Smothering

- Starvation

These three principles can also be presented in a triangle known as Fire Extinction Triangle, the

counter part of FIRE TRIANGLE.

• Cooling:

This is the removal of heat from the fire so that its temperature falls below the ignition

temperature of the fuel concerned. This can be achieved by applying an agent, which absorbs

heat. Water is the most effective absorber of heat that is used in firefighting.

• Smothering:

This is the removal or limiting of the supply of oxygen to the fire. This can be achieved by:

• Covering the burning area with blanket or metal lid e g Burning fry pan

NO FIRE

STARVATION

COOLING SMOTHERING

• Throwing chemical powder, sand or dirt on the fire

• Covering fire with foam

• Fire prevention and protection

From what we have discussed above, it is quite clear that we can prevent fire out

breaks if:
- One element is absent

- The three elements are present but not in the appropriate amount

Note that air is always sneered where human being (operators) are to survive

• Sources of heat

- External flames: - Matches, Lighters, Cigarettes, Electrical or Gas rings, Lanterns,

Burners etc.

- Sparks: - static electricity, Ares and Electrical sparks, Mechanical sparks, Friction,

combustion sparks from engines exhaust etc.

- Hot Materials: - Hot metals, Embers, Over-heated bearings, Exhaust pipes, Red-hot

electrical filaments etc.

• Fire preventive measures

Fire preventive measures include the following:

- Sources of ignition should not be near fuels or in an atmosphere that might be

flammable

- NO SMOKING signs should be displayed and enforced in work places where

NO HEAT

FUEL OXYGEN

there is danger of fire out-break

- Fuel leaks should not be allowed to fall on hot surfaces

- Vehicles with leaking tanks or leakage along any line should not be operated

they should be repaired before usages.

- Make certain that all workers using or handling flammable are aware of their

properties and hazards

- Ensure that heat indicators in equipment are exposed

- Make sure no electrical wires in equipment are exposed

- Warning signals on vehicles panels should be observed frequently and

complied with

- All job procedures must be strictly complied with

- Permit must be obtained before executing work in a dangerous/ restricted area

- Every vehicle should have fire extinguisher

• Spark Arrestor

Every vehicle going into an area containing flammable atmosphere should be

equipped with spark arrestor

Test Questions

1. Discuss how fire occurs and how it can be extinguished

2. Distinguish between fire prevent and protection

FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION (CONTINUED)

Fire extinguisher and fire fighting

Every operator is expected to know how to operate the portable fire extinguisher in his vehicle.

This is important because when fire is attacked at its earliest stage, it will be prevented from

spreading and causing more damage. This is especially true of fire involving petroleum products

Fire is divided into four categories in the present-day classification which is based on the fuel

burning

• Class ‘A’: These are fires of ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper, textile

and rubbish.

• Class ‘B’: These are fires involving flammable liquids e.g. kerosene, (gasoline)

lubricating oil, chemical liquids etc. and liquefiable solids e.g. grease

• Class ‘C’: These are fires involving gases e.g. methane, butane, propane, acetylene

hydrogen etc.

• Class ‘D’: These fires occur in combustible metals such as magnesium, potassium,

lithium etc.

Firefighting equipment

• Water

• Dry chemical powder

• Foam

• Carbon dioxide

• Vaporizing liquid (Halons)

- Water: water is the most effective extinguishing for many types of fire due mainly to

its abundance and cooling power. It is the best for class ‘A’: fires. The steam produced
by the heat of the fire provides a considerable amount of smothering action. Water

extinguishers are usually painted RED.

- Dry chemical powder: these are suitable for flammable liquid and all types of

combustible materials, but are not particularly effective on class ‘A’ fire which have

become deep seated. Special powders are produced for use on fires involving metals.

Dry chemical powder extinguishers are painted BLUE.

- Foam: this is effective on liquid fires. It forms a blanket of small bubbles over the

burning liquid. It also acts as a cooling medium. Foam extinguishers are painted with

(CREAM whitish yellow) colour.

- Carbon dioxide: it is usually in liquid form in a steel cylinder. It acts by diluting

oxygen content of air at and around the fire, so that the atmosphere will no longer

support combustion. In other words, it smothers. It has no cooling effect. It is

applicable for electrical fires and class ‘B’ fires. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are

painted BLACK.

- Vaporizing liquid (Halons): the halon acts to inhibit chemical reactions within the flame

front. It rapidly knocks down the flame. It can be used on any fire but it has no cooling

effects. Halon extinguishers are GREEN in colour.

• Lesson:

Whenever you notice fire:

- Raise an alarm or shout FIRE!, FIRE!!, FIRE!!!.

- Attempt to extinguish it using a fire extinguisher. But don’t endanger your life

- Get outside to safe place

When fighting a fire, direct the extinguishing materials at the base of the fire. The

five commonly used extinguishers are:

- Water Extinguisher

- Dry chemical powder (DCP) Extinguishers

- Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers

- Halon Extinguishers
 WOOD WORKING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND
MACHINES
5.1Measuring and testing tools
Measuring tools are used either to transfer measuments when working at the bench, or on site at ground level
steel rule

Folding rule

Uses
 To measure distances greater than 600mm, place rule flat on the stock
 To ensure less than 600mm it is better to use the rule on edge

Flexible steel tapes

These tapes retract on to a small enclosed spring-
loaded drum and are pulled out and either
pushed back in or have an automatic return
which can be stopped at any distance within the
limit of the tape’s length. The length varies from 3m to 8m

Uses

 To measure irregular and regular shapes

 To make accurate inside measuments (measument is read by adding 50mm to the reading blade)

Plumb bob and line

Uses

 To determine the corners of the buildings

 To establish a vertical line
Try square
 Consists of two parts, the blade and the stock. Stock can be made of either metal or wood.
 Can be used for marking and testing lines at angles, usually 90 and 45 degrees
Marking out tools
Marking knife

 Mainly for cutting lines on work surfaces where be cut with a saw or chisel

Using a marking knife (hardwoods)Combination square

Marking gauge
 Making lines parallel to the edge of the wood
 Used when marking wood to width and thickness

Wing compass

 Pair of steel dividers with fixed screw, for fixing points at a required radius and is mainly used for marking circles

Sliding bevel
 Used for marking out straight lines which incline at an angle greater or smaller than 90 degrees
 When in use the blade of the sliding bevel is set to the required angle while the stock is held firmly against the
edge of the work. Line is then marked with a pencil or a marking knife
 To step off measurements
Straight edge
 To check whether a surface is level or plumb

Trammel
 To layout distances between two points
 To scribe arcs and circles larger than those made with dividers

Cutting tools

the carpenter must know various cutting tools, correct use and their necessary care be performed
 He must know
 why a rip saw is different from cross cutting saw
 why there are many styles of planes
 when to use one style of tools of planes
 how to use the tool to obtain best result
Saws

 saws are designed for a specific purpose. They can be divided into three main groups
-rip saw - cutting timber parallel with grain
-cross- cutting saw - cutting across the timber grain
-curves and shape -cutting saws

Rip saw

-are chisel end teeth and cutting action are like a series of tiny chisel each cutting on behind the other
-this tool is 600mm - 700mm in length either straight or skew back
It has 4 teeth in 25mm

Cross cut saw

-have a knife point to saw the fibre of timber. These points are so arranged that they cut with knife close together. the centre
fibres between these lines crumble always as saw dust
-it is660mmlong either straight or skew back
-it has 6 -7 teeth per 25mm
-it is used for cutting wood across the grain

Hand saw
-used for rough and general-purpose cross cutting
-it can be up to 650mm long with 6 -8 teeth per 25mm

Panel saw
-used for fine cutting of timber and metal sheet
-length up to 500mm and 8 -10 teeth per 25mm
 Fig 5.13Ripping with a hand saw (notice theFig
5.14Cross cutting with a hand saw

Tenon saw
(Back saw)
-used for cutting shoulders for joints and general bench work length 450mm teeth 10 -14

Fig 5.15Sawing down the grain (vertically) with a

panel saw
Fig 5.17bTenon saw – starting a cut using a bench
 Fig 5.17aTenon saw – starting a cut, vice held Fig
5.19Dovetail saw – starting a cut

Hack saw
-used for heavy work i.e. sawing metals sheets, tubes; or bars

Blade held in tension -

frame inclined to spring apart

Fig 5.22Using a junior hacksaw

Coping saw
-used to saw external and internal curves in thin wood (like ply wood ) and to remove the waste of dovetails and bridle joints
Saw set provides clearance–

Sawcut
referred to as kerf
Pad saw
Fig 5.23Providing saw blade clearance

-used for sawing curves and slots such as key holes, starting in a previously drilled hole. It also called key hole saw
Bow saw

-is used for cutting curves in wood

-also straight cutting using a thick blade

Saw maintaining
This can be achieved by one, several or all of the following operations
 topping -is done when the saw teeth are at different heights or when the edge of the saw has worn unevenly and created
a hollow
 shaping -after toping the teeth can be cut to a uniform shape using a three-cornered saw file. The file should be held
horizontally at right angles to the saw
 setting-the teeth are then set with aid of a plier type saw set
 sharpening-cross cutting saw should be sharpened at the angle of 65-75 to the saw blade and filing should be
done in direction towards the saw handle. Keep the file perfectively horizontal
 rip saw is sharpened with the file held at a right angle to the blade. keep the file perfectively horizontal.
Sharpening of all the saw is to produce the cutting edge

5.4Plane
Can be divided into two types
a) those used to produce a flat surface
b) those used to produce a rebate, plough groove, molding or curve

main flat surface planes

a) jack plane
b) try plane / jointer
c) smoothing plane
d) fore plane

jack plane
-used for reducing timber to the required size
-for rough planning
-for straight planning
Its length is 350mm -380mm
-cutter are 50mm and 60mm respectively

Jack plane

Try plane/jointer plan

-used for straight planning and levelling
-it varies from 450mm -600mm length
 Jointer or try-plane

Smoothening plane
-its main use -for finishing work and to remove small irregularities and defects/general cleaning up work
-its length is 240, 245 and260mm, width is 45, 50 and 60mm respectively

Smoothing plane

Rebate plane
For cutting rebates for;
-joinery purpose
-decoration
-safety

Rebate plane

Block plane /mult-plane

-Combine both the rebate and plough planes

-carry out various moulding operations
 Block plane

Shoulder rebate plane

-Suitable for trimming shoulder of hard wood tenon which required to be fitted accurately

shoulder/rebate plane

Circular compass plane

-has a spring thine sole which can be adjusted for working on larger radian curves

Bull nose plane

-look like shoulder plane but smaller about 100mm in size for cleaning up stopped rebate and chamfer

Bullnose/shoulder/rebate plane

Spokeshave
-used for the final working and cleaning up off curved edges
 Exposed view of a Stanley bench plane

Router plane
-used to work and clean up housings. The sides of the housing must be pre-cut with a tenon saw

How to use a plane

-to start planning take an easy firm position directly back of the work
-at the end of the stroke the weight of the body should be carried easily on the left foot
-hold the plane square with the workface of the work
-plane end grain half way from each edge or use waste piece or shooting board

