Musculoskeletal Module

Objectives:
By the end of these lectures the student should know:
• The histological features of cartilage cells, fibers & matrix.
• The histological structure of different types of cartilages.
• The histological structure of Bone cells.
• The general microscopic features of bone.
• The histological structure of different types of bone.
• The general features &types of skeletal muscle fibers.
• The organization of skeletal muscle.

Musculoskeletal module comprises cartilage, bone and skeletal muscle.

Cartilage
General characteristics:
• Cartilage is a specialized form of connective tissue in which the firm
consistency of the extra cellular matrix allows the tissue to bear
mechanical stresses without permanent distortion.
• Cartilage is avascular and is nourished by the diffusion of nutrients
from capillaries in adjacent connective tissue (perichondrium) or by
synovial fluid from joint cavities.
• In some instance, blood vessels traverse cartilage to nourish other
tissue, but these vessels do not supply nutrients to the cartilage.
• Cartilage has no lymphatic vessels or nerve.
Histological structure

Cartilage cells
Chondroblasts: develop from embryonic mesenchymal cells and are found
in inner aspect of perichondrium.
L/M: they are flat, oval or elliptical in shape with basophilic cytoplasm and
pale nucleus.
E/M: they show all the ultra structural feature associated with protein
synthesis; abundant RER and ribosomes, prominent Golgi apparatus and many
mitochondria. The nucleus contains euchromatin.
Function: they are cartilage forming cells (synthesize the protein of the
matrix and its fibers).

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Chondrocytes:
L/M: they appear large flat (at the periphery) or spherical in shape when
single and triangular or semicircular when in groups. They are embedded in
matrix inside spaces called lacunae. They occur singly or in groups (cell
nests) of two or more. The lacunae are surrounded by deeply basophilic
condensed matrix.
E/M: their cytoplasm shows short cytoplasmic
processes on the surface which extend into depressions
within the matrix. They have most of the usual
organelles associated with protein synthesis. The
nucleus contains heterochromatin.
Function: chondrocytes are responsible for the
formation and secretion of collagen fibers (mainly type
II), proteoglycans, hyaluronic acid and chondronectin.

Cartilage fibers
There are collagenous (type II) and or elastic fibers.

Cartilage matrix
It is firm or rigid in consistency, but with some degree of flexibility. It is formed
of chondroitin sulphuric acid (sulphated glycosaminoglycans and keratin
sulphate). In addition to proteoglycans, an important component of cartilage
matrix is the structural glycoprotein chondronectin.

Perichondrium:
It is vascular connective tissue surrounding the cartilage except at the articular
surface. It is formed of two layers; an outer fibro elastic layer and an inner
chondrogenic layer formed of chondroblasts.
Function: nutrition by diffusion from blood vessels and chondrogensis.

Types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage: forming majority of the fetus
skeleton except the skull bones, in the articular surface,
costal cartilage and most of cartilage of respiratory tract.
It is white blue in color and translucent when fresh. It is
found of perichondrium except at articular ends in joints.
Its matrix contains both collagen and elastic fibers, it
appears clear basophilic because matrix has the same
refractive index as collagen and elastic fibers.

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Yellow elastic fibro-cartilage: found in ear pinna,
Eustachian tube, epiglottis and some cartilage of larynx
(coniculate and cuneiform). It is yellow in color (fresh
section). The cells are more numerous and are located inside
the lacunae and form cell nests. Its matrix contains a network
of elastic fibers and few collagens which are masked.
Perichondrium is covering the elastic cartilage and has the
similar structure as the hyaline one.

White fibro-cartilage: it is a tissue intermediate between dense C.T. and

hyaline cartilage. It is found in symphyses pubes and menti, inter-
vertebral discs, in attachments of certain ligaments to the cartilaginous surface
of bones. It is opaque and firm. chondrocyte similar to those of hyaline
cartilages, they are arranged in long rows separated by collagenous bundles.
The fibro cartilage matrix is acidophilic, because it contains a great
number of coarse type I collagen fibers, which are easily seen under the
microscope. Perichondrium is absent.

BONE
Bone is a specialized connective tissue. Bone tissue is highly vascularized
and metabolically very active. It is composed of; bone matrix (intercellular
calcified material), bone cells, periosteum (on external surfaces in most
areas), endosteum (on the internal surface).
Bone Matrix: it is hard or solid in consistency. It is formed of:
Inorganic matter: represents about 50% of the dry weight of bone matrix.
Calcium and phosphorus are especially abundant, but bicarbonate, citrate,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium are also found.
Organic matter: is type I collagen and ground substance, which contains
proteoglycan aggregates and several specific structural glycoproteins.
Because of its high collagen content, decalcified bone matrix intensely binds
stains for collagen fibers.

