Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Low cement concretes with ultra-high durability for innovative

composite lightweight precast walls
Ricardo Martins a, *, Ricardo do Carmo a, b, Hugo Costa a, b, Eduardo Júlio a
a
CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
b
Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes – Quinta da Nora, 3030-199, Coimbra, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The study herein presented was conducted with the aim of developing a new lightweight ag­
Prefabrication gregates concrete (LWAC) and a new ultra-high durability concrete (UHDC), both with low
Structural walls cement content. These were specifically designed to meet the requirements of an innovative two-
Low cement content layers composite precast concrete structural wall (high flowability, reduced density and minimum
Ultra-high durability compressive strength of 45 MPa), composed of an outer layer in UHDC and an inner layer in
Lightweight
LWAC. These mixtures were optimized with the goal of reducing the cement content, adopting a
partial replacement by binary pozzolanic and limestone filler additions, this way improving the
mechanical performance, the durability and the sustainability. All mixtures were characterized in
both fresh and hardened states, addressing: consistency, main mechanical properties, and dura­
bility. The use of silica fume allows a reduction of circa 20–25% of cement to obtain similar
strength performance. In addition, tensile and compressive strengths exhibited increases of circa
30% and 40%, respectively using silica fume, instead of fly ash.
Regarding durability, the outer UHDC evidences no carbonation and high resistance to chloride
diffusion. It was conclusive that to predict the service life for this solution, the chloride diffusion
coefficient, D0, should be considered at 56 days age, due to the prolonged pozzolanic effect over
time on resistance to chloride. It was proven that this new composite structural wall increases the
service life in 30%, considering the minimum recommended covers by codes, or lower covers
(circa 50%) can be used if the service life is set to 50 years.

1. Introduction
Prefabrication highly reduces the construction time and overall consumed energy, brings more reliability to execution operations
and generally produces better-quality and more durable products comparatively to conventional on-site construction [1]. There are
several technical solutions to build precast concrete buildings, being the precast walls one of most widely used, because these can
support vertical and lateral loads and, simultaneously, they provide high stiffness and load capacity to the structure [2]. Based on a
literature review performed by Martins et al. [3], on different technical solutions for precast structural walls, which included com­
mercial solutions as well as research studies, it was concluded that precast structural walls can be organized into three different types,
according to their cross-section, namely: massive/monolithic walls; insulated/sandwich walls; and double/composite walls.
In the scope of a research project, previously conducted by the authors in collaboration with a precast concrete company, an
optimized pre-wall system was developed, consisting of double thin panels, spaced and linked together using steel trusses, creating a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ricardo.neves.martins@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (R. Martins).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108922
Received 14 November 2023; Received in revised form 9 February 2024; Accepted 23 February 2024
Available online 28 February 2024
2352-7102/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

hollow core [4–6]. In terms of production, this type of solution is more time-consuming compared to a monolithic wall, as it requires
the use of a rotating table to produce the second panel. However, these pre-walls are significantly lighter, around 50%, than monolithic
walls, this way decreasing the costs of transportation and crane operation. The pre-walls are assembled on-site, the reinforcement is
placed between the panels and concrete is poured into the core. The type of connection, used to link the pre-walls is commonly named
as wet connection and, from a structural point a view, it has the advantage of providing a monolithic behavior [3].
Nowadays, the frequent occurrence of extreme events (e.g., floods, pandemics and wars), and the growing need for housing,
increased the need to develop solutions with easy and fast execution procedures and with controlled costs. Additionally, there is an
increasing demand for more durable and more sustainable solutions, being therefore particularly relevant reducing the cement con­
tent. Taking all these needs into account, as well as the identified drawbacks of the pre-walls previously described, the authors
developed an innovative modular construction solution for buildings. It consists on a composite precast walls system, with structural
function and with dry-connections (bolted system), allowing this way to build and, later on, to disassemble the structures, easy and
fast. Without the need for formworks and concrete casting, the work required on site is minimized and a small team of workers is
enough to assemble all precast members, which is particularly relevant nowadays considering the lack of construction workers. Also,
the possibility of deconstruction constitutes a very important advantage of this solution, since it allows the reuse of temporary
structures (like shelters for different emergency scenarios), it facilitates the adaptation of important infrastructures (such as hospitals
and schools), and it maximizes the recycling of materials at the end-of-life of the structures [7]. The choice of dry connections also
affects the design of the walls, requiring solid zones in the surrounding area of the connection for adequate transfer of stresses and
internal forces, which is another reason for choosing solid walls and not pre-walls (designed for wet connections).
In order to increase the durability of the proposed precast walls and, at the same time, aiming at reducing their environmental
impact by reducing the cement content, the ‘superskin’ concept [8–11] was incorporated. This concept consists in adopting a high
durability concrete in the cover layer, where it is most necessary to protect the steel reinforcement of concrete structures, being the
core produced with a low-cement concrete [9,12,13]. With this approach, the cement dosage is distributed more effectively along the
cross-section of the wall, reducing the cement required comparatively to a traditional solution, bringing consequently economic and
environmental benefits [14–16].

2. Description of the aims and approach used

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) typically has a low water/cement ratio, high cement content, and high-cost additions and

Fig. 1. Precast concrete wall, composed by a thin UHDC ‘superskin’ (outer layer) and LWAC (inner layer).

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fibers, resulting in an ultra-compact matrix with reduced porosity, thus with high compressive strength and high tensile strength, as
well as high durability [17]. To reduce the high environmental and economic costs related with the UHPC production, several
innovative mixtures have been recently developed, named ultra-high durability concrete (UHDC), focused in increasing both the
eco-efficiency and the durability of the mixture, especially at advanced ages (after 56 or 90 days) [9,11]. In this study, an eco-UHDC
was developed considering the previous demands and also the requirements defined by precast industry, which are described in the
next section.
To reduce the costs related to handling and transportation of the precast walls, the inner panel of the precast composite wall is cast
with lightweight aggregates concrete (LWAC), since those costs are directly related with weight. The density of a structural LWAC is
typically between 1400 and 2000 kg/m3 and it is obtained by replacing normal aggregates by artificial lightweight aggregates. Despite
this replacement, it is possible to produce LWAC with high strength and durability [12,18,19]. The use of LWAC also reduces the
structure’s dead-weight and consequently the internal forces, which is advantageous for the design of the structure. Another benefit of
concrete density reduction is the thermal conductivity decrease, relevant for thermal insulation purposes [20].
The composite wall system herein proposed is made of two connected precast layers, made using two different concretes: (i) the
outer panel has a reduced thickness, and it is produced using an eco-efficient ultra-high durability concrete (eco-UHDC) with opti­
mized cement content, and; (ii) the inner panel is made using lightweight aggregates concrete (LWAC), also designed with low cement
content (Fig. 1).
Reducing the cement content will improve the eco-efficiency of the composite walls, but it must be noted that a thorough
assessment of the environmental impact and, thus, of the sustainability of the final product is not in the scope of the study herein
presented; this will be addressed and quantified in a future study.
To develop this wall system, the two eco-concretes were designed, considering all requirements defined for precast production and
structural performance, and also aiming minimizing the cement content. After the mix-design, the experimental study was organized in
the following stages: (i) characterization of the main mechanical properties of the two concretes, UHDC and LWAC; (ii) study of the
concrete performance in terms of durability, namely, water absorption, carbonation resistance and chloride diffusion coefficient; and
(iii) prediction of the service life and minimum cover of structures prefabricated with the developed concretes and comparison those
with the standards limits.