Safety hand plane

-put / keep your full attention focused on the work
-be familiar with how to use a plane
-keep cutting blade sharp, check to make sure that edge has no nicks
-be sure that material to be planed has no nail or obstructions
-use a piece of paper to check plane iron for sharpness. Do not use your finger
-store plane at designated place

Boring tools
 Hand drill -to hold twist drills for drilling small holes
-are used for light hand drilling through wood or metal especially for making holes for screws or nails
-boring can be done horizontally or vertically. Before starting, work should be firmly fastened and the center
of the hole marked with a nail or center punch
-the boring angle is correct if the try square and the bit are parallel for holes bored 90 degrees to the wood
-boring should be stopped when point of the bit emerges on other side and work then turned and boring is
finished from the turned side

Bit Brace
-are of two types
 The plain for full swing
 The ratchet for close corners
Drills are used to hold and operate bits
 Irwin bit

countersink bit

expanding bit

fostner bit

carpenter’s brace
 Aligning a bit for vertical boring

Using the ratchet

Fig 5.57Application of various bits and drills

Chisels and gouges

shaping tools
Characteristics of woodcutting chisel

Blade
Chisel type Function material widths section Remark
Firmer -used for general bench work

Bevel-edged -used for bench work and dovetailing

Pairing -Fine Pairing, finishing off long or deep trenches

Registered Chopping and light mortising

Mortise-heavy mortising

 Gouges
(Out-cannel) * surface6–25 mm the arc

Gouge – scribing Hollowing an outside surface Extra-long blades

(In-cannel) * or edge available (paring gouge

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

)
Fig 5.62Vertical paring
 5.8Driving (Impelling) tools

●hammers – striking
●mallets – striking
 Screw drivers- turning
Craw hammer

 Used for driving and withdrawing nails

(b)

Warrington hammer - cross pein

 Used for extracting nails and so saves the workman carrying pincers

Engineers hammer or ballpein hammer

 Used in conjunction with wall plugging chisels

Club or lump hammer

 Used by stone mason and brick layers

 Is heavy for working awkward spaces

Punches

Pin and nail punch

-depending on diameter of the head size
-sink a pin or nail head below the wood surface

Pin/nail punch
-using Engineers or ball pein hammer
Centre punch

-used to make a small mark in the metal prior to drilling (to prevent drill bit from sliding)

Name punch
-used to stamp wood, plastics and soft metal

soft headed mallets

Wooden head mallets

screw drivers

Fig 5.78Ratchet
screwdriver

Holding equipment
Joiner’s bench vice
-A bench vice is holding device fixed into the bench
-they are available in various sizes and shapes

G-cramp

‘G’ shaped –

different sizes available

with cramping depths of 50 mm to 300 mm.
The shoe on the end of the threaded spindle
swivels on a ball socket enabling it to remain
still whilst the turn screw is being tightened.

Fig 5.89‘G’ cramp

F- cramp
‘F’ cramp
 Holding equipment (tools & devices) 151
●Sash cramp
-are used in joinery to hold boards and frame joints under pressure while the glue sets
-the size of sash cramp is measured by the length of the bar. Ranges from 600 -1200mm

‘T’ bar cramp

- same principle as a sash cramp

‘T’ bar cramp

 Bench hook

-is
a device made to hook, by means of a create or crosspiece, against the side of the bench.
- holding device for cross cutting short lengths of timber, planning and chiseling
Mitre box and saw
proprietary combination of saw and jig for cutting a range of angles very accurately. Some models have
provision for cutting compound mitres.

Mitre box

-for sawing large mouldings at 45 degrees

- joiner’s work bench & holding equipment
 Tool storage & accessory containers

Fig Methods of containing and carrying tools and a small

ancillary equipment

Nail pouches
 purpose made oilstone box
Slipstones – these are
composed in a similar manner to oilstones,
but are designed to hone the curved cutting
edges of gouges and moulding-plane cutter

Shaping saw teeth

The following processes should be under- taken

●topping,
●shaping,
●setting,
 Fig 5.117Plane blade sharpening process

5.13.4Chisels
 Gap
45º

Fig 5.121Extending grinding angle life

Frog

Angled

Burr removal

Block plane

Rebate, plough and block plane blade Slipstone

Sharpening and in-canal scribing gouge

safety
●Never use a hammer with a damaged head.
●Never use a hammer with a loose head.
●Never strike two hammer heads together.
●Never use the side of a hammer.
●Never strike a cold chisel or hardened steel
objects with a nail hammer – use a ball pein
hammer.
●Never use a cross-pein (Warrington) hammer as a lever.
Wood working machines

This chapter deals with portable powered hand tools powered hand tools associated by mains electricity and portable
generating sets. Other motive powers are obtained from - batteries – cordless tools
●batteries (cordless tools)

General safety
1 Never use a portable power tool until a competent person has instructed you
the plug and directly wired to the tool.
2 Only use a portable power tool after authorized approval
3 The manufacturer’s handbook of instruction should be read and understood before use
4 Always wear sensibly fitting clothes avoid ties, loose cuffs etc.
5 Wear eye protection where there is a risk of propelled debris or fume, dust
6 The correct type of Dust masks should be worn
7 Ear protection should be worn by all operatives
8 Guards, where fitted, must always be used
9 Never use blunt or damaged cutters.
10 Keep flexible cables away from the work-piece, cutters, sharp edges 6.
11 Before changing bits, abrasive sheets or making any adjustments, always disconnect the tool from electricity supply,
12 If a tool is damaged or found to bed defective, return to the store
drill.
13 If injury should occur – no matter how minor-first aid must be applied

6.3Use of portable power tools

A drill bit should rotate at its most effective cutting speed, otherwise it could overheat, quickly
Portable electric powered hand tools are available to carry out the following functions;
a) drilling
b) sawing,
c) planning
d) rebating
e) grooving,
f) forming moulds
g) screw driving
h) sanding

Electric drill- rotary

Choice of electric drill depend on;
-type of work
-volume of work
-size of hole
-type of material; wood, metal, soft brick or block work
Rotary electric drills

Drilling holes in wood usually requires about twice the cutting speed for metal, but, because of the
many hard and abrasive wood-based materials.
Now in common use, consideration should be given to the material’s composition
before choosing a bit or its speed.

(a) Keyed chuck (b) Keyless chuck

6.8Electric screwdrivers

Electric screwdriver offers fast, virtually effortless methods of driving screws. Screwdriver bits of different types and sizes
are available to suit both screw heads

6.9Sanders

Three main types

 Belt sanders
 Random orbit sanders
 Orbital sanders

There are many different types and styles associated with bench work. We shall looking at three of these, namely:
●belt sanders
●random orbit disc sanders
●orbital sanders

6.9.1Belt sanders

Designed and constructed to tackle heavy sanding problems with minimum effort endless abrasive belt is driven by a motor
driven rear (heel) roller over a front (toe) belt- tensioning roller and then over a steel-faced cork or rubber pressure plate on its
base – this is the part that makes contact with the workpiece. Dust is discharged via a suction-induced exhaust into the dust
bag
 (b) Belt sander in use with a sanding frame.

Orbital sanders and finishing sanders

Random orbital disc sander

Single and double handed machines are avail-

able, capable of producing excellent finished results
Circular saws
Can be grouped into 4 groups
 Ripping
 General purpose
 Cross cutting
 Fine cross cutting

Portable circular saws are capable of carrying

out the following operations:

- Ripping
-Rebating
-Cutting bevels with the grain – any angle between 90 and 45;
-Cross-cutting
-Cutting compound bevels – Use a temporary fence,
-Cutting mitres – Use a temporary fence or a jig and angle adjustment – preferably a ‘Pull Over Mitre - -Saw used
cuts with the grain, using the aids mentioned.
-Trenching (housing)

Operational safety guide-lines

(Circular saw)

The following safety precautions should be observed

●Always keep both hands on the machine
handles while the blade is in motion.
●Always ensure that the spring-loaded telescopic guard is operational at all times
●Always remove the plug from the electricity
supply before changing a blade or making any adjustment
●Ensure that the blade is fitted correctly to cut from bottom to top
●Never use a blunt blade

●Always ensure that the workpiece is supported and held firmly

mitre saw
 Combination table and mitre saw

6.13Reciprocating saws

For the purpose of this chapter, I have divided into 3

1 Forward pointing wide bladed reciprocating saw
2 Forward pointing narrow bladed reprocating saw
3 jig saws

Reciprocating blade

Forward pointing narrow bladed

Reciprocating and orbiting blade

‘D’ handle with

trigger switch

Jig saw

Reciprocating Orbital action selector

6.14Planers

6.15Routers
shows a ‘plunge’ router, unlike older fixed-frame models, allows the cutter to be plunged vertically into the workpiece
and retracted on completion of its task.

Straight and roller guides

 a) Straight bit
b) Core box bit
c) Dovetail bit
d) V-groove bit
e) Round -over bit
f) Beading bit
g) Cover bit
h) Chamfering bit
i) Ogee bit
j) Rebating bit
k) Guide roller
l) Pilot
m) Saw
n) Trimming bit

Battery-Operated
(Cordless) Hand Tools
two categories
1 battery operated cordless tools, and
2 impulse cordless nailers
1Battery operated cordless tools
-Drills
-Right angle drills
-Hammer drills
-Screw drivers
-Circular saws
-Jig saws
-Forward pointing narrow bladed reciprocating saws
-Sanders
-Staplers
-Grinders

Method of use
The same principles apply as main powered tools except there is freedom of movement, no trailing of cables

Safe operation
 The same safety precautions as mains powered tools must be applied; eye, ear, nose and mouth protection must be
worn
 Always remove the battery pack before inserting or attaching a bit, cutter, blade or making adjustments
 Switch off the tool before inserting the battery pack
 When the battery pack reaches the end of its life, run it down completely, it should then be returned to your dealer to be recycled or. disposed
of safely. THESE BATTERIES MUST NEVER BE DISPOSED OF INTO NORMAL RUBBISH DISPOSAL BINS.

battery operated cordless hand tools

Heavy duty 13mm-cordless drill/driver, 13mm driver/hammer drill, jig saw, 18-volt battery power pack
, heavy D 41mm depth circular saw, cordless-forward pointing narrow bladed reciprocating saw, heavy duty flexible floodlight
and heavy-duty cordless flashlight
Cordless driver/drill

main parts of a cordless

Driver/(percussion) Drill (DeWALT)

Battery pack
 Safety
When you are using these tools, eye protection must be worn and training in the safe handling and correct use of
the tool must be given this is provided via the manufacturer. The tool has usual built-in safety devices, but it must be used
according to the instructions provided in the
manufacturer’s literature.

Battery pack and charger (DeWALT)

Basic Static woodworking
Machines
●Crosscutting machines
●Hand feed circular saw benches
●Dimension saws
●Panel saws
●Planning machines
●Narrow bandsaw machines
●Mortising machines
●Grinding machines

Two main types of crosscutting machines

-travelling -head
-radial-arm

Travelling-head crosscut saw -pull -over saw

The saw, which is driven direct from the motor, is

attached to a carriage mounted on a track which
enables the whole unit to be drawn forward
(Using the pull handle) over the table to make its cut.
The return movement is spring assisted. The length of timber to be cut is supported by a table (Usually containing steel rollers)
and is held against the fence for cutting repetitive lengths, graduated rule with adjustable foldaway stops can be provided.
Angle and height adjustments are made by operating various hand-wheels and levers.