Bone Cells:
Osteogenic cells or osteoprogenitor Cells: are mesenchymal stem cells.
They originated from pericytes around blood capillaries.
Site: inner osteogenic layer of periosteum, endosteum and bone marrow
cavities.
LM: oval elongated cells with pale basophilic cytoplasm.
EM: rich in ribosome and rER, mitochondria, Golgi. Nuclei are oval.

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Function: can differentiate into osteoblasts (in vascular tissue) and into
chondroblasts (in non-vascular tissue).
Osteoblasts cells:
Site: in activated inner osteogenic layer of periosteum, endosteum and bone
marrow cavities.
LM: they have a cuboidal to columnar shape. with
basophilic cytoplasm.
EM: they have the ultrastructure of cells actively
synthesizing proteins for export. There is many
ribosomes, ER, mitochondria and Golgi. Their
nuclei are oval, eccentric with prominent nucleolus.
They contain alkaline phosphatase enzyme (to deposit calcium) and
pyrophosphatase enzyme (inhibit the action of pyrophosphate substance
which retard the process of calcification).
Function: they are responsible for bone formation through.
Osteocytes:
Site: situated between lamellae of matrix.
LM: are oval, branched cells with pale basophilic cytoplasm. Each osteocyte
occupies a small cavity called lacuna. Only one osteocyte is found in each
lacuna. Canaliculi arise from these lacunae to communicate osteocytes via
processes.
EM: exhibit a significantly reduced rER and Golgi complex and many
microtubules. Nucleus is oval, dark with more condensed nuclear chromatin.
Function: These cells are actively involved in the maintenance of the bony
matrix.
Osteoclasts: are derived from the fusion of bone marrow-derived
mononucleated cells. They are formed by fusion of blood monocytes.
Site: lies in depression called Howship's lacunae on inner bony
surfaces, medullary cavities and endosteum.
LM are very large (20-30 µm), branched motile cells with irregular
borders and acidophilic foamy cytoplasm.
EM: dilated portions of the cell body contain from 5 to 50 (or more)
nuclei.
In active osteoclasts, the surface-facing bone matrix is folded into irregular,
finger like projections from the cell membrane, forming ruffled border. The
clear zone that surrounding the ruffled border is a cytoplasmic area which is
devoid of organelles, but rich in actin filaments. The Vesicular zone contains
many lysosomes. The Basal zone contains the nuclei, cell organelles Golgi
complex& mitochondria.

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Function: they are concerned with bone resorption during bone ossification
causing remodeling of bone.

Periosteum: it is a vascular C.T. membrane which covers the bone from

outside. It is formed of 2 layers; outer fibrous layer of collagen fibers,
fibroblasts and B.V. and inner osteogenic layer of osteogenic cells.
Sharpey's fibers: are bundles of periosteal collagen fibers that penetrate the
bone matrix, binding the periosteum to bone.

Endosteum: is a vascular C.T. membrane lines inner surfaces, bone marrow

cavities and Haversian canals. It is composed of a single layer of flattened
osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblast, osteoclast, blood vessels and a very small
amount of connective tissue.
Types of bone
Compact Bone: presents in the shafts of
long bones, in the outer &inner tables of
flat bones of skull and in outer covering of
the vertebrae & ribs.
Microscopic structure: in cross section
shows dense areas without cavities. It is
formed of: Haversian systems, outer
circumferential lamellae, inner
circumferential lamellae, interstitial
lamellae, periosteum on outer surface and
endosteum on inner surface.
Haversian System or Osteon: It is the
structural unit of compact bone. Each

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haversian system is a long, often bifurcated cylinder parallel to the long axis
of the diaphysis. Each system is formed of:
a) Haversian canal: it runs parallel to the long axis of bone. The canal is
lined with endosteum. It contains blood vessels, nerves, and loose
connective tissue. The canals communicate with the marrow cavity, the
periosteum, and one another through transverse or oblique Volkmann's
canals. Volkmann's canals do not have concentric lamellae; instead, they
perforate the lamellae. They are lined with osteogenic cells and contain
blood vessels.
b) Concentric bone lamellae: they are from 5 to 20 concentric layers of
classified osteoid matrix.
c) Osteocytes.
Outer circumferential lamellae: are located immediately beneath the
periosteum.
Internal Circumferential Lamellae: are the bone lamellae with their
osteocytes. These are located under the endosteum and parallel to the
medullary bone marrow cavity.
Interstitial Lamellae: are the irregular bone lamellae with their osteocytes
which are present in-between the Haversian systems.

Spongy or Cancellous bone:

presents in young embryonic bone,
epiphysis of long bones, in the center
of flat bones (skull, scapula, sternum,
sacrum) and in ribs and vertebrae.
Microscopic structure: it is formed
of irregularly arranged plates of
branching bone trabeculae. Bone
trabeculae are formed of irregular
bone lamellae with scattered
osteocytes between bone lamellae.
Multiple bone marrow cavities are
present between the bone trabeculae.