3. Experimental program
3.1. Requirements
After a first approach for the design model of the composite walls, specific properties and requirements were identified for both
layers. For the outer layer there are some demands concerning to fresh and hardened properties of concrete, which are: i) first, a high
durability in order to be used as ‘superskin’, it must have an ultra-compact matrix and reduced porosity; ii) high flowability, a self-
compacting concrete, with a consistency class F6 (according to flow table test [21]), to avoid vibration during the production,
since the LWAC layer will be produced first and high vibration can cause cracking in this layer. It should be highlighted that
compressive strength is not the main requirement for this concrete, the focus is on its durability, namely, to ensure high resistance to
chlorides and to carbonation.
For the inner layer, lightweight aggregates concrete (LWAC) will be used, with a target density lower than 1850 kg/m3, to reduce
self-weight, nearly 20% compared to a monolithic wall. As mentioned above, the reduction of wall mass is important for the trans­
portation and handling of the precast walls and also for the reduction of thermal conductivity. For this reduction of concrete density, in
the study developed by Ref. [4], the thermal conductivity of a LWAC similar to is the one presented in this study was determined, with
a decrease of circa 40% compared with a normal weight concrete. The LWAC also have performance requirements: good workability,
with a consistency class S4 (according to slump test [22]) and the compressive strength must be higher than 45 MPa (LC35/48), due to
structural requirements, namely, the bearing capacity of the floor slabs and the dry connections between walls, which will be inserted
in the LWAC layer.

3.2. Strategy to reduce the cement content

Nowadays, there are several strategies to develop more eco-friendly concrete structures, one of them is using new and optimized
concrete mixtures, and at this level the most standout approach is reducing the cement content [23]. The low cement content is crucial
to reducing the negative environmental effects of CO2 emissions associated to the manufacturing of Portland cement, helping to
decarbonize the concrete industry. This can be done by replacing part of the cement with supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs), preferably by-products from other industries, balanced with the increase of compactness and the granulometric optimization,
through the usage of high strength cements, and with water reducing superplasticizers. The concrete produced with this design
strategy has low cement dosage and is usually named low cement concrete, an important solution of low carbon concrete (LCC) [14,
24].
The SCMs used as additions to the binder powder, to partial replace cement, can be ground granulated slags and other pozzolanic
additions, being the following the most promising: silica fume, fly ash, calcined clay, among others [25]. Fly ash, a by-product from
burning coal, has for many years been widely used as addition material in concrete, due to its properties that allow significant im­
provements in the performance and workability of concrete [26]. However, due to the closure of thermal power stations around the
world, the fly ash is coming to an end and it not available for concrete industry. Silica fume, an ultrafine non-crystalline by-product of
silicon and ferrosilicon processing, is generally specified for special applications, due to its highly reactive pozzolanic reaction, such as
structures exposed to highly aggressive chemical and maritime environments. This addition affects the properties of concrete in fresh

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and hardened states and can be a possible pozzolanic substitute for fly ash. Based on concretes previously developed by Antunes et al.
[4–6] within the scope of the MC-Pool project, preliminary tests were carried out and it was verified that silica fume is a viable
commercial addition to substitute the fly ash. Although being significantly more expensive per ton than Portland cement, a small silica
fume content, up to 5% of cement weight, allows a significant reduction of cement (around 20–25%), compared to concrete with
similar strength performance. As a result, concrete with this combined cement and silica fume addition is only 10% more expensive
than single used cement as concrete binder powder, however resulting in increased durability with low cement concrete. According to
some studies [27–29], the silica fume creates a denser microstructure, improving strength, durability and the microstructure of
interfacial transition zone (ITZ), which enhances the paste-to-aggregate bonding. Typically, the maximum reported value of silica
fume proportion into concrete are circa 10% of cement weight [30]. However, concerning to concrete workability, Adil and Mann [27]
concluded that the optimal percentage of cement weight is 5.5%. Above this value, concrete becomes very sticky and viscous, and
consequently there is an increase of void content, causing loss of strength and durability.

3.3. Materials
To produce concretes with high packing density, good workability and performance, the selection of materials was carefully
chosen. The materials used for the concrete mixtures were: ternary blend of Portland CEM I 52.5R cement (density of 3.15 g/cm3 and
Blaine surface of 5134 cm2/g), limestone filler (density of 2.75 g/cm3 and Blaine surface of 3000 cm2/g) and silica fume (density of
2.20 g/cm3) as binder powders; tap water; polycarboxylates based superplasticizer; and natural aggregates blend (quartz sand 0/1 mm;
limestone gravel type 0.5, with 2.0/6.3 mm size fraction and; limestone gravel type 1, with 6.3/12.5 mm size fraction). For the LWAC,
a lightweight expanded clay aggregate (HD 4/12 mm) was used. The used aggregates and their granulometric curves are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3, respectively, being the binder materials presented in Fig. 4. The main properties of aggregates are shown in Tables 1 and
2. All aggregates were previously oven-dried and stored in hermetic containers in the laboratory.