Radial arm crosscut saw

 Fig 9.2‘Wadkin’ radial arm crosscut saw

Radial arm crosscut saw – in use

Safe use of woodwork machinery requires

●Extending the saw hood side guarding to enclose as much as possible of the sawblade
●Lock-off master stop control that can be operated quickly in an emergency.
●If not already fitted, a braking device (Manual or electrical) which allows the
sawblade to come to rest within a maximum of ten seconds of operating the stop control.
●The alternative to above is to ensure the return spring or weighted pulley system to the head unit, once released, moves it
back to a safe and housed position behind the fence line.

9.2Hand feed circular saw benches

These are primarily used for resawing timber lengthwise in its width (ripping) or its depth (deep-cutting or Deeping). They
can vary the depth at which the blade projects above the saw

Safe use of woodworking machinery" would require

●Lock-off master stop control that can be operated quickly in an emergency if not already fitted, a braking device
 ensuring position of reviving knife is no more than 8mm from the back of the sawblade at bench height
 Information by way of sign, indicating the smallest diameter saw blade allowed
Circular saw

9.6Planing machines
Fall under three groups:
1 hand-feed surface planers
2 thicknesser or panel planers
3 combined hand – and power-feed planers
Safe use of wood working machine require;
-lock off master stop control that can be operated quickly in an emergency
-if not fitted a breaking device which allows the cutter block to come to rest within a maximum of 10 seconds of operating the
stop control
Hand-feed surface planer
-is used for planning the face side and face edge

Combined surface planer and thicknesser

This is one machine, capable of both surfacing and thicknessing,

Thicknesser surface planer and thicknesser

Fig Thicknesser table and cutter block arrangements above

Fig below cutters, table and bridge guard arrangements for surfacing
 Cutting circle

Flatting and edging squared timber

The object of this process is first to produce one

perfectly face side – flatting- and then, using
a fence set at 90 to the table, to produce a face edge at right angles to it -edging

Thickness

This process involves pushing a piece of timber, face down, into the infeed end of the machine where it
will be met and gripped by the fluted infeed roller and mechanically driven under the cutters

Adjustment of the bridge guard, edging, flatting and edging rectangular stock flatting and edging small square stock and
flatting and edging large square stock respectively
whilst edging both ends should be in contact with the surface table -repeat this operation until a straight edge is achieved

The portion above this line should now

be removed by sawing before planning
The same principle will apply to flatting timber

For effective and safe production techniques, timber

the operative should be totally aware of the machine’s capabilities (see the manufacturer’s
operating manual) and how it may be used safely.

 For a smooth flat finish, the under face of the timber should be straight, flat and smooth,
feed speed should be slow and the anti-friction roller should be set as low as
practicable without causing the timber to stick
 Feed timber so that it is cut with the grain.
Timber must be allowed clear exit from the machine. Suitable means should be found for supporting long lengths of timber at
the delivery end of the cut will be stepped.
 Hands must be kept clear of the infeed end of the machine
The possibility of a machine ejecting timber back towards the operator, due to the
direction of cutter rotation, is counteracted by using either a sectional infeed roller or an anti-
kickback device which allows timber to travel towards the cutters but locks onto any backward
movement.

9.7Narrow bandsaw machines

Narrow bandsaws have blades that do not exceed 50 mm in width.

Note: For the sake of clarity guards are not shown
Section through table

side view
front view
These relatively narrow bandsaw blades are supplied and stored in a folded coil consisting
of three loops bearing in mind;

1 The blade is held firmly, using gauntlet

gloves, with arms outstretched and palms uppermost.
2 When the hands are turned over
simultaneously, the blade will twist.
3 When the blade is lowered to the floor it

Fitting a bandsaw blade

Fitting or replacing a saw blade will mean opening the upper and lower guard doors for the purpose of access; therefore,
before the start of any such work, the machine must be isolated from its electricity supply. Then, and only then, the work may
begin.

1open and move a side the top and bottom guard doors
2 Remove or move aside other obstructions,
3using appropriate hand wheel, lower the top wheel enough to enable blade to fit on to both wheels
4fit the blade on to wheels, making sure the teeth at the table cutting point are facing downwards, then raise
the top wheel to hold the blade on the wheels
5track the saw blade
6tension the saw blade
7 reset thrust wheels and guiders
8 reposition and secure guards

Uses
During all sawing operations, the top guard must be set as close to the workpiece as practicable. This not only protects the
operative from the saw blade but also provides the blade with maximum support via the guides and the thrust wheel or thrust
roller assembly

a) a ripping operation – towards the end of the cut, the push stick will be used to push the
side nearest the fence.
b) deep cutting
c) wedge cutting

When cutting into a corner, short

straight cuts are made first (this also applies
when making curved freehand cuts.
An exception to this rule (unless a jig was
used) would be when removing waste wood
from a haunch

9.9Sanding machines
.
The larger of these machines is based on mechanically fed large wide belt sanders, accuracy for
dressing small fitments, trueing and trimming end grain and sanding concave or
convex surfaces.
A separate dust extraction system is essential with all sanding machines

9.10Grinding machines

Some kind of grinding machine is essential. All must be sited within a self-contained area away from
woodworking machining operations, because sparks given off are a fire hazard to wood waste, and would provide a potential
ignition for a wood dust explosion.
Grinding machines are used to:

●re-form the grinding angle on chisel and plane blades

●re-grind and sharpen hand and machine cutters
●re-shape screwdriver blades
●re-sharpen cold and plugging chisels.
All the above operations can be done on a dry grinding machine like the one below

safety
●the maximum permissible speed of wheel to be specified; over speeding could cause the
wheel to burst
 ●the provision and maintenance of guards and protection flanges
●an effective means of starting and cutting off the motive power
●work rests to be adjusted as close practicable to the wheel whenever the machine is in use
(common practice being no more than 3 mm away), otherwise the
workpiece could become jammed between the wheel and rest, causing serious injury
●the condition of the floor where the machine is to be used.
 Wood working machinery safety

-legal requirement should be understood by who purchase and / or use woodworking machinery
-noise at work- suitable safeguards to the health, safety and welfare of employees must be taken by employer
Physical condition of the machine and its attachments
●the electricity isolating switch must be labeled to identify machine
 The machine controls -stop control must be prominently positioned
 Guards and their adjustment
Setting-up and guarding the machine
 Know how to isolate the machine
 Ensure that the blades /cutters are of the correct type and shape and are sharp
 Ensure that all adjustment levers are locked securely
 Check that all guards and safety devices are in place and secure
 Make sure that Push sticks and blocks are at hand
 Ensure that work and floor areas are free from obstruction

Suitability of the material to be cut

 Understand the cutting characteristics of the material.
●Check length and section limitations.
Machine use

●Always allow the blade/cutters to reach maximum speed before making a cut.
●Know the correct stance and posture for the machinery’ should be read to help illustrate and operative.
●Use an assistant as necessary.
●Never make guard adjustments until all moving parts are stationary and the machine has been isolated
●Never make fence adjustments when a blade/cutter is in motion.
● Never make fence adjustments within the area around the blade /cutters or moving parts
● Concentrate on the job – never become
distracted while the machine is in motion.
-never allow hands to travel near or over a welfare of employees must be taken by employ-blade/cutter while it is in motion.
●Never leave a machine until the blade/cutters are stationary
-Always isolate the machine after use.

Personal safety
●Ensure that dress and hair cannot become caught in moving parts or obstruct vision.

●Finger rings should never be worn in a machine shop

●Wear eye protection.
●Footwear should be sound with non-slip soles of adequate thickness and firm upper afford good toe protection
●Wear ear protection.
-Wear eye protection
 Joints and material preparation
Cutting out
In marking out with a pencil for cutting from the board, ample allowances for planning and squaring of ends must be made.
The amount of these allowances will depend on the skill of the operator in sawing accurately.
The preparation of timber(planning)
1.select the face side and the edge. These are the two adjacent faces most completely from knots and other blemishes.
2.plane the face side and as soon as all the saw marks have disappeared test it with the straight edge along the length and
across the width. Any twisting will easily be seen. Put on face mark very clearly, adjoining the face edge.
3.plane the face edge, test with the straight edge along the length and also with the square. Put-on the face edge
Mark clearly, adjoining the face side mark.
4.gauge the wood to width both on the face side and on the back
5.plane off the waste wood taking care not to pass the gauge lines.
6.gauge the wood to thickness along both edges.
7.plane the waste wood.

Marking out
The marking knife is used in marking out for joint construction and for squaring off ends of timber.

Sawing at the bench

The tenon and dovetail saws are used at the bench; tenon cutting the sides of a trenching.

Functions of a woodworking joints

 to increase size of the materials
 to form an angle between two or more members e.g., Rail stile, head and jambs on door and door frames
 to allow a certain amount of movements to occur between close fittings
 to provide neat finishing to intersection in mouldings

Requirements of joints
1.strength-to give adequate strength in services
2.simplicity-simple as possible for the circumstance prevailing
3.appearings-have good appearance, clear line and close fitting
4.weather resistance-every effort should be made to prevent the penetration of water into the interior of the joint

Joints generally fall into three categories and carry out the following functions:

Category Joint Function

a Lengthening End To increase the effective length of timber

b Widening Edge To increase the width of timber or board material
c Framing Angle To terminate or change direction

10.1Lengthening – end joints

Where timber is not long enough, a suitable end joint must be made. The type of joint used will depend on the situation and
end use.

Lap Joint
The two adjoining lengths of timber are lapped at their ends.
Butt joint
-shows two methods of securing an end butt joint. Depending on whether the
joint is to be concealed or not, and the required strength, a ‘single’ or ‘double’ cleat can be used.
Scarf joint1
-for structural use will require a slope of 1 in 12 or less
-second method incorporates a hook that enables the joint to be tightened with folding wedges

Laminated joint
-overlapping different lengths of timber together with nails and/ or glue.
Finger joint
-these is produced by machine, then glued and assembled by controlled end pressure
-is a useful method of using up short ends and upgrading timber.
Half-lap and sloping halving joints
-These joints are also used as framing joints
-They can also be used for lengthening and intersecting wall plates in floor and roof construction

Widening
widening joints
-whether the joint is to be permanent -glued, or flexible- dry joint without using any adhesive, will depend on its
location

Preparing timber
These involves planning apart from Rip and cross cutting timber. Using the jack-try plane, plane face side straight and
then make face side marked. Plane the face-edge true and square to the face side. Check with the square and mark the
edge

Edge glued joints

-All edge glued joints enable a boards width to be increased examples as below

Butt -rubbed, Dowelled, Tongued and grooved, loose tongued and slot screwed respectively

Whatever method of jointing is chosen, visualize how a board will react if subjected to moisture.
a. Butt joint
-the simplest of all edge joints
-if the joint is to be glued, the adjoining edges have to match perfectly and is achieved by
1.the boards are first marked in pairs
2.each pair is planed straight and square
3.reposition edge toe edge to check that no light shows through the joint and both faces are in line
4.glue is applied while both edges are positioned as if they were hinged open. They are then turned edge to edge and
rubbed one on the other to remove any surplus and finally form rubbed joint