Growing bone: it is formed of 5 zones:

1. Resting zone: consists of hyaline cartilage without morphological
changes in the cells.
2. Proliferative zone: chondrocytes divide rapidly and form columns of
stacked cells parallel to the long axis of the bone.
3. Hypertrophic cartilage zone: contains large chondrocytes whose
cytoplasm has accumulated glycogen.

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4. Calcified cartilage zone: the thin septa of cartilage matrix become
calcified by the deposit of hydroxyapatite.
5. Ossification zone: endochondral bone tissue appears. Blood capillaries
and osteoprogenitor cells formed by mitosis of cells originating from the
periosteum invade the cavities left by the chondrocytes. The
osteoprogenitor cells form osteoblasts, which are distributed in a
discontinuous layer over the septa of calcified cartilage matrix.
Ultimately, the osteoblasts deposit bone matrix over the three-
dimensional calcified cartilage matrix.

Skeletal Muscle
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 They are preset all over the body attached to the skeleton and in the
diaphragm, tongue, eye and upper third of oesophagus.
Organization of skeletal muscle
➢ The skeletal muscle consists of muscle fibers arranged in regular bundles of
very long (up to 40 mm) cylindrical cells with a diameter of 10-100 µm.
➢ Every skeletal muscle is surrounded
from outside by a dense cornective tissue
sheath called the epimysium.
➢ The bundles of fibers are separated from
each other by another CT tissue sheath
called the Perimysium.
➢ Each muscle fiber is itself surrounded by
a delicate layer of CT called the
endomysium composed mainly of basal
lamina and reticular fibers.
➢ Blood vessels penetrate the muscle
within the connective tissue septa and
form rich capillary network that runs
between and parallel to the muscle fibers.
The capillaires are of the continuous
type and lymphatic vessels are also found
in the C.T.
LM: skeletal muscle cells are long and cylindrical and are called muscle
fibers. Their nuclei are multiple, oval and peripheral in position. The cell
membrane of skeletal muscle cell is called sarcolemma. The cytoplasm is
called sarcoplasm; it contains all organoids and inclusions. longitudinal
section of skeletal muscle fibers shows that the sarcoplasm of each muscle
fiber is filled with long filamentous bundles called myofibrils. In a cross
section, these bundles of myofibrils are separated from each other by
sarcoplasm and appear as polygonal dark areas called Colienheim's areas.
Skeletal muscle fibers show 2 types of striations: Longitudinal striations
(due to longitudinally placed myofibrils parallel to the long axis of the muscle
fiber) and transverse striations (caused by regular arrangement of dark and
light bands). Each myofibrial shows alternating dark and light bands. The
dark bands of all myofibrils are arranged to lie in the same level and all the
light hands also lie in another level. So, the dark bands and the light bands
appear giving the muscle fiber striated appearance. The dark bands are
Anisotropic bands, they cause double refraction to the polarized light and
are called A bands. The light bands are Isotropic hands, they cause single
refraction to the polarized light, they are called I hands.
EM: each dark band (A band) is divided into two equal parts by a pale region
called Hensen's disc or H band and within this a very fine dark middle strip
or M line is present, the major protein of it is creative kinase. Each light band

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(I band) is divided into two equal parts by dark membrane called Z-line. The
Z lines divided the myofibrils into contractile units called the sarcomeres.
The sarcomere: it is the unit of
contraction of the muscle fiber. It is the
distance between two successive Z lines.
It contains two types of myofilatnents;
thick myofilaments (myosin) are present
in the dark (A) bands and thin
myofilaments (actin) are present in the
light (I) bands and extend for a short
distance in the dark bands. The region of
the sarcomere which contain both actin
and myosin filaments appears darker than
the region which contains actin filaments
only. The H band appears slightly lighter
because it has only myosin filaments.
Each myofibril is surrounded by a
network of sarcoplasmic reticulum
(smooth endoplasmic reticulum). At the
regions of the A-I junction the sacs are
wider and are called the Terminal
cisternae.
Between each 2 neighboring terminal
cisternae there is a transverse tubule; T-
tubule which is formed by the
invagination of the sarcolemma. It extends transversely to encircle the
sarcomeres like collars at the A-I junction. Each two terminal cisternae with
a T-tubule in between are together called the triad.

Types of skeletal muscle fibers:

Type I fibers (red fibers): they have small diameter, contain large amount
of myoglobin which is responsible for the red color of this type of fibers.
They are highly vascular, contract slowly and can sustain contraction for a
long time without fatigue.
Type II fibers (white fibers): they have large diameter, contain small
amount of myoglobin and contract faster but they become easily fatigued.

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