3.4. Concrete mix-design

After the selection and characterization of materials, the two aforementioned mixtures were developed, UHDC and LWAC. Known
the properties of the constituent materials and the solution requirements, preliminary mixtures were developed to calibrate some
parameters of the concrete composition, some properties as well, and to optimize the binder paste of the mixtures. Both mixtures were
formulated based on the methodology proposed by Lourenço et al. [31], and further developed by Costa [32], and using the adjustment
to the Faury’s reference curve, because it generally improves the cohesion and workability of those types of concretes. The method is
based on the definition of the design parameters required for the specific performance of the binder matrix, allowing a versatile
definition or adaptation of the main parameters for the paste; those are mostly related to the cement and additions contents,
compactness, water cement ratio (W/C) and water binder ratio (W/B), air content and additions. Subsequently, the method promotes
the granulometric distribution of the selected aggregates, through the use of the reference granulometric curves, as well as the
adaptation of appropriate parameters to these curves, to obtain optimized proportions of the aggregates; in this case, it was very
different for each type of concrete [16]. The UHDC was optimized to be highly durable and, at the same time, eco-efficient, maximizing
the performance in terms durability and simultaneously the cement reduction. After previous adjustments, the amount of powder was
set at 465 kg/m3, with 300 kg/m3 of cement, 140 kg/m3 of limestone filler and only 25 kg/m3 of silica fume (5.4% of binder powder
weight and 8.3% of cement weight). The compactness was set to 0.835 and the W/C ratio 0.48. The LWAC was also subjected to design
adjustments taking into consideration the abovementioned requirements. In order to balance the strength reduction promoted by the
lightweight aggregates, the matrix need higher strength. So, the amount of powder was set at 415 kg/m3, using the minimum possible
dosage of cement (250 kg/m3) in this context, limestone filler (150 kg/m3) and 15 kg/m3 of silica fume (3.6% of powder weight). The
fresh compactness was set to 0.840 and the W/C ratio to 0.55. The low water/cement ratio combined with a compact binder matrix
with silica fume addition, reduce porosity and permeability, making it possible to provide a proper protection against steel corrosion
[33,34]. Small adjustments in the quantity of the superplasticizer were required to ensure a proper behavior of the mixtures in fresh
state, namely, avoid segregation, because the water absorption by the lightweight aggregates may affects the flowability. The con­
stituents’ proportions for each concrete mixture are presented in Table 3. Fig. 5 shows the cross-section of both concrete developed,
where the matrix and the aggregate distribution can be seen.

Fig. 2. Aggregates: a) sand 0/1 mm; b) gravel type 1, 6.3/12.5 mm; c) gravel type 0.5, 2/6.3 mm; d) lightweight aggregate (HD 4/12 mm).

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Fig. 3. Granulometric curves of natural aggregates and lightweight aggregates.

Fig. 4. Binder powder materials: a) cement I 52.5R; b) limestone filler; c) silica fume.

Table 1
Properties of lightweight expanded clay aggregates.

Lightweight aggregate ρ0 (kg/dm3) MTS (%) fcr (MPa)

HD 4/12 1.30 10 11

ρ0: dry density; MTS: internal moisture content at total saturation; fcr: strength of the lightweight aggregates (crushing test).

Table 2
Properties of natural aggregates.

Natural aggregates Density (mg/m3) water absorption

ρa ρrd ρssd
Quartz sand 0/1 mm 2.65 2.64 2.64 ≤0.2
Limestone gravel type 0.5 2.73 2.66 2.69 1.0
Limestone gravel type 1 2.71 2.66 2.68 0.7

ρa: density of the impermeable particle.

ρrd: density of oven-dried particles.
ρssd – density of saturated particles with dry surface.

3.5. Experimental tests

After the mix-design, the production and characterization of the concretes were performed. The respective constituents were
weighed and mixed in a vertical axis mixer, and the molds for the specimens were filled and compacted using vibrating equipment
(Fig. 6). In hardened state, besides the concrete density, the compressive strength, splitting tensile and flexural strengths and Young’s
modulus were characterized (Fig. 7). The determination of the compressive strength, fcm, was carried out according to EN 12390–3
[35], using cubic specimens with 150 mm edge. The presented results correspond to the average value of tests, in which three
specimens for each age (1, 7, 28 and 56 days) were considered. At 28 and 56 days, the following properties were also characterized: the
average Young’s modulus, Ecm, determined using two prismatic specimens of 100 × 100 × 400 mm3, following LNEC E− 397 [36]; the
average tensile splitting strength, fctm,sp, determined using three prismatic test specimens of 100 × 100 × 200 mm3, following the EN

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Table 3
Composition for 1 m3 of both designed concrete (kg/m3).

Constituents UHDC LWAC

Portland Cement CEM I 52.5 R 300 250

Powder Filler 140 150
Silica fume 25 15
Fine normal aggregates Fine sand G 0/1 773 832
Coarse normal aggregates Gravel type 0.5 409 –
Gravel type 1 614 –
Lightweight aggregates HD 4/12 – 444
Superplasticizer 6.9 2.8
Water Effective 144 137
Absorption – 36
3
Density (kg/m ) 2412 1867

Fig. 5. Cross section of both concretes developed: UHDC (left) and LWAC (right).

Fig. 6. Production of concretes and molds with cast concrete.

Fig. 7. Mechanical tests (left-right): compressive strength; tensile splitting strength; flexural strength; and Young’s modulus.

Fig. 8. Shrinkage test.

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12390–6 [37]; and the tensile flexural strength, fctm,f, using two prismatic test specimens of 100 × 100 × 400 mm3, applying the EN
12390–5 [38].
After characterizing the main mechanical properties, the shrinkage evolution with age was further studied. This parameter was
characterized according to the standard procedure EN E− 398 [39] testing two prismatic specimens of 100 × 100 × 500 mm3 for each
concrete, stored in thermohydrometric chamber at 20 ◦ C temperature and 50% relative humidity (Fig. 8).
Regarding the durability characterization, the performed tests were: (i) water absorption through capillarity; (ii) accelerated
carbonation resistance; (iii) chloride migration; and (iv) electrical resistivity (Fig. 9).
The capillarity absorption test was carried out on three cubic specimens with 100 mm edge for each concrete, according to LNEC
E− 393 [40], at 1, 3, 6, 24, 48 and 72 h. Based on the obtained results, it was possible to determine the capillarity parameter Sa
(mg/mm2), which represents the water absorbed per surface unit, at a certain instant, ti (Eq (1)).
Mi − M0
Sa = (1)
S

where Mi is the specimen mass at instant ti; M0 is the specimen dry mass and S is the area of specimen in contact with water. Capillary
absorption is considered an important transport property that affects the durability of concrete, since many degradation mechanisms
are a function of the rate of water flow, that controls humidity absorption that can contain aggressive products and the movement of
water during periods of heating and freezing [41].
The accelerated carbonation tests were performed according to LNEC E− 391 [42], based on the NT Build 357 [43], using two
cylindrical specimens with 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height for each concrete, for 28 and 56 days of exposure. Carbonation is
associated with the penetration of carbon dioxide, by diffusion, into the concrete matrix. The carbon dioxide induces a chemical
reaction that dissolves the crystalline phases of concrete, producing calcium carbonates and leading to the reduction of concrete pH.
This change can be useful to identify the carbonation depth [44]. The accelerated carbonation test consists of exposing the specimens
for a certain period of time to an environment that promotes accelerated carbonation (23 ◦ C, 60% of RH and 5% of CO2). Then, the
carbonation depth is measured, using a spayed phenolphthalein-based solution on the broken concrete specimen, after being exposed
to carbon dioxide, and the carbonated area should be colorless, and the non-carbonated zone should be crimson-based color. The
carbonation depth, Cdi is the medium distance between the surface of the specimen and the carbonated boundary.
The chloride diffusion through concrete matrix was determined based on the migration test in no-steady-state, according to LNEC
E− 463 [45], based on the NT Build 492 [46]. This coefficient is a measure of the resistance to chloride penetration of the material
being tested (Eq (2)). Three specimens of each concrete were tested at two different ages, 28 and 56 days. The test consists of applying
an electrical potential between the ends of the specimen, which will force the chloride ions to rapidly migrate through the concrete
matrix. The equipment of the test was programmed to indicate, at each instant, the values of current and temperature, as well as the
applied voltage and the duration of the test. The specimen is then split into two parts and sprayed with a silver nitrate solution,
resulting in a silver chloride precipitation, allowing the depth penetration to be measured through the silver color that is measured.
( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
0.0239(273 + T)L (273 + T)Lxd
D0 = × xd − 0.0238 (2)
(U − 2)t U− 2