Straight edge

Planing a butt (rubbed) joint

 b. Dowelled joint
-By inserting dowels intervals, butt joint can be both strengthened and stiffened

c) Tongued-and-grooved joint
-another method of strengthening a glued butt joint because it increases the surface area to be glued the method of dry jointing
boards together floor board and matchboard use this joint
 Forming a tongue and groove

d)loose tongue joint

-another method of strengthening a glued butt joint because it increases the surface area to be glued- the glue line.it can also be
used as a means of drying jointing together.
e. slot-screwed joint
-jointing can be made whenever a secret fixing is to be made
-after preparing the board edges
-the edges are marked with an offset equal to the amount that the screw will travel in the slot depending on screw gauge and
length

Fig 10.8Making a slot-screwed edge joint

10.3.1Housing joints (“g. 10.9)

Framing joints
-joints used to form angles and / or junctions can be divided into the following
a. housing
b. halving
c. mortise and tenon
d. bridle
e. dowelled
f. notched and cogged
g. dovetail
h. mitre and scribe

Housing joints
- Often used in the construction of shelf and cabinet units, partitions, and sectional timber-framed buildings. This type of joint
can be further sub-divided
a. through housing
b. stopped housing
c. double-stopped housing
d. dovetailed housing
Halving joints
These are used where timber members are required either to cross or to lap each other.
Mortise-and-tenon joints

These are the most common of all conventional framing joints – probably due to their versatility and easy concealment
-Usually in both carpentry and joinery it is extensively used for doors and windows construction and general framing
Basic rules to mortise and tenon
-tenon should always a third the thickness of the timber to be joined
-The width of the tenon should not exceed 5 times its thickness
 This is done to minimize tendency for tenon to shrink and become loose
 Long mortises weaken the stile
The joint’s name usually reflects its size, shape, or position.
For example;
●Through mortise and tenon – the mortise hole goes completely through the material
●Stub tenon – mortised only part way into the material-stopped mortise hole
●Twin tenon – two tenons side by side (usually in the thickness of a member);
●Barefaced tenon – only one shoulder;
 Double tenon-two tenon cut in the depth of a member

Bridle joints

Except for the corner bridle – also known as an open or slot mortise -bridle joints slot over through-running members. They
are cut in the same way to tenons and halving joints.
-it is used for work requiring accurate alignment of the members but not greater strength. It is secured with glue in conjunction
with nails, screws or dowels
Notched and cogged joints
The notches of a notched joint are used to locate members in one or both directions and as a
means of making any necessary depth adjustments (joist to wall plates etc.). Cogged joints per-form a similar function, but less
wood is removed, therefore generally leaving a stronger joint – they do, however, take much longer to make.

-Dl=double location
-SL-notched, DL-double notched, DL-cogged, DL-notched and cogged

Dovetail joints
- dovetailing has been used to prevent members from being pulled apart. The
strength of a dovetail joint relies on the self-tightening effect of the dovetail against
the pins as shown by direction of the arrows.
Through dovetail and Lapped dovetail
Dowelled joints (above)
Useful alternative to mortise and tenon joints for joining members in their thickness or as means of framing members in their
width.

Mitre and scribe joints

These are generally associated with joining or abutting trims – i.e., cover laths, architraves, skirting
boards, and beads – either at external or internal angles. The joint allows the shaped sections to continue round or into a
corner, as shown below.

Strengthening joints
 Nails- can be used to fix pieces of wood and other materials together. They are available in various sizes and are made
from wrought iron or mild steel and galvanized. The common are wire nails, oval nails and panel nails
 Screws-used to fasten wood together. Three types are used; counter-sunk head, round head and raised head.
 Hinges-used for hanging door to door frames, cabinets and drawers. Most commonly used is butt hinge
 Glues-used in woodwork joinery to enable pieces of wood, plywood and joints to be fixed together
 Plates

To achieve good quality, they must attain;

-firmness
-rigidity
-good workmanship

Material estimation and job costing

Job No;…………… cupboard door

ITEM No Finished sizes Sawn sizes

Off L W T L W T
Stile 2 1000mm 71mm 21mm 1020mm 75mm 25mm
Muntin 1 945 62 21 945 66 25
Top rail 1 750 62 21 770 66 25
B rail 1 750 71 21 770 75 25
Panel 2 872 290 9 - - -
 Temporary structures

Hoarding

Fig. 2.8In situ sheet hoarding

Before the start of any work involving the construction, alteration, repair, or demolition of a building situated in a street or
court, a close-boarded hoarding or fence should be erected to the satisfaction of the appropriate LA to separate the building
from any street, court, or public footpath, and thereby ensure public safety.

Hoardings must be designed with structural stability in mind particularly with regard to resisting wind pressure.
When hoarding is used on a regular basis, pre-fabricated panels like those shown in Fig. 2.10 may be used. Those which
incorporate back brackets are particularly suited to paved areas.

Fig. 2.9Hoarding, viewed from

outside a city-centre building site
 Fig. 2.10Pre-fabricated panel and bracket

Doors and gates in hoardings, to allow personnel and vehicles to enter and leave the site, must not open on to or impede a
public footpath or roadway at any time.

Encroachment onto a public foot path

Subject to the width of the existing footpath, and the approval of the LA, a minimum of 1.2 m should be allowed for
pedestrian traffic.

Fig. 2.12Hoarding encroaching

onto footpath with site offices

Fig. 2.13Hoarding viewed from

inside a city-Centre building site
 Fig. 2.14Encroachment on to a public footpath
and roadway

Signboards are necessary to publicise the nature of the work and the names of the companies participating
in its development. A typical signboard and its construction are shown in Fig. 2.18.

Fan hoarding
Methods of sinking and anchoring posts are chosen according to;
(a)type of fence or hoarding
(b)the height of the fence or hoarding
(c) the post material timber, concrete, or steel;
(d) the required ground penetration with regard to load and earth condition.

Posts often rely on the added support of a stay or brace to help prevent any deflection and for stiffening.
Fig. 2.18A typical signboard
 Formwork
Formwork is best described as a temporary construction designed to contain wet concrete until it has set.
There are two distinct types of formworks:

(a)Pre-cast work (mould boxes)

Used when concrete units are pre-cast by forming them in a
mould, either at a convenient position on site or under factory
conditions (often by a firm that specializes in concrete products)
to be used as and when required such as:
●
building blocks,
●
paving slabs,
●
lintels,
●
coping stones,
●
cappings,
●
kerbstones,
●
sills,
●
beams,
●
stairs
●
cladding.
Some examples of the above are shown in Fig. 3.1.

(b) In situ formwork (Shuttering)

In this case formwork is assembled on site for casting elements
that will form part of the structure in their actual position relevant
to the building such as:
●
columns,
●
walls,
●
suspended floors and roofs,
●
steps and stairs

Figure 3.2 shows examples of possible locations details for A and

B can be found in Fig. 3.17.
 Fig. 3.1Common pre- cast concrete products

Fig. 3.2Key to in situ structural

elements

As wet concrete is a heavy semi-fluid material, its formwork must be capable of restraining not only its mass but also its fluid
pressure. The deeper the formwork, the greater the pressure it has to bear. It is important to remember that the finished
concrete surface will reflect the surface of its formwork.
-For reasons of economy, formwork (particularly mould boxes) can be re-used many times, therefore initial design must
include quick, simple, and in some cases mechanical methods of assembly and striking (dismantling) without undue damage,
by such means as wedges, bolts, cramps, and nails which can be easily redrawn without damaging the structure.

Formwork should be designed and suitably constructed to be capable of:

(a) withstanding dead and live loads (Section 3.1.1),

(b) being easily assembled and dismantled,
(c) accurately producing or reproducing concrete items of correct
size and shape,
(d) producing the desired finish on the concrete face,
(e) reusability for reasons of economy.

Loads on formwork
The dead load on the formwork due to the concrete and its steel reinforcement will become less as the concrete hardens and
becomes self-supporting.
Live loads are those which are imposed during the erection of the formwork and the placing of concrete. They include the
movement of the workforce, their materials, and equipment.

Unlike formwork used for suspended floor or roof slabs, which in the main is subjected to vertical loads. Formwork for
columns, walls, and deep beams will have to resist varying degrees of lateral (sideways) pressure as a result of the buildup of
concrete in its fluid state (fluidity is increased during its compaction by vibration) within the confines of the formwork.
Fig. 3.4Single and multiple
casting units

precast-work (mould boxes)

The shape of even a simple moulded object such as a jelly or a sand castle will hopefully reflect that of the mould from
which it was produced. Similarly, concrete items
should also accurately reproduce the shape of their respective moulds.
 Pre-cast work (mould boxes)

Fig. 3.6Mould box for plant

tub or litter bin

The quality of pre-cast components will depend upon:

(a) The quality of the concrete and the way it is placed and vibrated in
the moulds.
(b) The stiffness of the mould box, its dimensional accuracy, and the
finish of the surface in contact with the concrete. Open joints or
poor detailing of the mould box will lead to poor surface finishes
on the finished product.
Form(shutter) support and formwork hardware
formwork

Fig. 3.9Resisting the effects of hydrostatic pressure

 Fig. 3.10Column-box construction
and anchorage

Walls

Wall forms are usually made up of pre-fabricated units or panels. A typical formwork assembly is shown in Figs 3.12 and 3.13
and includes soldiers, wailings, props, form ties, bolts, and clamps. Some proprietary form ties and spacers are shown in Fig.
3.14. The coil tie (Figs 3.14(a) and 3.15) is made from two coils of steel bar, held bar welded to them.
Wall formwork

. 3.12
Fig
 Fig. 3.13Erection of wall form

Fig. 3.14Form ties and spacers

Beam formwork
Beam and lintel formwork both require side and soffit support, as shown in Fig. 3.19. As it takes most of the load, the soffit
and its supports will be struck last.
 Fig. 3.19Beam and lintel formwork

Striking formwork
Formwork must not be removed from any structural concrete until the concrete is strong enough to carry both its own weight
and any weight which may be superimposed upon it. Approval to strike formwork should come only from the engineer in
charge of the project

Table 3.1Guide to minimum period before striking formwork. For

ordinary Portland Cement (BS 8110-1: 1997)

Type of formwork Surface temperature

of concrete

16°C and above 7°C

Vertical formwork to columns, 12 hrs. 18 hrs.

walls, and large beams

Soffit formwork to slabs 4 days 6 days

Soffit formwork to beams 10 days 15 days

and props to slabs

Props to beams 14 days 21 days

 Striking must be a gradual process carried out with care to avoid giving the concrete any sudden shock. In the stages of
formwork construction, provision should have been made for column forms to be removed without disturbing beams and
soffits, and beam side forms before soffits, etc.
 Fig. 3.21Concrete columns

As each form is struck, it should be de-nailed and cleaned, with any damage made good, then stacked flat (out of twist) ready
for retreatment and reuse.

Figure 3.21 shows a column that has just been struck, and a further two with props removed waiting to be struck.

Timbering to trenches

Methods of earthwork support

It is important to access how long an excavation can safely remain open without support for the sides. If the weather is
very dry then the lack of moisture may cause the soil to shrink, crack and fall in generally the looser the soil the more it
needs to be supported.

