Survey Project Complted

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXISTING TANK PROJECT
3. NEW TANK PROJECT
4. HIGHWAY PROJECT
5. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY

PROJECT
6. DRAWINGS
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 1

INTRODUCTION
In Civil Engineering, project is a structural work undertaken as the
constructional aspects of which are done according to a systematic plan and with
necessary detailed estimation of quantities of materials and other costs.
Project means a full scheme consisting of a detailed technical report, history, designed
data, calculations, drawings, specifications, rates etc,.
In project, a detailed study of stages and operations involved will give period
of its execution and completion.
Before undertaking any project a detailed report explaining its purpose, economic
justifications and effects of its assistance and adjoining inhabitants should be
prepared.
The main projects are irrigation, roads, railways, navigational etc., in irrigation
project there are construction of works like dams, channels, weir, bunds etc.
IMPORTANCE OF PROJECTS:
Every engineering project when completed successfully will give a valuable
asset for country. During the construction of Project it provides employment
opportunities to the jobless persons. Irrigation project are the sources of income for
the country development, by the construction of the irrigation project fresh and
sufficient quantity of order for the domestic and industrial over the entire period of the
year purpose.

SIGNIFICANCE OF IRRIGATION PROJECT:
Irrigation is a primary need of any country. Before executing the irrigable
area, standards of leaving of surrounding peoples and nature of ground are made and
accordingly an irrigation project should be planned.
An irrigation project offers sufficient amount of water for drinking purpose if
other sources of water are not available surrounding to the particular town or village.
NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION:
India is basically and agricultural country and its all resources depend on the
agricultural outputs. Therefore water is the most vital element is in plant life.
The necessity of irrigation arises when there is less rainfall, non-uniform rainfall, to
grow commercial crops with additional water and to supply water to fields in
controlled manner.
The importance of irrigation is well started as “Irrigation in many countries is
an old art as old as civilization, but for the whole word is a modern science, the
science of survival”.
BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS:
There are many benefits or advantage of irrigation such as;
 Increase in food production.
 Cultivation of cash crops.
 Domestic and industrial water supply.
 Generation of hydro electrolytic power etc.
 Fishery culture.

 Channel navigations.
 Avoidance of famine.
A successful irrigation project can be assured if the following factors are taken
into consideration.
 Sufficient funds for the project.
 Skilled labours experienced in the civil engineer work.
 Adequate transportation facility in the form of tractors, dumpers, lorries,
excavators etc.,
 Cost of labours and construction materials such as stone, brick, cement etc.
 Environmental conditions.
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEY:
Before undertaking any project the first and for most job is to carry out the
survey work of the filed under consideration.
Survey is confined to any measurement of distance, direction and elevations for
findings relative positions of joint on the earth surface by engineering instruments like
chain, compass and dumpy level etc.
Survey is like an investigation carried out for obtaining details and
information required for the commencement of any project by gathering information
to the topography soil strata, physical features etc.
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY:
The main project of this survey is to make preliminary inspection of the area
to be surveyed with the view of selection of good station points. And after inspecting
the ground, a rough sketch of drawing are prepared showing details of roads building
and other important features surrounding it.

TERMS USED IN SURVEYING:
1. CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain surveying is that type of surveying in which only linear measurements
are made in the field. This type of surveying is suitable for surveys of small extent on
open ground fairly flat ground.
 STATION
A survey station is a permanent point on the chain line and can be either it
beginning of chain line or at the end. Such station is know as main station. However,
subsidiary or tie station an also be the selected anywhere on the chain line of
subsidiary or tie lines may be run through them.
 BASE LINE
The lines joining the main survey station are called main survey lines. The
biggest as the main survey line is called a base line normally it runs through the
middle of the areas to be surveyed.
 CHECK LINE
The lines, which are run in the field to check the accuracy of the work, are
known as check line or proof line.
 RANGING
In measuring a survey line the chain has to be laid out on the ground between
the stations. If the line is short, the chain could be put in alignment easily. But as it
is long or the end stations not clearly visible then intermediate points have to be
established in line with the end points to know the direction of the line by ranging.