where D0 is the non-steady-state migration coefficient ( × 10− 12 m2/s), U is the absolute value of the applied voltage (V), T is the
average value of the initial and final temperature in the anolyte solution (◦ C), L is the thickness of the specimen (mm), xd is the average
value of the penetration depths (mm) and t is the test duration (hour).

Fig. 9. Durability tests: (a) water absorption through capillarity; (b) accelerated carbonation; (c) non-steady-state chloride migration test; and (d) electrical resistivity.

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The electrical resistivity measurement was performed by the Surface Resistivity Method, according to AASHTO T358-15 [47], using
cylindrical specimens with 100 mm diameter and 200 mm length. This test gives an indication of its permeability and, as a result, has a
high correlation with the diffusion of the chloride ion into the concrete. The specimen is subjected to an alternative electric current
during the test, creating a current flow, and the potential difference is computed. Based on the resistivity data, the chloride resistance
can be also estimated.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Fresh state characterization and mechanical properties
In fresh state characterization the workability was characterized through the flow-test and slump-test, following the standard EN
12350–5 [21] and EN12350-2 [22] and the density was also evaluated, according to EN 12350–6 [48] in order to control the design
parameters, comparing with the prediction adopted in the formulation. The UHDC shows a spread flow value of 695 mm, which
corresponds to a consistency class F6, as defined in the initial requirements for concrete (Fig. 10); LWAC was controlled with a
consistency class S4, with a slump of 180 mm. Regarding density, the deviation between the results estimated and measured were
under 1%, proving the efficiency of the used design methodology to formulate these concretes (Fig. 10).
As mentioned in subchapter 2.4, the main mechanical properties of the concrete were determined. To enrich the results discussion,
the two type of concretes herein studied were compared with other concretes mixtures previously reported by Antunes et al. [4–6],
with similar characteristics, developed also for precast industry but in the scope of the research project MC-Pool – Modular Concrete
Pool: (i) a high durability concrete, named HDC_MC-Pool, with normal aggregates blend, binder powder with 313 kg/m3 cement, 45
kg/m3 fly ash and 188 kg/m3 filler, W/C ratio 0.45 and (ii) a lightweight concrete, named LWAC_MC-Pool, with low cement content
(225 kg/m3) and 225 kg/m3 filler, W/C ratio 0.66.
The evolution of the average compressive strength with the age is presented in Fig. 11 and the deviations between them, less than
1%, as well as the curves corresponding to the strength predictions determined according to the Eurocode 2 [49]. The experimental
results of the developed concretes, with cement partially replaced by silica fume and limestone filler, fit better with the “R” type curve
(rapid hardening curve), according to Eurocode 2 [49]. Both concretes fulfil the strength initially defined for this precast system, with
compressive strengths at 28 days of 86 MPa and 47 MPa, respectively for the UHDC and LWAC. Comparing these results with the
previously ones [4], there was a significant increase of strength, 15% and 40% for UHDC and LWAC, respectively, being the mainly to
the silica fume addition in the present composition, instead of fly ash, however combined with other design adjustments. Many re­
searchers [50–53] have proven that silica fume allows for a significant increase in initial compressive strength, leading to better
performance in high-strength applications, which is very advantageous for situations such as prefabrication sector. This is because
silica fume reacts with calcium hydroxide during hydration as early as 12 h and provides large amounts of hydrates at early ages,
unlike fly ash which has lower early strength development [54,55]. The minimum strength of the concrete at 24 h (1 day age) can be
specified as a percentage of the expected compressive strength of concrete at 28 days. Generally, in precast concrete this percentage
should be between 20 and 30%, due to the need for quickly demolding and handling of the elements. At 24 h (1 day age), the
compressive strengths present proper performance, above the percentage imposed, with 1-day compressive strength of 33 MPa (circa
40% of 28-day strength) and 24 MPa (circa 50% of 28-day strength) respectively for UHDC and LWAC. The results of the Young’s
modulus are shown in Fig. 12. This concrete property depends on the stiffness of its main components, such as cement matrix and
aggregates, and also of the ITZ between the aggregates and the paste [31,32]. Knowing that lightweight aggregates have lower stiffness
compared with normal density aggregates, it is expected that LWAC have lower Young’s modulus than UHDC, which was confirmed in
this study, with a reduction of nearly 50%. It is also noticed that using silica fume instead of fly ash addition it causes, together with
other variations in design parameters, reduction in Young’s modulus by between 9 and 12%. The Young’s modulus of concrete with
silica fume can be higher than that current concrete, due to its pozzolanic reaction [56,57], while the use of fly ash generally causes a
decrease in Young’s modulus at young ages [58].
Fig. 13 shows the average tensile strength at 28 days, by splitting (fctm,sp) and by flexural (fctm,f). It can be seen that the flexural
strength is higher (between 60% and 100%) than the splitting tensile strength, as generally occurs. It is also noted that the tensile
strengths of the LWAC concrete are close to the similar LWAC previously developed by Antunes et al. [4], while the UHDC now
developed shows much higher values, especially for the splitting tensile strength, with an increase of approximately 28% over the

Fig. 10. Fresh state characterization (left to right): UHDC flow-test (class F6) and density determination.

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Fig. 11. Evolution of the compressive strength with age (fcm).

Fig. 12. Average Young’s modulus at 28 and 56 days (Ecm).

Fig. 13. Tensile strengths of concretes, at 28 days: splitting tensile strength and flexural strength.

previous one. According to Shmlls et al. [59] for flexural strength, the effect of concrete with silica fume is better than concrete with fly
ash, which is also proved by the present study. However, for splitting tensile strength, the results were the opposite of those herein
found, with the effect of fly ash being greater than silica fume in terms of splitting strength. However, the flexural strength is more
dependent on the fineness of SCMs, and here the silica fume was combined with limestone filler. Nevertheless, concrete with silica
fume can generally exhibit improved tensile strength compared to concrete with fly ash.