If the soil is very wet then the sides of the excavation may become unstable. Provide temporary supports to the sides of
the excavation. Excavation may also need support in case heavy loads are placed or driven too close to the edges of the
excavation. Earthworks supports retain the size of excavation collapsed during the time the excavation will remain
open. The process of providing temporary support to the sides of an excavation is referred to as timbering. It is
sometime planking and strutting.

Timbering is to;
 Protect the operatives while working in excavation
 Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trend

 Prevent drainage to adjacent structures that could be caused by excavation

 Enable work to proceed within the excavation without interruption

Components of timbering

 Polings: these are vertical planks supporting the soil. In sand or gravel, they should be
placed close enough to form a continuous timber wall. Depending on the soil type and
working conditions; they may be placed about 900mm apart. The purpose of walling is to
keep the soil on the sides of the excavation from falling.
 Walling: they are horizontal timber strips supporting the polings
 Struts: are timber that span across the trench between the walling.
The struts hold the opposite walls of the excavation in place

 Wedges: are pieces of timber used to maintain the pressure of the polings against the soil. If
the soil expands or shrinks while the work is carried out, the wedges may need to be
adjusted again.

Factors to be considered in providing supports to excavation

 The nature of the soil-generally non-cohesive soils require more support than cohesive soils
 The depth of the excavation-shallow excavations needs less support than deep excavation

 The width of excavation-the wide excavation needs to be supported in different way than
narrow excavation

 The type of work to be carried out-operation within the excavation will require working
space the amount required will depend on the operation involved

 The moisture content of the soil-soils require different amount of supports as changes in
their moisture content occur

 The length of excavation will be left open-cohesive soils, in particular may dry out and start
to crumble if the excavation is left open for long periods of dry weather.

 The method of excavation-hand excavation will require more support than machine
excavation

 The support system used-different methods of excavation support can be installed before,
during or after the excavation
 The removal of the support system-different support systems can be removed either before
or after the excavation

 Moving material into excavation-the working space will need to consider the materials
being moved into and out of the excavation as well as the operating being carried out within
the excavation

 The proximity use of the land adjacent to the excavation for stacking materials close the
excavation can cause stress on soils at the side of excavation. Similarly, large vehicles
should be prevented from driving too close to the excavation

 Vibration of soils from construction operation or vehicle using adjacent road-excessive

vibration can cause soils to move, making the sides of excavation potentially less stable

Timbering in various types of soil

 Timbering in hard soils
 Timbering in firm soils

 Timbering in dry loose soils

 Timbering in loose wet soils

Draw sketches

Rain water goods

Types of rain water woods
These are goods essential to our modern life way of life that are used to remove water quickly and dispose of at some
more convenient place.

1.Gutters-half round, ogee, box profile, valley, and boundary wall shapes
- has stop end, gutter support bracket and outlet spigot
-gutter runs the full length of the eaves and is supported by means of brackets fixed to fascia board
-the outlet discharges either directly or by means of a rain water head or hopper into a vertical pipe called
rain water pipe or down pipe
2.Down pipes
3.Ridge caps-it is a material to cover the gap left in the ridge board, valley rafter and hip rafter by covering
materials e.g. Galvanized iron sheet
4.gullies- is where down pipe terminated by a rain water shoe which discharges the rain water into surface
water drain or, by a direct connection, into a back inlet gully.

(a) Flush eaves (b) Open

eaves (c) Closed eaves
Plastic is now the most common material for down pipes. Adequate wall fixings are important, distances between
fixing should be specified

Downpipe (fall pipe)

Note: Lapped joints help to strengthen and stiffen the joint –

although these joints are often just butted then screw nailed

by the manufacturers and these distances should never be exceeded.

As with gutters, provision for thermal movement must be made;
this can be achieved by pushing home the joint, then slightly with-
drawing the spigot from the socket by the amounts previously stated
for gutters.

Materials for rain water goods

1.Galvanised iron sheets
2.plastic-upvc systems are often specified today because of their simple installation and low maintenance costs
3.stainless steel
4.aluminium alloy
Materials chosen must be of adequate size, strength and durability
Fabricating methods
1.Welting-act of reinforcing welts
-sheet ironwork, a strip riveted upon the edges of plates that form butt joint
2.Soldering-the method of joining to metallic surfaces by melting an alloy between them
4.soft welding-is used to solder plumbing joints
5.riveting-act of joining with rivets, spreading out and clinching the end as of rivet by beating or pressing
Timber -framed construction
These are permanent buildings consisting of an outer timber frame- work structurally designed to support an upper floor
and/or a roof structure. All loads are transmitted to the foundations via the timber- studded framework. This studded wall
framework can be built up by one of two methods:

(i) balloon-frame construction, or

(ii) platform-frame construction.

In balloon-frame construction (Fig. 1.5), which is generally not used

much in the UK, the wall panels extend in height from the ground floor
to the eaves. The upper floor is suspended from within the full-height
studded wall structure. Load-bearing partitions can offer mid-support.

In platform-frame construction below, storey-height wall panels are erected off the ground-floor platform.
These load-bearing panels provide support for the upper-floor platform, off which the upper wall panels are erected.
Balloon-frame con-
struction and stages of erection

Platform-frame con-

Platform-frame construction and stages of erection

vertical section through platform- framed construction
Figure below illustrates the main stages in the erection of a partially
off-site prefabricated timber-frame house. (Not all the photographs
are of the same house.) It should be noted that in these cases the
breather membrane (as shown in Fig. 1.8(f)) is fixed over the face of the
panels in-situ; in this way the probability of a pre-covered panel
becoming damaged while in transit or stored on site is avoided.
However, many manufacturers prefer to pre-cover their panels, to
ensure early weather protection to the building as a whole.

With both methods, the roof structure bears upon load-bearing wall
panels.

Nearly all timber-framed houses in the UK are built using the platform-
frame construction method; therefore, the text that follows refers to
this method.
 b. Exterior corner panels erected
a. Sole plate in place , used to provide
floor screed. Notice the provision for
service pipes

(c) Interior studwork showing temporary

bracing for stability
(d) Roof trusses pre-assembled over ground
floor slab – prior to being lifted up in place

Election of a timber-framed house

Wall construction

Panels may be constructed by one of three methods;

(i)Stick built: this is the least popular method, which involves fabricating all the panels on site.
Off-site part prefabricated, Add -on brick cladding, Off site fully prefabricated and moisture barrier respectively

(a) Panel (b) Brick cladding (c) Timber cladding

(ii) Partial off-site prefabrication: a jig-built studded framework is clad with a sheathing (sheet material usually exterior-grade
plywood to prevent racking and is then often covered with a breather membrane.
i. Insulation, a vapour control layer, and an inner lining are fixed on site after the house has been made
watertight. The panel size will depend on the means of transport and the site-hoisting facilities available.
(iii)Fully off-site prefabricated panels: if the building is to be clad with masonry (i.e., brickwork), then the panels will include
wall ties prefixed to the studs via breather-membrane-covered sheathing, bitumen-impregnated fiberboard.
- Timber-clad panels could include pre-fixed windows.

completed panel components include

a) Structural timber studs: these are usually structural-graded soft- wood, sawn or (more likely) planed finish. Preservative
treatment will be required in most cases. Hardwoods may also be used.
(i)Plywood structural sheathing quality, bonded to WBP standard
i)OSB (orientated strand board) multi-layer board, cross-banded in a similar fashion to 3-ply-veneer plywood
) Medium board should be stiff enough to provide racking resistance
(iv)Bitumen-impregnated fiberboard racking resistance of the panel must be provided by other means

c. vapour control layer: this is usually a 250- or 500-gauge polythene membrane fixed to the
warm side of the insulation. All joints should meet on studs or noggings and should overlap by at least 100 mm.
Stainless steel staples should be used.
(d)‘Breather’ membrane: this is a waterproof membrane which helps keep the timber-framed shell weathertight but,
because of its per- meable nature, allows water vapour to escape from inside dwelling as and when required to do
(e)Insulation material: this must be a permeable type of either rock wool or glass mineral wool.
(f)Lining: suitable lining materials and the requirements regarding surface spread of flame
 Fire spread

In the event of a possible fire, timber used as an external cladding may increase the likelihood of the fire spreading to
other buildings.
-domestic buildings must be separated by a space of at least 1 m and restricted to wall areas of 3 storeys in height and
24 m in length.

Timber framed curtain

These form a non-structural façade to cover a framed load-bearing structure.
The panels will rely on the main substructure for their fixing and support
- By using masonry cross-walls (either end or party walls) to support all the main load-bearing parts of a building, for
example the floors and the roof, the front and back walls can, in some situations, be made as an infill panel (or panels)

Framing using steel

-comprising inner leave wall panels of standard galvanized steel channel sections as structural support.
Advantages

-factory made to quality-controlled standards simple to assemble on site-bolted connections in pre-formed holes
-dimensionally stable
-unaffected by moisture therefore will not rot
-does not burn
-inedible by insects
-roof span potentially long relative to weight
Disadvantages

-corrosion if protective layer is damaged

-deforms at high temperatures
 -electricity conductor- must be earthed
Fixing devices

-Screws
-bolts
-gang nails
-connectors

Treatment and preservation

-preservation-treatment of timber to prevent damage
1.vacium/pressure impregnation with a blend of copper, chromium
and arsenic
2.diffusion with sodium borate (boron salts)
3steeping or soaking in tar oil (creosote)
4steeping 10 min in organic solvent wood preservative

5.sound, well-seasoned timber protected from insect and fungal attack and rain water and moisture require low maintenance

TYPES OF ROOF

Pitch roof
A pitch roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slop of more than 10° to horizontal. The most common roof shape is the
symmetrical pitch roof, pitched to central ridge with equal slope. A mono pitched roof has only one slope free standing vision
lean to roof.

A pitched roof is stable in most weather and its slope disposes of rainwater quickly. The main supporting structure is timber,
which is easy to work and transport.

Pitched roof construction

This can be built in different ways depending on the loads and sizes. Below is the list of pitched roof that use different
methods of construction.

Types of pitch roofs

• Lean-to roof

• Couple roof

• Closed couple roof

• Collar roof

 • Trussed rafters’ roof

Flat Roof
A flat roof is basically a low-pitched roof and is defined as a pitch of 10° or less to the horizontal. The angle of pitch is
governed by the type of finish which is to be applied to the roof. Flat roofs can be timber or reinforced concrete and are
popular forms of roofing for houses. Points to consider when constructing a flat roof:

1. It requires a deck or slab

2. it must have some insulation

3. a method of disposing rainwater etc

Definitions of roofs

Flat roof – This is any roof which has a slope of less than 10°. This type of roof is associated with garages and small house
extensions. The waterproof covering is usually bitumen felt although the new innovation is a glass fibre covering. Which is
much more expensive?

Lean-to roof – This roof is similar to a flat roof except the slope of the roof exceeds 10°. This type of roof always abuts
another higher wall. The covering of this roof must match the covering of the main roof of the building.

Gable roof – A gable is a straight wall with a triangular upper part which supports the roof.

The roof has two sloping surfaces, or pitches, which slope from the ridge to

the eaves.

Hipped roof – This is a roof where the slope of the roof is returned around one or both
ends.

Hipped roof with one straight gable Hipped roof with all surfaces sloping
A mono-pitched roof – This is a roof which has one sloping surface and does not abut against another wall or building. The
other surface of the roof is perpendicular.