 Ranging is of two kinds
1. Direct ranging
2. Indirect ranging
2. COMPASS SURVEYING
Surveying in which a compass is used to determined direction of survey line in
a traverse is known as compass surveying. The length of survey lines of offsets from
the survey lines are measured by means of a tape as in chain surveying.
BEARING
The angle measure with aspect to meridian is called bearing. A meridian is any
direction such as;
I. True meridian
II. Magnetic meridian
III. Arbitrary meridian
FORE BEARING
The bearing of line, whether expressed in whole circle bearing system or
quadrantal bearing system, difference according as the observation is made from one
end of the line or from one end of the line or from the other of the bearing of a line
AB is measured from, A towards B, it is known as fore bearing (forward bearing).
BACK BEARING
If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B towards A, it is known as

back bearing (reversed bearing).
WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING

In this system the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north in
clockwise direction. The value of the bearing thus varies from 00 to 3600.
Example: - Prismatic compass.
QUADRANTAL BEARING
In this system the bearing of line is measured east word or west word from
north or south, whichever is nearer. Thus both north and south are used as reference
meridian and the direction can be either Clockwise or anticlockwise direction
depending upon the position of the line.
The value of the bearing varies from 00 to 900.
Example: Surveyor of compass.
3. PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
It is graphical method of survey in which the filed observation and plotting
proceed simultaneously. (It is means of making of manuscript map in the field while
the ground can be set by the topographer and without intermediate steps for recording
and transcribing filed notes.).
It is a very effective method of surveying for preparing small or medium size
topographical plan. It is not so accurate as other systems of surveys.
STATION POINT
It is ground point on which plane table was set up.

LEVELLING
The table is leveled by placing spirit level on the board in two positions at
right angles and getting the bubble central in both directions.
CENTERING
The table should be so placed over the station on the ground that the point
plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should be exactly over the
station on the ground. The operation is known as centering of plane table. This is
achieved by using plumbing fork.
ORIENTATION
The process keeping the plane table in some fixed direction so that line
representing a certain direction on the plane is parallel to that direction on the ground.
This is essential condition to be fulfilled well more than one
Instrument station is to be used. If orientation is not done, the table will not be
parallel to itself at different position resulting in an over all distortion of the map.
There are two main methods
1. Orientation by means of through Compass
2. Orientation by means of back sight
I. METHODS OF PLANE TABLING
Methods of plane tabling can be divided into four distinct heads;
(1) Radiation
(2) Intersection
(3) Traversing

(4) Resection
 RADIATION
In this method ray is drawn from the instrument station towards the points, the
distance is measured between the instrument station and that point, and the point is
located by plotting to some scale the distance so measured.
 INTERSECTION
Intersection is resorted to when the distance between the points and the
instrument station is either too large or can not be measured accurately due to same
field condition. The location of an object is determined by sighting at the object from
two plane tables. Station points are located drawing the rays.
The intersection of theses rays will give the position by the object. It is therefore very
essential to have at least two-instrument station to locate any point.
 TRAVERSING
This method is similar to that of compass. It is used for running survey lines
between stations which have been previously fixed by other methods of surveying to
locate the topographical details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc.
 RESECTION

Resection is the process of determining the plotted position of the station
occupied by the plane table by means of sights taken towards known points location
of which have been plotted.
 THE TWO POINT PROBLEM
Location of the position, on the plan of the station occupied by the plane table
by means of observation to two wells defines points whose position has been
previously plotted on the plan.
 THE THREE POINT PROBLEM
Location of the position, on the plan of the station occupied by the plane table
by means of observation to two wells defines points whose position has been
previously plotted on the plan.
TERMS USED IN LEVELLING

Bench mark (B.M.) It is the point known elevation
Back sight (B.S.) It is first stop reading after setting up of the
instrument, the elevation this point is
known as back sight.
Fore sight (F.S.) It is last staff reading taken from the setting
of the level is known as fore sight.
Intermediate sight (I.S.) It is the last staff reading taken from the
setting of the level in between the back
sight is known as intermediate sight.
Change point (C.P.) It is the station where both F.S. and B.S. are
taken it denotes the shifting of the
instruments. It is also called as a turning
point.
Reduced level (R.L.) The levels of various points are taken as
height above the data surface known as
reduced level.
METHODS OF LEVELLING
SIMPLE LEVELLING
This method allows us to determine the difference in level between two points
by placing instrument approximately midway between two points. While taking the
observation the bubble should remain in the center.
COMPOUND LEVELLING OR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING:
The compound leveling involves the same process as that of simple leveling,
but in addition, a number of setting of the instrument are require to find out the
difference in level the two points. This may be either due to a large distance or due to
some intervening obstructions.
FLY-LEVELING
The Reduced Levels of some important points is found by few selected setting
of the instrument to get rough idea of the nature of the ground.
LONGITUDINAL OR PROFILE LEVELING