4.2. Shrinkage
The average evolution of the total shrinkage, εcs is shown in Fig. 14 for both mixtures developed in this study, as well as in the
previous one developed by Antunes et al. [4]. It is also shown the shrinkage prediction curves according to Eurocode 2 [49] for both
concretes developed, and a high divergence was found, comparing with the experimental results. The evolution of the curves is very
similar, although with different amplitudes. The values evolve significantly at young age, approximately 60% of the deformation
occurred during the first 28 days of age, attenuating significantly thereafter, with a tendency to stabilize around 100 days of age, being
predicted reduced evolution. For both concretes developed, UHDC and LWAC, the shrinkage at 100 days is approximately 360 and 320

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Fig. 14. Evolution of total shrinkage with age.

μm/m, respectively. Total shrinkage, at long age, will not expectably exceed 400 μm/m in UHDC and 350 μm/m in LWAC. When
compared to normal density, several studies have shown that the shrinkage of LWAC is generally lower [60–62]. Pre-saturated
lightweight aggregates promote an uninterrupted hydration of the binding paste, preventing internal-drying, which leads to expan­
sive autogenous deformations and consequently reduced total shrinkage. Comparing these results with the previously ones [4], the
shrinkage results were however higher, 57% and 25% for UHDC and LWAC, respectively. Silica fume tends to promote self-desiccation
of the paste, increasing shrinkage, mainly when elements with reduced cross-section are used; This is quite evident on the rapid
evolution of shrinkage in young ages of the present mixtures UHDC and LWAC (Fig. 14). On the other hand, some researchers [63,64]
found that the use of certain SCMs, such as fly ash, can effectively reduce the shrinkage of concrete. This is also proved by the results of
HDC developed by Antunes et al. [4], using fly ash addition, showing the lowest shrinkage values. It must be highlighted that the
characterization was performed in specimens with reduced cross-section, which represent unfavorable conditions, with reduced
area/perimeter ratio.

4.3. Durability
Fig. 15 shows the relation between the capillarity absorption Sa (mg/mm2) and the square root of time t1/2 (min1/2), obtained for
each concrete, those results were also compared with the corresponding values of HDC developed previously by Antunes et al. [4]. This
parameter is important because the liquid absorption is one of the main factors that controls the transport of aggressive agents into the
material being, subsequently, very relevant to analyze the durability of concretes. As lower is the parameter Sa, better is the concrete
performance, which means that lower is the absorbed water. The trend line matching to the best fit of the points is also represented, as
well as the line corresponding to the high-quality concrete, Sa = 0.1 mg/(mm2.min1/2), and low-quality concrete, Sa = 0.2 mg/(mm2.
min1/2) according to Browne [65]. Developed concretes can be classified as high-quality concerning to capillarity absorption. This
result is related with the fact that both mixtures have a fluid consistency, a good compactness and low porosity. Comparing to the
UHDC developed, and even the LWAC, with the HDC studied in Antunes et al. [4], significant improvements are reported, this new
UHDC has a much lower capillarity absorption, approximately 50%, and the reason is again the replacement of fly ash by silica fume.
Also, analyzing the graph, particularly the slope of the trend lines, it is possible to conclude that the porous network of the new UHDC is
more resistant to water penetration along time, first the accessible larger pores are saturated, but after there is a delayed of the
saturation of the isolated macropores, generally with reduced dimensions [14]. Silica fume improves the density and compactness of
the concrete matrix. Some researchers [66–68] report that its addition reduces the porosity and interconnectedness of concrete pores,
which reduces water absorption by capillarity. Fewer pores and less capillary channels mean fewer paths for water penetration.

Fig. 15. Water absorption through capillarity and respective classification limits.

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Consequently, the reduction in water absorption can result in increased concrete durability, with less potential for degradation due to
the action of aggressive chemical agents, freeze-thaw cycles or expansive reactions [41].
In Fig. 16 is possible to see that carbonation depth, Cdi, increases with the exposure time, as expected, namely for the LWAC. No CO2
penetration was observed on UHDC at 28 days. Fig. 17 shows the relation between the average carbonation depth, Cdi (mm) with the
square root of the exposure time for the developed concrete, the results of the UDHC with fly ash are also presented [4]. It is clear the
high carbonation resistance of both concretes developed, the UHDC has a minimal penetration, close to 0 mm depth, even after 56 days
of exposure, mainly due to reduced W/C ratio and dense microstructure, while the LWAC has around 6.3 mm, but in terms absolutes a
lower value as it will be demonstrated in Section 4. It should be pointed out that the LWAC has higher resistance to the CO2 penetration
than the HDC studied in Antunes et al. [4]. This tendency was verified in the capillary test and the justification is associated with the
use of silica fume and limestone filler instead of fly ash, as already mentioned, originating a less porous matrix and, consequently, a
lower diffusion of the carbon dioxide through the concrete. Also, the pozzolanic effect of silica fume promotes reaction with the
calcium hydroxide present in the concrete matrix, which effectively seals the pores and reduce the permeability of the concrete, and,
consequently, reduces the CO2 diffusion.
Figs. 18 and 19 shows the relation between the chloride migration coefficient, D0 (x 10− 12 m2/s) with the age of both concretes (for
28 and 56 days) and the samples, the silver color of the silver nitrate reaction identifies the chloride penetration depth. According to
Luping [69], depending on the D0 results, concretes can be classified, according to their resistance to chlorides, as: (i) very good
resistance; (ii) good resistance; (iii) moderate resistance; and (iv) not suitable for harsh environments. The results show a decrease of
the chloride migration coefficient with age for both concrete. The chloride migration coefficient decreases about 73% between 28 and
56 days of age, while the HDC developed by Antunes et al. [4] drops 30%. This proves that the pozzolanic activity of concrete with
silica fume starts earlier than the concrete with fly ash, probably because the pozzolanic activity index of the silica fume is higher than
fly ash, as can be seen in the electrical resistivity results below. The developed concretes show a good resistance to chloride pene­
tration, particularly the UHDC, with a chloride migration coefficient, D0 = 1.4 × 10− 12 m2/s, less than the limit of 2 × 10− 12 m2/s,
being classified as concrete with a very good resistance to chlorides, at 56 days. This result is a clear prove that the UHDC can work as a
‘superskin’ in environments where the corrosion can be induced by chlorides. The HDC with fly ash developed by Antunes et al. [4] has
the chloride migration coefficient significantly higher, 2.5 times higher than the LWAC and 4 times higher than the UHDC herein
presented. These results, complemented by the capillary absorption and carbonation tests, prove that the concretes developed in this
study have a less porous microstructure, relatively to the UHDC previously studied, and show that a small amount of silica fume can
provide a significant enhancement of concrete performance. Other studies [70–72] suggest that the addition of silica fume has a
positive effect on reducing chloride migration in concrete, reporting that silica fume modifies the microstructure of the calcium silicate
hydrate gel, reducing its porosity and consequently increasing its resistance to chloride ion diffusion. Silica fume is an effective
addition which control chloride diffusivity and the initiation of steel corrosion. According to these researchers, the effective diffusion
coefficient is highly reduced when silica fume is used as cement replacement, as confirmed by the presented results.
Fig. 20 shows the experimental results of the resistivity (kΩcm) along the time (days) and the electrical resistivity increases with
age, due to the chemical reaction in the hydration process, the development of a denser microstructure, drying, curing and other age-
related processes [73]. The durability of the concrete increases as the resistivity increases. Comparing the results obtained with the
limits presented in the standard AASHTO T358-15 [47], the LWAC can be classified as having a ‘low’ chloride penetration, while UHDC
can be classified as having a ‘very low’ chloride penetration, corroborating the results above presented. Once again, in can be seen that
the concretes developed have a good capacity to chlorides diffusion. The UHDC and LWAC present 68% and 44% higher resistivity
than the values reported in Antunes et al. [4], at 28 days, and also the slope of the curves is different between 14 and 28 days.