Mansard or Dutch roof – This type of roof has each sloping surface pitched at two different angles. The gable ends of the
building are straight. If the roof is hipped, it is usually the upper sloping portions that are hipped. This roof is sometimes
referred to as a Dutch barn roof because of its shape.

Trussed Roofs
Modern construction methods make use of another type of roof structure and this is known as trussed rafter roofs (see trussed
rafter roofs).
 Trussed roof

Single roof Double roof

Trussed rafter
roof

Couple roof -These can be used for building with a clear span of not greater than 3m and pitches less than 40º.

This type of roof structure is very limited in its use. The roof consists of common rafters

fixed at the ridge and at the wall plate. When subjected to any type of load or force acting vertically downwards the rafters will
move outwards at their feet thus exerting thrust to the walls forcing them outwards and causing possible failure of the wall
structure.

Couple roof

Collar roof
These can be used for buildings with a clear span not exceeding 4mm. A
collar roof incorporates a horizontal roof member positioned
approximately one third of the distance from the ridge to the wall plate
line. This extra roof member helps prevent the rafters from spreading
when under load; this allows this type of roof structure to be used for
greater spans than the couple roof. This design also gives a greater
ceiling height if required.
Collar roof

Close couple roof Close couple roof

These can be used for buildings with a clear span not exceeding 5.5mm and with pitches less than 25º.

This roof incorporates a main tie which is secured to the feet of each rafter and spans the width of the building. This added
member forms a triangle which introduces the triangulation of forces within the structure. To stop the ceiling joist from
sagging, a hanger is fixed to the rafter at the top and the ceiling joist at the bottom.

To further increase the strength of this structure, a binder is fixed to each ceiling joist and hanger. This binder runs parallel
with the main wall and at right angles to the ceiling joist. This type of structure ensures that this type of roof can be used for
great spans without the fear of the roof spreading under
loads.

Roof Components and Terminology

Components and elements are shown in the drawing

below:

Elements of a roof

Gable –The triangular end of a pitched roof, or the triangular upper part of the gable wall. Hip – The edge of a hipped roof that
runs from the ridge to the eaves. It is formed when two sloping surfaces intersect.

Eaves – This is the lower edge of the roof surface that overhangs the walls.

Soffit – This is the underside of the eaves that is fi xed to the back of the fascia and the wall.

It forms an enclosed element all around the building.

Ridge – This is the uppermost line of the roof and is formed at the intersection of two sloping surfaces.

Valley – This is the line formed at the internal intersection of two sloping surfaces. It runs from the ridge to the eaves.

Verge – This is the underside surface of the eaves and the soffit of a gable roof which overhangs the gable wall.
Wall plates – The timber component which sits upon the top of the walls of a building and to which the foot of the roof rafters
are fixed

Fascia board – A vertical timber or plastic trim which is fixed to the feet of the rafters and, along with the soffit, encloses the
eaves

Soffit board – A timber or plastic trim which is horizontally fixed to the underside of the rafters and which, along with the
fascia encloses the eaves

Barge board – A vertical timber or plastic trim which is fixed to the face of the last common rafter at the end of a gable roof

Common rafter – A rafter that runs from the ridge to the wall plate

Jack or cripple rafters – These are short rafters that run from the hip rafter to the wall plate. These short rafters form the lower
portion of a valley or hip.

Hip rafter – This is the main rafter of hip roof. It is to this rafter that all jack or cripple rafters are fixed to form the hip.
Gable ladder – This is a framework comprising two common rafters and noggins. The noggins and the rafters form a ladder
frame which is built into the top of the gable wall and extends beyond the gable wall to form the gable eaves and to which the
barge board is fixed.

Purlin – This is a strong, large sectioned timber member which, is fixed to the common rafters midway between the ridge and
the wall plate and runs parallel to the wall and the ridge. On gable roofs, the ends of the purlin are built into the gable walls.
This component gives added strength to the roof structure and allows heavier roof coverings to be used. Joist hangers – These
are metal hangers by which ceiling joists are fixed to the wall plate, or they may be built into the supporting walls.

Ceiling joists – These are timber components which span from wall to wall and to which the ceiling covering is fixed.

Roof binder – These are horizontal timber components which span from wall to wall and which are fixed to the feet of
common and jack rafters.

Roof struts – These are angled components which are fixed to the common rafters and roof ties. The strut is usually fixed at
right angles to the common rafter to offer greater strength.

Roof hangers – Hangers are vertical timber components similar in size and cross section to a common rafter and are fixed to
the top of the common rafter close to the ridge and the ceiling joist or roof binders.

Pitches, Spans and Rises

When setting out a roof, there are certain essential factors that must be considered.

These are:

Roof span – This is the distance across the roof and measured to the outer edges of the wall plates.

Roof height or rise – This is the vertical height of the roof at its highest point and is measured from the top of the wall plates
to the intersection of the rafters at the top of the roof. When measuring rafters, the length is taken as a straight line running
through the centre of the rafter.
Roof pitch – This is the angle or slope of the roof and can be expressed in degrees or as a fraction or ratio found by dividing
the rise by the span.

Example. If a roof has a span of 6m and a rise of 3m then the pitch would be:

Pitch = SpanRise = 63 = 12 pitch

Since the rise is half the span, the angle of the roof would be 45°.

Roof ventilation

Roof ventilation is essential to reduce the likelihood of condensation within the roof space as required by the Building Regs
1985.

The regulations state that all roofs must be cross-ventilated at eaves level by permanent vents and these must have an
equivalent area equal to a continuous gap along both sides of the roof of 10mm, or 25mm where the pitch of the roof is less
than 15°.

This ventilation requirement can be achieved by:

• Leaving a gap between the outer wall and the soffit.

• Using a proprietary ventilation strip.

• Using circular plastic ventilators set into the soffit board.

There are many types and designs of proprietary ventilators available all of which have been designed to give sufficient
ventilation to the roof space if used and incorporated into the structure correctly.

Double Roofs

A double roof is a roof whose rafters are of such a length that they require an intermediate support. This support is usually a
beam which is secured under the rafters at a point half way between the ridge and the wall plate. This beam is known as a
purlin.
In gable roofs, the purlin is built into the gable wall to provide added support. In double pitched roofs, the purlin is fixed to the
rafters in a continuous length, jointed at all the internal and external corners of the roof.

In traditionally constructed roofs, the roof may also require added support in the form of roof trusses. This will depend
upon the size of the roof and the type of roof covering the roof has to support.

In modern double roof construction, the whole of the roof is constructed of lightweight roof trusses called trussed rafters.

Trussed Rafters

The majority of double roofs that are constructed today make use of trussed rafters.

Trussed rafters are manufactured in factories, under strict quality control.

They are designed to be lightweight while, at the same time, able to support calculated roof loads. For those reasons they are
manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes to suit the needs of the builder.

Below are a few of the many popular designs available:

Fan truss

King post truss

Attic truss

‘W’ or Fink truss

Trussed rafters construction

The trusses are manufactured in factories and are assembled using adjustable jigs. The assembly procedure has strict quality
controls to ensure that all trusses meet the design requirements. All the timber used is stress graded softwood and the sizes of
the roof members will vary according to the load that the truss has to support and the span of the roof. Usually, the cross
section sizes vary between 35mm x 75mm and 145mm x 45mm.
The individual roof members are butted together and jointed by the use of:

• Nailed plywood gussets.

• Nailed galvanized steel plates.

• Galvanized steel punched plates.

Plywood gusset

Predrilled galvanised plate

Punched plate

Truss rafter roof construction

The roof is constructed of a number of truss rafters spaced at centers between 400mm and 600mm. The trusses are designed to

sit directly onto a prefixed wall plate and are fixed in place by the use of
truss clips and supported by galvanized wall straps or restraints to provide
extra strength.

Truss rafter fixed to wall plate

Typical truss

The hipped end of a double truss rafter roof can be formed by either:

• Traditional cut rafters and ceiling joists.

or
• Tailor-made trusses which are assembled on site to form the
hip.
Typical ‘W’ truss rafter

Hipped end detail

Roof Truss Spacing and Layout

Permanent and temporary bracing to support roof

Lateral restraint straps tying roof trusses to gable

Water Tank Platform

In most modern domestic housing, the water tank which supplies the house is housed in the roof
space. To support and distribute the weight of a full water tank, a platform is built.

The platform is usually placed centrally in the roof space and the load spread over at least
three truss rafters. The platform consists of a sheet of 18mm plywood supported on three
bearers fixed to the truss rafter ceiling joist.

Trimming to Openings

Where there are openings intended for such things as Velox windows, loft hatches or
chimney stacks, the openings are trimmed. The trimmers are nailed to the rafters at the
required dimensions to accommodate the item.

Trimming to openings within truss rafter roofs

Handling and Moving Truss Rafters

When handling or moving truss rafters, care must be taken not to exert strain on the joints.

The rafters should be lifted and carried from the eaves and should be kept upright. When
lifting the trusses into position, they can be manhandled using a team of workers. This will
involve the use of extra scaffolding within the building to support the operative and
assist in the movement of the trusses. When lifting the trusses to a great height, a crane is
used, and the trusses are lifted in sets using a set of slings. To prevent the trusses from
swinging, a guide rope is used to control the trusses. This guide rope is held by an operative
at ground level.

Two operatives carrying truss

Lifting truss into position using manhandling method
Lifting truss into position using a crane and a guide rope

Erection procedure

• The positions of the trusses are marked off on the wall plate.

• The rafters are lifted into place and stacked in an upright position at one end of the roof.

• The first rafter is placed into position and secured with truss clips. It is plumbed and
temporarily braced using diagonal braces and binders.
• The remaining rafters are slid into position, secured and braced temporarily.

• Once all the rafters are in place, the diagonal braces and the longitudinal braces are
secured.
• All relevant strapping and restraints are secured in place.
Truss rafter being erected and fixed in place

Flat Roofs

The definition of a flat roof is any roof which has a slope of less than 10o or a fall ratio of
1:6. This type of roof is associated with garages and small house extensions. The waterproof
covering is usually bitumen felt although the new innovation is a glass fibre covering, but it
is much more expensive than traditional bitumen felt.

Roof falls

The direction of the slope of the roof is called the fall. There are three common methods of
producing the fall and these are shown in the sketches below.

Fall directly away from the main building Fall down the main length of the extension
Dual fall and abutting the main building

Roof Falls

The fall of the roof will depend upon:

· The type of roof construction and its covering.

· The location of the building.

· The position of any surface water drain.

The amount of fall should be sufficient to clear away any water and direct it to any surface
water outlet pipe. If the fall is insufficient to accomplish this, the water may form pools which
can increase the weight of the roof or lead to water penetration.

Construction methods used to obtain the roof fall

There are three basic methods of obtaining the fall of a flat roof. The chosen method will depend
upon the type and use of the building and the internal ceiling finish required.

Sloping roof joists

In this type of construction, the slope or fall is obtained by sloping the roof joists. This type of
construction is used where there is no level ceiling required.

Sloping joist

Tapered firring pieces

In this type of construction the slope or fall is obtained by attaching tapered pieces of timber
to the roof joists. This type of construction will produce a level ceiling.

Tapered firring pieces

Tapered firring

Deepened joists (parrallel fittings)

This type of construction involves parallel firring pieces, the firings are diminished section
and are nailed at right angles to the fall of the roof.