5. Service life prediction and minimum concrete cover

Based on the results obtained in the durability tests, which can be interrelated to the steel corrosion, related to the resistances to
carbonation and to chloride penetration, it was possible to assess the durability of UHDC and LWAC concretes in a more holistic way.
Using the model presented by Tuutti of reinforced concrete degradation due to reinforcement corrosion and the recommendations
described in LNEC E− 465 [74], the following parameters were determined: (i) the minimum concrete cover, cmin,dur, required to
guarantee protection against reinforcement corrosion during a predefined service life of structures exposed to environmental

Fig. 16. Concrete specimens with phenolphthalein after 28 and 56 days of exposure to CO2.

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Fig. 17. Carbonation depth versus square root of exposure time.

Fig. 18. Non-steady-state migration coefficient, at 28 and 56 days, and classification.

Fig. 19. Concrete specimens with silver nitrate after exposure to chlorides, at 28 and 56 days of age.

Fig. 20. Variation of the electrical resistivity with age.

conditions XC (corrosion induced by carbonation) and XS (corrosion induced by chlorides presented in seawater) [75]; (ii) the service
life prediction of reinforced concrete structures using the concretes developed and characterized and predefined concrete covers, when
exposed to XC and XS environmental conditions. In this study, it was necessary to consider the reliability class related with the type of
structure. For current structures, was considered a service life of 50 years, and RC2 class, which correspond to a safety factor equal to

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

2.3. It should be noted that the LNEC E− 465 [74] only considers the serviceability limit state defined as the start of cracking of the
concrete cover due to corrosion of the reinforcement.

5.1. Environmental exposure XC (corrosion induced by carbonation)

Based on the carbonation depth, presented in Section 3, it was possible to determine the minimum cover required, by determining
three parameters: (i) the carbonation resistance, RC65 (kg.year/m5) of the developed concretes; (ii) the design period of initiation tic;
and (iii) the depth of carbonation for the four exposure XC classes.
Based on the experimentally determined carbonation depth values, Xi, measured at 28 and 56 days of exposure to carbon dioxide,
with a concentration Cacel approximately 90 × 10− 3 kg/m3, the carbonation resistance, RC65 (kg.year/m5) was determined and the
results are shown in Table 4. The values obtained for 56 days were used for subsequent calculations, because this value gives more
guarantees that the measured values have smaller errors, since older exposure is considered, then the greater the carbonation depth
and consequently the smaller the relative error in measuring Ddi. This is particularly relevant in concretes where the carbonation is not
too high. To determine the design period of initiation, tic, it is necessary to define the intended service life, tg, for the structure, the
corrosion propagation time tp and define the service life factor, γ. The propagation time depends on the environmental exposure class
and was considered the minimum, according to LNEC E− 465 [74] (Table 5).
According to LNEC E− 465 [74] the propagation periods were defined to maximize the initiation period, since the randomness of
the service life was concentrated in this period. The minimum cover required to guarantee resistance against corrosion of the rein­
forcement, cmin,dur is considered to be equal to the carbonation depth determined for the design period of initiation, tic. The minimum
cover can be determined in two ways: directly using Eq (3); or by intersecting the experimentally determined RC65 value with the
curves corresponding to the required RC65, which depends of the cover and of the exposure class.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ( )n
2 × 0.0007 × ti √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ t0
X= × k0 × k1 × k2 × (3)
RC65 ti

k0 is a factor related to the test conditions and is equal to 3; t0 is the reference period, equal to 1 year; k2 is related to the curing of the
concrete and takes the value of 1; k1 is a factor that takes into account the variation of relative humidity; and n takes into account the
influence of wetting/drying periods over time, and take values shown in Table 6. The minimum cover required to guarantee the
resistance against steel corrosion, as well as the minimum cover recommended by Eurocode 2 [49] are presented in Table 7. The values
presented are the minimum covers required to ensure the desired durability, in practice, these small covers cannot be applied because
it is also necessary to considerer the minimum cover to ensure an adequate fire resistance and a proper transmission of bond stresses
between the steel and the surrounding concrete.
The results show that the minimum cover, cmin,dur of the two concretes developed are significantly lower than the values rec­
ommended by Eurocode 2 [49], for all exposures classes. This indicates that the carbonation resistance, RC65, assumed on EC2 [49] is
lower than the real resistance determined for studied concretes. Even the LWAC, with 50 kg/m3 less cement than UHDC, has a high
resistance to carbonation, resulting in a cover varying between 4 and 11 mm. This value is also lower than the resistance of the UHDC
developed by Antunes et al. [4], with that had higher cement content. The reason for these results is the silica fume addition and the
high compactness of the mixtures herein developed. The UHDC developed in this work really works like a ‘superskin’, with minimum
covers regarding to durability close to 0. These results are very important because demonstrate the advantages of the ‘superskin’
concept to protect the structure, reduce the concrete covers and consequently consume less cement dosages during the structure
production.
The prediction of the service life for reinforced concrete structures was also carried out for several environmental conditions XC.
This information can be useful to assessing the sustainability of this wall system. To perform this prediction the carbonation resistance,
RC65, previously determined was used and the cover was considered equal to 20 and 30 mm, a common value on precast walls with a
layer 50 mm thickness. To achieve this, Eq. (3) was used to determine the value of tic, knowing the value of the other parameters, and
considering X equal to 20 or 30 mm. Knowing the values of tic and tp, the value of tg was determined and the results are shown in
Table 8. Those results show that the developed concretes have a carbonation resistance, RC65, enough for all exposures classes, having
margin to decrease the minimum cover in reinforced structures. Since the depth of carbonation is very low under these environment
conditions, the service life is very high. Those values highlight that the relation between the carbonation depth and time is not linear.
In these circumstances, and considering the structural LWAC performance, it can be concluded that there is no need to use UHDC as
‘superskin’ for carbonation resistance, having a service lifetime over 90 years. It can also be deduced, given the predicted service life,
that maintenance of concrete structures related with carbonation-induced corrosion might be carried out later than suggested by
standards.

Table 4
Carbonation resistance, RC65.

Concrete 28 days 56 days

5
Cdi (mm) RC65 (kg.year/m ) Cdi (mm) RC65 (kg.year/m5)

UHDC 0.00 – 0.50 110466

LWAC 4.50 682 6.25 707

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Table 5
Minimum propagation period and the initiation period due to carbonation [74].

XC2 XC3 XC4 (dry region) XC4 (wet region)

tg = 50 year (RC2) tp (years) 10 45 15 5

tic (years) 92 12 80 104

Table 6
K1 and n parameters for different XC exposure classes.

XC4 XC3 XC2

k1 0.41 0.77 0.2

N 0.085 0.02 0.183

Table 7
Minimum cover for current structures exposed to environments where the corrosion is induced by carbonation.

Structural class S4 (Current structures, RC2), 50 years

Type of cement CEM I (Reference); CEM II/A (1)

Exposure class XC2 XC3 XC4 (dry reg.) XC4 (wet reg.)
Min cover cmin,dur (mm) EC2 25 25 30
Concretes under study UHDC 0.40 0.6 0.8 0.9
LWAC 4.6 6.9 9.4 10.5
Concrete [4] HDC_MC-Pool 6 8 11 13

Table 8
Service lifetime (years) expected for current structures produced with the studied concrete under environmental conditions XC.

Cover (mm) Concretes under study Structural class S4 (RC2), current structures

XC2 XC3 XC4 (dry reg.) XC4 (wet reg.)

20 UHDC ≫300 ≫300 ≫300 ≫300

LWAC ≫300 91 234 224
30 UHDC ≫300 ≫300 ≫300 ≫300
LWAC ≫300 152 ≫300 (603) ≫300 (593)

5.2. Environmental exposure XS (chloride-induced corrosion)

Similar to that described for carbonation, the determination of the minimum cover necessary to ensure resistance against corrosion
induced by chlorides was also performed. The calculation also involves the determination of three parameters: (i) the design period of
initiation, tic; (ii) the chloride diffusion coefficient, D (m2/s); and (iii) the penetration depth of chlorides for the several environmental
exposures classes XS. As the previous analysis, only the service life tg = 50 years, used in current structures with reliability class RC2,
was considered. The propagation time, tp (years) due to chlorides are slightly different from those used for carbonation. Table 9 shows
the values recommended by LNEC E− 465 [74] for tp and tic.
The chloride diffusion in concrete, D (m2/s), can be determined using Eq (4).

D(t) = kD,c .kD,RH .kD,T .D0 .(t0 /t)n = k D0 .(t0 /t)n (4)

Where kD,c is a factor related with curing conditions: for exposure classes XS1 and XS3 a normalized curing was considered and is equal
to 2.4; for exposure class XS2, in permanent contact with water, is equal 0.75. kD,RH is a factor that takes into account the influence of
the relative humidity of the environment and is equal to 0.4 for XS1 and 1 for XS2 and XS3; kD,T is a factor that depends on temperature,
equal to 0.8 when an average temperature of 15 ◦ C is considered; n depends on the type of cement and the exposure class, being equal
to 0.55 for XS1 and XS3 and 0.45 for XS2; D0 is the chloride diffusion coefficient, determined experimentally, according with LNEC
E− 463 [45], at reference age t0 = 28 days. Despite that, the chloride resistance is quite higher for these concrete mixtures at 56 days,
being the durability even higher than quantified at 28 days age. Considering that, the reference age for concrete with pozzolanic SCMs
should be 56 or 90 days of age. For this reason, the analysis was also carried out for reference age t0 = 56 days.

Table 9
Minimum periods of corrosion propagation due to chlorides and the initiation periods.

XS1 XS2 XS3

tg = 50 years (RC2) tp (years) 0 40 0

tic (years) 115 24 115

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Knowing these three parameters, the minimum cover can be determined using Eq (5).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X = 2.ξ. D.tic (5)

Where ξ is the error function and X is the cover. Table 10 and Fig. 21 shows the minimum covers calculated at t0 = 28 days and t0 = 56
days (with D0 determined experimentally at 28 and 56 days), as well as the minimum cover recommended by Eurocode 2 [49] and the
results reported in Antunes et al. [4].
The minimum cover at t0 = 28 days are lower than the minimum values recommended by Eurocode 2 for exposures classes XS1 and
XS2, being the difference ranging between 5 and 11 mm, while the opposite occurs in exposure class XS3. This means that the
resistance to chloride diffusion of the developed concretes is higher in XS1 and XS2 cases and lower in the XS3 case than the resistance
considered in the Eurocode 2 [49]. So, considering these reference age (t0 = 28 days), the covers considered are not suitable to being
use in structures located in very aggressive zones, tidal, splash and spray zones, for those conditions, it is required higher covers.
However, the analysis with results of chloride resistance at 56 days age result in quite enhanced results, proving that these mixtures can
effectively be used in structures located in XS3 cases, using the UHDC ‘superskin’, being the one that fulfils the minimum cover
recommended by Eurocode 2 in the XS3 case. Similar to what was done in previous section, the service life of reinforced concrete
structures on environments where the steel corrosion is induced by chlorides (exposure classes XS) was also performed, but now the
covers were considered equal to 20, 30 and 40 mm. To achieve this, it was necessary to calculate the value of tic and then tg, considering
the cover X equal to values abovementioned. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 11 at t0 = 28 days and 56 days. The results
at t0 = 28 days show that the covers considered, and the concretes produced are not suitable for use in XS3 environmental conditions,
as already mentioned. When a cover 20 mm is used, the predicted service life is clearly less than 50 years, so additional protection
measures should be taken or increase the cover. But the results at t0 = 56 days show a different situation, due to the pozzolanic effect of
SCMs. The advantage of ‘superskin’ is clear, even for a 20 mm cover, being the predicted service life over 50 years, except for XS3 class.
However, with a 40 mm cover, the predicted service life of UHDC ‘superskin’ in XS3 exposure class is 70 years.

6. Conclusions
In the scope of the study herein presented, two concrete mixes were developed, fulfilling the identified requirements to reach the
proposed goals for the innovative composite precast concrete wall, specifically: high durability for UHDC (high resistances to chloride
penetration and to carbonation); high flowability (class F6 for UHDC and at least S4 consistency class for LWAC); reduction of self-
weight (target density under 1850 kg/m3 for LWAC); minimum LWAC strength class LC35/38, defined by the structural model
design to support the slabs and the stresses of dry-connections. Next, the main conclusions drawn are presented.