Parallel firring pieces

Roof Joists

All the roof joists used in the construction of flat roofs must comply with the requirements of
current building regulations.

These regulations govern:

· The sectional sizes and grades of timber.

· Dead loads imposed upon sectional areas of roof.

· Maximum clear span for imposed loadings.

· Spacing of joists in relation to covering and imposed loads.

NOTE:

The spacing of roof joists is always shown as a distance relating to the Centre of one joist to the Centre
of another. When determining the centers of the joists, the ceiling material such as plasterboard must
also be taken into consideration. It is good practice to ensure that all unsupported edges of the roof
covering, as well as the edges of the ceiling material, are supported by means of noggings nailed to the
inside of the joists.

Supporting Joists

Depending upon the slope of the roof, joist ends must be supported at:

1. The eaves or

2. The verge or

3. Where the joists abut to another building.

Dimensions required to obtain joist sizes

To determine the size of the joists, there are certain dimensions required. The drawing above
shows the dimensions the building regulations relate to determine the size, grade and section
of the joists to carry certain imposed dead loads.

Two of the most important dimensions are the clear span of the joist and the centres at
which they are fixed.

Methods of supporting joists

There are various methods of supporting joists. The method adopted usually depends on the
position of the building and the fall of the roof.

The methods that can be used are:

· Joists built into walls.

· Supported by steel beams.

· Supported by joist hangers built into walls.

· Supported by timber bearers and a supporting fillet.

· Supported by timber bearer and framing anchor.

· As part of a frame held together by framing anchors and joist hangers.

Methods of Supporting Joists

Built in

Ends of joist built into wall. The ends must be treated with a preservative to prevent rot.

Ends treated with preservative

Attached to steel beam

This occurs where there is an opening in the wall and a steel lintel has been inserted.

External wall

Joist notched into

steel beam

Joist hanger

Joist hanger built into wall to accommodate the joist.

Joist hanger
Wall bearer and fillet

A timber wall piece is fixed to the wall, and a fillet is fixed to the bearer. Joist is notched over the fillet.

Wall bearer

Fillet

Framing anchor

Details of intersection between a parapet wall and concrete flat r

Box Gutter

An alternative to an external gutter construction is a box gutter. A box gutter is a gutter

formed within the overhang of the eaves. It is an integral part of the roof construction and

Eaves detail for cavity wall construction

gives a neat appearance to the fascia. However, it is much more costly and time consuming
to form this type of gutter. The rainwater downpipe includes a cover to prevent any debris fl
ushing down the pipe and blocking it.

Types of Roof Decking

The sheet material used to cover a flat roof is called ‘decking’. Decking must conform to the
requirements of current building regulations and must be able to withstand imposed loads
such as:

Dead loads – the imposed loads associated with the weight of the roofing materials as well as
snow and ice.

Live loads – the imposed loads of people working and walking on the structure.

Wind loads – the imposed loads of strong winds.

There are numerous types of decking materials that can be used. The chosen material will depend
upon the type of construction and the thermal insulation qualities required.

The most common types of decking are:

· Tongued and groove boarding.

· Plywood sheets.

· Chipboard sheets.

· Strand board (OSB).

· Preformed metal sheeting.

· Composite boards.

Tongued and grooved boarding

Tongued and grooved boarding is very rarely used as a decking material. It is costly
compared with chipboard or plywood. It also has the disadvantage of shrinking, warping
and cupping when in contact with moisture and sun, making it an unsuitable material on
which to lay a protective waterproof membrane. If the boards are laid across the fall of the
roof, they can form small hollows which can accumulate pools of rainwater thus preventing
the fl ow of water from the roof surface.

Plywood sheets

There are many types and grades of plywood, but only roofing grade (WBP) must be used as a
decking material for roofs. The sheet sizes are usually 1.2 x 2.4m but larger sheets are
available. The sheets can be laid in any direction, but all the edges must be supported.

This material is an ideal material for decking as it is strong and durable, but compared to
chipboard it is costly.

Chipboard

This is the most common decking material used today. There are many types and grades
including sheets which are tongued and grooved around all the edges, but only the types
with water resistant qualities should be used. This sheet material is also available with a
covering of bituminous felt bonded to one surface. When these sheets are fi xed into
position, and the joints sealed, they will offer temporary protection against rain. As with
plywood, all the edges of the sheet must be supported. The sheets are further protected with
layers of bituminous felt topped with a sand coated final layer.

Strand board (OSB)

Oriented strand board is similar to chipboard and is manufactured in a similar manner except
that the sheet consists of strands of timber glued and pressed together under factory conditions.

This material is more stable than chipboard, but only roofing grades should be used and, as with
chipboard, all the edges must be supported.

Preformed metal sheeting

These are preformed profiled sheets of galvanized steel or aluminum with various protective
coatings applied to the surface. This sheeting material is very rarely used for domestic
housing, but innovations in design have resulted in a sheet material which consists of a sheet
of expanded polyurethane or polystyrene sandwiched between two sheets of profiled
aluminum. The result is a sheet material which is lightweight and strong and suitable as a
decking material.

Composite boards

This type of decking consists of an insulation material sandwiched between two sheets of
decking material such as WBP plywood or bitumen impregnated chipboard. The insulation
material varies, but the most common is expanded polyurethane or polystyrene. This type of
decking offers a weather proof surface with thermal insulation qualities suitable for warm
deck construction.
Roof insulation

The main function of any thermal insulation is to prevent heat from leaving or entering a
building. All good insulating materials have a cellular structure that traps air within it and
air is an excellent thermal insulator. There are many good insulating materials available in
the form of a rigid sheet or as a semi-rigid slab or quilt.

The more common types are expanded polyurethane or polystyrene slabs, mineral wool, or glass
wool quilt.

The position and way the insulation material is incorporated within the roof structure will
determine whether the roof is classified as either a ‘warm roof ‘or ‘warm deck construction’
or a
‘cold roof’ or ‘cold deck construction’ (See Sheet 41).

There are types of flat roof construction that have the insulating material placed on the top
of the weatherproof membrane. This type of construction is known as an ‘inverted roof
construction’ and is used for a flat roof that is to be used as a balcony, and the insulating
material will be a hard-wearing material such as tiles, concrete slabs or gravel.

Types of Flat Roof Deck Construction

Cold deck construction

In this type of construction, the thermal insulation material is placed at the ceiling level to
retain any heat within the structure. A vapor barrier is positioned at the warm side of the
insulation to prevent water vapour from passing through the insulation and coming in to
contact with colder air which will condense any vapour, turning it into water droplets. To
further prevent any other dampness occurring, the joist spaces are ventilated.

Warm deck construction

In this type of construction, the thermal insulation material is positioned at decking level.

A vapour barrier is placed on the warmer under side of the decking, and there is no need to
ventilate the joist spaces.
Inverted deck construction

This type of construction is usually associated with concrete balconies and roofs. The impervious
insulation material is placed on top of the waterproof membrane

ROOF COVERING FOR PITCHED ROOF

Roof covering is an essential part of pitched roof , to be placed over the roof frame work.

It protect from rain, snow, sun, wind & other atmospheric agencies.

Selection of roofing materials depends upon:-

a) Type of framework

b) Initial cost

c) Maintenance requirement

d) Appearance

e) Durability

f) Availability

g) Climate

ROOF COVERING MATERIALS

Following are the roof covering

materials a) Thatch Covering
b) Wood Shingles c) Tiles
d) Asbestos cement sheets
 e) Galvanized corrugated iron sheets
f) Light weight roofing

THATCH COVERING

• This is the cheapest roof covering, commonly used in villages.

• It is very light, but is highly combustible.

• It is unstable against high winds. It absorbs moisture & liable to decay.

• The framework to support thatch consists of round bamboo rafters spaced 20 to 30 cm apart
& tied with split bamboos laid at right angles to the rafters.

• In order to drain roof effectively a minimum slope of 450 is kept.

• The thickness of thatch covering should at least be 15cm, normal thickness varies from 20
to 30 cm.

WOOD SHINGLES

Its use is restricted to hilly areas where local timber is easily available at low cost.

Though it is light weight, it is not fire & termite resistant.

It is obtained from well-seasoned timber.

They are obtained in lengths varying from 30 to 40 cm & widths varying 6 to 25

cm. They are approximately 10mm thick at the tail or butt end and taper to 3mm.
TILES

It is the oldest type of roof covering materials & is still preferred for residential building and country houses.

This is because country tiles are manufactured from locally available earth.

Following are the various types of tiles generally used: -

A) Plain tiles

B) Curved tiles

C) Italian or Allahabad tiles

D) Interlocking tiles

E) Spanish tiles

PLAIN TILES

• Plain tiles are made of clay or concrete, though clay are more common.

• Plain or flat tiles are manufactured in rectangular shapes, of sizes varying form 25cm X 15
cm to 28 cm X 18 cm, with thickness from 9 mm to 15 mm.
• The tiles are not perfectly flat, but have slight camber of 5 to 10 mm in their length.

• Before laying the tiles, common rafters are laid at 20 to 30 cm spacing.

• Battens are then fixed across the rafters at a spacing 4 to 6cm.
CURVED OR PAN TILES

• Pan tiles are 33 to 36 cm long, 22.5 to 25 cm wide and 12 to 19 mm thick.

• They are flat longitudinally, but are curved transversely to a flat wave or S-curve.

SPANISH TILES

• These tiles are commonly used in villages.

• These tiles are laid in pairs of under-tiles and over-tiles.

• The under-tiles are laid with concave surface upwards while the over-tiles are laid with
convex surface upwards.
ITALIAN OR ALLAHABAD TILES

• These tiles are also used in pairs- flat broad bottom under-tile which alternate with convex
curved over-tile.

• The under-tile is flat, tapered with upturned edges or flanges at the sides.

INTER-LOCKING TILES

• These tiles are available with patent locking devices, the object of which is to prevent their
dislodgment even in most exposed condition.

• These tiles are machine made.

ASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETS

• These sheets are manufactured from asbestos fiber (@ 15%) & Portland cement.

• These sheets are now becoming popular for industrial buildings, factories, sheds,
auditorium & even residential building.

• They are cheap, light weight, tough, durable, water tight, fire-resisting.

• The main advantage is that they are available in bigger units, hence supporting frame is also
cheaper, easier and lighter.

• These sheets do not require any protective paint. Construction with A.C. sheets are very
fast.

Following points should be noted while fixing A.C. sheets: -

• The A.C. sheets should be laid with smooth side upward.

• End lap and side lap should be properly maintained. General end lap is 15cm but this can be
varied to suit purlin spacing.

• Purlin spacing and length of sheets should be properly checked before linked.

• The holes for fixing accessories should be drilled (not punched) in the crown of the
corrugations. The diameter of the holes should be 3 mm greater than the diameter of the fixing bolt
or screw. Thus 8mm dia.
drilled holes and screwed lightly.

• Bitumen washers should be provided under G.I. flat washer. The nuts of the screws or bolts
are moderately tightened when 10 to 12 sheets have been laid. They should not be screwed very
tight.
• Ridge capping should be secured to the ridge purlin.

• The sheets should be ‘mitred’ properly as required.

 • The unsupported overhang of A.C. sheets should not exceed 30cm.

CORRUGATED SHEETS (G. I. SHEETS)

• G.I. sheets are also widely used.

• They are stronger than A.C. Sheets.

• Due to higher cost, they are replaced by A.C. sheets.

• They are not used for slopes flatter than 1in 4.

• G.I. sheets are made from iron sheets which are galvanized with zinc to protect them from
rusting action of water & wet weather.

• These sheets are fixed in a manner similar to A. C. sheets.

LIGHT WEIGHT ROOFING

The wide span industrial structures, it is desirable to reduce the weight of roof, so that structural framing can
be economical.

The light weight roofing materials are of two types: -

A) Sheeting: -

i) Aluminum Sheet

ii) Asbestos cement sheet

B) Decking: -

i) Wood Wool

ii) Straw board

iii) Aluminum alloy and Steel decking

WOOD WOOL

• It is made from wood fibres interwoven together & cement bonded under pressure in
mould.

• They are available in the form of slabs, having thickness 12 to 100mm, 0.6m width & up to
3.9m length.

• It has good sound absorbing & thermal insulation properties.

STEEL TRUSSES OVER TIMBER TRUSSES.

• The sections comprising of a steel truss are readily available in the required dimensions,
resulting in minimum wastage of material.
 • Steel trusses are light in weight and can be fabricated in any shape depending upon
structural and architectural requirements.

• Steel trusses are stronger and more rigid in comparison to timber trusses. The members are
equally strong in tension as well as in compression.
• Steel trusses can be used over any span, while timber trusses are suitable only up to 15m
span.

• Steel trusses are fire proof.

• Steel trusses are termite proof.

• Steel trusses are most resistant to other environmental agencies and have longer life.

• The fabrication of steel trusses is easier and quicker since the sections can be machined and
shaped in the workshop and then transported to the construction site for erection.

FLAT ROOF

• A roof which is nearly flat is known as flat roof.

• It should be noted that no roof can be laid perfectly level.

• The roof must slope in one direction or the other to cause rain water to flow off rapidly and
easily.

• The construction of flat roof is same as that of floors except that the top surface is made
slightly sloping in case of flat roofs.

ADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS

• The roof can be used as terrace for playing, gardening, sleeping and for celebrating
functions.

• Construction and maintenance is easier.

• They can be easily made fireproof in comparison to pitched roof.

• They avoid the enclosure of the triangular space. Due to this, the architectural appearance
of the building is very much improved.

• Flat roofs have better insulating properties.

• They require lesser area of roofing material than pitched roofs.

• They are more stable against high winds.

• They do not require false ceiling, which is essential in pitched roof.

• Flat roofs are proved to be overall economic.

• In multistoried buildings, the flat roof is only choice. Since overhead water tanks and other
services are located on the terrace.

• The construction of upper floors can be easily done over flat roofs, if so required in future.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS

• They are vulnerable to heavy temperature variations, especially in tropics, due to which
cracks are developed on the surface. These cracks may lead to water penetration latter, if not repaired
in time.
• It is difficult to locate and rectify leak in flat roof.

• The speed of flat roof construction is much slower than the pitched roof.

• The initial cost of flat roof is more than pitched roof. The flat roofs expose the entire
building to the weather agencies, while the projecting elements of pitched roofs provide some
protection to the building.

• The span of flat roof is restricted, unless intermediate columns are introduced. Pitched roofs
can be used over large spans without any intermediate column.
• The self-weight of flat roof is very high. Due to this the sizes of beams, columns,
• foundations and other structural members are heavy.

They are unsuitable at the places of heavy rainfall.

EXTERNAL WORK
EXTERNAL WORK

External works can be defined as a service provided around building to provide conveniences to
the occupiers of the building.

Functions
• To provide drives and access to garage in building
• To provide access to estate
• To provide accommodation for parking of vehicle
• To provide footpath to pedestrian
• To drains surface water efficiently (with a proper shop)
• To provide security to buildings (such as fencing

Fencing
Fencing is used to form boundaries between lands of different occupiers.

Functions of fencing
Fences and hedges are used in building to provide:
 • Security as well as
• Excluding the view of the building surrounding from outside
• It limits the accessibility to the building to the specified or accepted entrance •
Fences are used to form boundary land of different occupiers

Factors that influence choice of fence

• Appearance
• Durability
• Maintenance and initial cost
• Effectiveness

Types of fence

• Wood palisade fence

• Chain link fence

• Closed boarded fence
• Wooden post & rail fencing

Wood Palisade Fence

These consist of concrete or wooden posts supporting two or three arris or triangular rails,
according to the height of the fence, and vertical pales or palisades. The details are as shown in
figure 1.1.
Fig.1.1 Details of wooden palisade fencing

Chain Link Fence

These are widely used as they are economical and form a very effective boundary, although their
appearance is not very attractive. The chain link consists of a diamond-shaped mesh with average
mesh size of 50 mm and average 3 mm diameter finished with a galvanized or plastics coating or
using aluminum wire. The chain link is tied with wire to mild steel line wires of 2.5 to 4.75 mm
diameter. Posts may be reinforced concrete, steel or wood. The line wires are pulled tight with
straining fittings at straining posts and intermediate posts are provided at intervals not exceeding 3
m. The sizes of the posts vary with the height of the fence. The details are shown in figure 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Chain link fence

Test Questions

1. List five function of external works in a building premises

2. List four factors influencing choice of fence

Close-Boarded Fence

These are both attractive and effective but have an initial high cost. The posts may be of concrete
or timber. They should be 600 to 750 mm in the ground. The timber used should have weathered
tops and mortices to receive rails. They are normally spaced at 3 m interval. The rails are usually
triangular in section. The boarding usually consists of vertical pales about 100 mm wide. The pales
are nailed to the rails with 50 mm galvanized nails. A horizontal gravel board is often fixed below
the pales to prevent their bottoms from being in contact with the ground with the liability to decay.
The details are as shown in figure 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 Closed boarded fence

Wooden Post and Rail Fence

This type of fence consists of posts with pointed bottoms for the purpose of driving as shown in
figure 2.2. The rails are often rectangular in section. This type of fence have reasonable durability
and also attractive and of moderate cost. However, they do not provide effective division as
people, animals and objects can pass through it.
Fig. 2.2 Wooden post & rail fencing

Test Question

1. Draw any three types of wooden fence commonly in use

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Road construction
Road is the channel serving as a means of communication. It is laid on ground therefore road is a
landed property. There should be proper planning of land in other to achieve economic use.

Estate road design

A normal estate road will have a width of about 4.9m and can be increased to 5.0m where a large
volume of traffic is to be carried. For the principal roads to large housing estate, width of 6.1m or
6.7m will be more appropriate. The other end of the scale, shorter service roads with development
on one side only often have a width of 4.0m, although this is inadequate to accommodate two wide
vehicles alongside one another.
Private drives and access to garage may be 2.5m- 3.0m wide. Longitudinal gradient must be kept
within reasonable limits such as 1 in 20 and 1 in 250. If the gradient is too flat it will be difficult to
remove the surface water, and if it is to stiff it becomes difficult to negotiate in snowing and
frosting weather.

Vertical curves must be designed to provide a suitable parabolic curve linking the two gradients,
with the levels normally determined at 6.0m intervals. Roads can be constructed with a chamber or
a cross fall.
The road construction method can be broadly sub divided into two main groups:

• Rigid road – constructed of concrete road slab

• Flexible road – consisting of stone base with a surfacing of tar or bitumen coated
stone.
`Surfacing (optional)
•
`Mesh fabric wire in concrete mix 1:2:4

Sub base

Base

Formation level

Figure 3.1. Section through a rigid road

Surfacing in asphalt (40-75mm)

Sub-Base

Base

Formation level

Figure 3.2 Section through a flexible road

Test Question

1. Use drawing to distinguish between rigid and flexible road

FACTORS AFFECTING ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Factors affecting road construction
• Types of sub grade
• Liability to subsidence (settlement of the soil)
• Initial cost
• Maintenance cost
• Appearance
• Resistance to wear
• Nonskid qualities

Other external works include the following:

- Kerbs
- Footpath
- Drainages
- Septic/soak away
- Fencing and hoarding
- Trees, shrubs, grass/hedges
- Parking/garages
- Pavements/interlocks

Kerbs
The main functions of kerbs are to:

• Resist lateral thrust to carriageways

• To define carriage limit
• To direct the flow of surface water
• To support and protect foot path and verges

The most common form of kerbs is in pre-cast to B5 3406 and may incorporate Portland, blast
furnace or high aluminum silicate and a natural stone or slag (aggregate) and it may be
coloured.

Manufacturing process includes:

• Cast vibrates
• Hydraulically pressed (HP)
The later (HP) gives the strongest kerbs, which are recognizable with their pattern faces. Less
popular kerbs include granite and sandstone.

Precast- concrete kerbs are 900mm along and in four (4) standard sections.

• Bullnosed (with 15-19mm radius edge)

• Splayed (75mm deep by 75mm wide)
• Half battered (100mm deep)
• Half section (half battered) (HB) The last two sections are as follows:

Fig.4.1 Precast concrete paving slab

The most common sizes are 125 x 250 and radius of kerbs is made to the variety of radii range
from 1-12. Bullnosed as HB kerbs and used extensively for urban roads; whereas splayed
kerbs are more often used on dual carriage and rural roads.

Test Questions

1. List five factors affecting road construction in a normal soil condition 2.

List four main function of road kerbs
FOOTPATH
Footpath (Pathways)

Footpath and path area can be constructed with variety of materials and the choice will be
determine largely by such factors as:
• Initial cost
• Maintenance cost
• Appearance
• Wearing properties
• Nonskid properties

Materials used for footpath construction

• Precast concrete paving slab

Advantage – non-skid, good appearance & hard bearing

Disadvantage- expensive in initial cost and mantle cost; can soon been dangerous with
slight settlement, easily damaged by vehicles mounting kerbs.

• In-situ concrete
Advantage- reasonably cheap, can be coloured, reasonably hard bearing if concrete of
good quality is used and reasonably nonskid (slip)

• Bituminous Macadam or Tar Macadam

Advantage – reasonably priced and hardwearing, non-slip, flexible, fairly easily
maintained and lastly reasonable appearance

Disadvantage- periodic surface dressing required, need path edging at back of path

• Asphalt
Advantage- good appearance, hardwearing, reasonably non slip, fairly easily
maintained

Disadvantage-fairly expensive, path edging at back of path.

An examination of competitive schedule above may prove helpful in this connection.
The width of a footpath may vary from 1.35m – 1.8m in housing estate and may
increase to as much as 6.0m in shipping centers. They can normally be made of a cross
 fall of about 1:30 towards, the kerbs and there may be gross verge between the path and
kerbs. A tress planted verge improves the appearance of residential development and
this may increase their maintenance cost.

Test Questions

1. Enumerate five factors that can influence footpath construction 2.

Discussion materials used for footpath construction
Drains
Drains can be classified using the materials from which they have been made into the following

• Block work drain

• Concrete drain

• Rubble drains
These are represented in figure 7.3.
Fig 7.3 Types of drain Test Questions

1. Describe the functions of an inspection chamber

2. Use drawing to describe manhole
3. Use sketch to describe a rubble drain construction