• The developed concretes have a very flowable consistency, particularly the UHDC, especially relevant to minimize or even avoid
the need for vibration during production.
• A fresh density of circa 1870 kg/m3 was reached for the LWAC, leading to a weight reduction of circa 20% of the precast wall;
• The optimization of the cement content (250 kg/m3 for LWAC and 300 kg/m3 for UHDC), with the use of silica fume, allows for a
reduction of cement around 20–25%, to achieve similar strength performance;
• There is a clear improvement of the compressive strength, 15% for UHDC and 40% for LWAC, comparatively to the concrete mixes
previously developed [4], with similar requirements but with a fly ash addition instead of silica fume. Moreover, high compressive
strength was registered at 24h, namely 33 MPa for UHDC and 24 MPa for LWAC, which allows a significant reduction in the
production time of the precast walls. Regarding the Young’s modulus, an increase of 10% for UHDC and 12% for LWAC was
observed, compared to previous concrete produced with fly ash [4];
• The reduced capillary absorption shows that both concretes, UHDC and LWAC, lower than 0.1 mg/(mm2.min1/2), prove the high-
quality classification, according to Ref. [65]. Silica fume promotes a reduction of water absorption in circa 50%, compared to the
previous high durability concrete (HDC) produced with fly ash. These results show that the silica fume is a very efficient addition to
achieve the initially defined requirements, with a pozzolanic effect that improves not only the strength but also the durability, even

Table 10
Minimum cover, cmin,dur, for current structures to resist chloride-induced corrosion.

Structural Class S4 (current structures, RC2), 50 years

Type of cement CEM I (Reference); CEM II/A (1)

Exposure Classa XS1b XS2c (1 m) XS2c (1.4–25 m) XS3d
Eurocode 2 [49] 35 40 40 45
cmin,dur (mm) (ref. age t0 = 28 days) Concrete under study UHDC 25 29 32 60
LWAC 30 33 36 66
Concrete [4] HDC_MC-Pool 29 34 38 71
cmin,dur (mm) (ref. age t0 = 56 days) Concrete under study UHDC 16 17 19 37
LWAC 27 29 32 61
a
In this analysis, the worst scenario was considered, i.e. the structure are located on the coast.
b
Structures exposed to the air sea salts.
c
Permanently submerged structures.
d
Structures in tidal splash and spray zones.

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

Fig. 21. Minimum cover, cmin,dur per exposure class XS.

Table 11
Service lifetime (years) for current structures produced with the studied concrete under environmental conditions XS, with covers 20, 30 or 40 mm.

Cover Concrete under study tp (years) EC2 Structural Class S4 (RC2) must be > 50 years

XS1 XS2 (1 m) XS2 (1.4 a 25 m) XS3

0 40 0

t0 = 28 days 20 mm UHDC ti (years) 17 3 2 0

tg (years) 17 43 42 0
LWAC ti (years) 9 2 1 0
tg (years) 9 42 41 0
30 mm UHDC ti (years) 106 12 8 2
tg (years) 106 52 48 2
LWAC ti (years) 55 8 6 0
tg (years) 55 48 46 1
40 mm UHDC ti (years) 380 33 23 9
tg (years) 380 73 63 9
LWAC ti (years) 199 22 16 5
tg (years) 199 62 56 5
t0 = 56 days 20 mm UHDC ti (years) 142 17 12 3
tg (years) 142 57 52 3
LWAC ti (years) 13 3 2 0
tg (years) 13 43 42 0
30 mm UHDC ti (years) 863 74 51 19
tg (years) 863 114 91 19
LWAC ti (years) 77 12 8 2
tg (years) 77 52 48 2
40 mm UHDC ti (years) 3100 211 146 70
tg (years) 3100 251 186 70
LWAC ti (years) 278 33 23 7
tg (years) 278 73 63 7

when compared to concrete with fly ash. Its lower permeability and denser matrix greatly increase the concrete carbonation and
chloride attack, consequently long-life protecting the steel reinforcement;
• Both concretes have high carbonation resistances, particularly the UHDC with no carbonation, having a resistance higher than that
on HDC with fly ash, studied in a previous work [4];
• Also, both concretes have high chloride diffusion resistance, with a chloride migration coefficient at 56 days equals to 3.5 × 10− 12
m2/s for LWAC and 1.4 × 10− 12 m2/s for UHDC, significantly lower than the limit considered in Ref. [69], therefore classified as
holding high resistance to chlorides, and being 2.5 to 4 times lower than the HDC previously developed [4];
• For exposures classes XC (corrosion induced by carbonation), by adopting the developed concretes, the minimum cover required
can be lower than the standard recommendation, allowing to reduce the amount of reinforcement required, since the increase of the
effective depth of a cross-section has huge impact on the reduction of the steel reinforcement. The cover reduction is also relevant to
decrease the cracks’ width.
• To predict the service life or determine the cover for exposures classes XS (corrosion induced by chlorides), it is recommended to
use the chloride resistance at 56 days age and not at 28 days as is usually used for current concretes, due to the pozzolanic reactions
delayed over time of this mix, refining even more the microstructure of the matrix comparatively to the 28 days. The chloride
resistance increases significatively (more than 70%), compared to 28 days (and with the results of the HDC previously developed),
being possible to use UHDC with 30–40 mm cover, even for XS3 exposure class.

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R. Martins et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108922

• Using the covers recommended by Eurocode 2 [49] and the concretes developed, the service life can increase significantly, at least
90 years for corrosion induced by carbonation exposure classes, and at least 70 years for corrosion induced by chlorides exposure
classes, if the UHDC are used.
Future studies are needed to further investigate the environmental impact of these concretes and the sustainability of this precast
wall solution. It is also envisaged to address the shear strength at the UHDC-to-LWAC interface of the innovative composite structural
wall.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ricardo Martins: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Vali­
dation. Ricardo do Carmo: Investigation, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodology.
Hugo Costa: Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Resources. Eduardo
Júlio: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, through both the PhD scholarship SFRH/
BD/05254/2020, granted to the first author and the project UIDB/04625/2020, that finances the authors’ research center, CERIS -
Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability. This article is a result of the Innovation Pact “R2UTechnologies| modular
systems” (C644876810-00000019) by “R2UTechnologies” Consortium, co-financed by NextGeneration EU, through the Incentive
System “Agendas para a Inovação Empresarial” (“Agendas for Business Innovation”), within the Recovery and Resilience Plan (PRR).
The authors are also grateful to Vibogloco – Pré-fabricados, S.A., for co-hosting this research study, together with CERIS.

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