Longitudinal or profile levelling is an operation of doing a levelling job with a
view to determine the profile of the surface along a given line. It is also called
longitudinal sectioning. This is generally the center line of a proposed alignment such
as a railway line, highway, canal or pipeline.
CROSS-SECTION LEVELLING
In longitudinal levelling the central line is taken. But when a wider belt is
required for some engineering project, Ex: a highway, railway etc.
The profile levelling alone does not serve the purpose so that cross-section is
preferable.
PRINCIPLE OF LEVELLING:
The principle of levelling is that by use of level (bubble tube), we establish a
line called the line of collimation of the instrument which lies in a horizontal plane
passing through the horizontal hair of the instrument.
The operation of levelling consist essentially in determining the vertical
distance from the B.M. with reference to one another are difference the height by
placing the staff on those points. In such cases cross sections are selected depend
upon the purpose. For highway it may be 30m to 60m, and for railways 200m to
300m or more on either side of the center line.
DUMPY LEVEL:

The dumpy level is a simple, compact and stable instrument. The telescope is
rigidly fixed to its support and therefore, can neither be rotated about its longitudinal
axis, nor can it be removed from its supports.
TELESCOPE OR SAP WITH STAFF:
It consists of three parts. The upper one is solid piece while lower two pieces
are hollow from inside. The upper part can slide into the central part and central part
to into the lower part. Each length can be pulled up and held position by means of a
brass spring. The total length is 5m. the upper two parts are each of 1.5m, while the
lower part is of 2m length.
METHODS OF COMPUTATIONS:
1} Rise and fall method
2} Height of collimation method
RISE AND FALL METHOD:
In this method the difference in level between successive points is obtained by
comparing the readings from the same settings.
The B.S. & F.S. have been taken from the same setting of the instruments. If F.S. is
larger than B.S., it indicates a fall because a large reading can be obtained on the staff
if it goes down. Similarly a similar F.S. means rise.
HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD:
In this method the height collation of the instrument is computed by adding
B.S. to the R.L. of B.M. on which the back sight has been taken. The various reading

taken from this setting are subtracted from the height of collimation to get R.L.’s of
subsequent points can be obtained.
CONTOURING:
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal
elevation. It is a line in which the surface of the ground is intersected by a level
surface. A contour line is a line on the map representing a contour.
TERMS USED IN CONTOURING:
1] Contour line: It may be defined as in imaginary line passing through points of
equal elevation.
2] Contour interval: The constant vertical distance between successive contour lines
is called contour interval.
3] Horizontal equivalent: The horizontal distance between two consecutive is
called the horizontal equivalent.
METHODS OF DRAWING CONTOURS
DIRECT METHOD:
In this direct method a series of points are selected representing the same
elevation, they then located and contour lines are made to pass through them.
INDIRECT METHOD:

In the direct method the R.L.’s of the various points are found out. Then the
points of the required elevation are interpolated through which the contour lines are
passed. This technic is adopted for block level of the weir, plug sluice pound of LBC
& RBC, canals etc.
PLOTTING OF PROFILE:
Horizontal distances are marked on a horizontal line. A datum line is selected.
The R.L.’s of the points are written against the points. A vertical scale is kept quite
large as compare to the horizontal scale.
Note: Horizontal Scale: - 1 in h. Vertical scale: - 1 in v
CROSS-SECTION LEVELLING:
In longitudinal levelling or profile levelling the central line is taken. But when
a wider belt is required for some engineering project, for example a highway, railway
etc. the profile leveling alone does not serve the purpose.
In such case cross-section are selection required for the construction of new
bund or a road in connection of a state highway (SH) to national highway (NH) or for
a canal it helps us in getting the real topographical outline in the transverse direction
along the alignment by this we can easily calculate the earth work involved in the
construction of highway/ canals etc.


EXISTING TANK PROJECT

INTRODUCITON:
Existing tank is the tank which has constructed by earth and lateral stone
pitching at the upstream side of the reservoir. If has constructed in a small valley of
length of 240 m.
Existing tank reservoir consists of two small streams and a small hillock at the
center as shown in the contour map.
The site is 1 km from the Solpur village. It has an ideal site with the natural
topography.
The set of instruments utilized in conducting the survey work for existing tank
project etc., dumpy level, plane table, prismatic compass, chains, tapes, cross staff,
level staff, arrows, pegs, ranging rods etc.

STAGES OF WORK:
The survey work for existing tank project is divided into following stages of work;
[i] Alignment of center line of the existing bund, longitudinal and cross section
along the center line.
[ii] Capacity surveys.
[iii] Details of sluice and waste weir.
LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTION OF EXISTING TANK:
The longitudinal alignment of bund has a straight line of [123-30] with respect
to north. The total length of bund is 386.5m. The top of the bund is 4m wide leveled.
The side slope is 2:1 (2 horizontal to 1 vertical) at the upstream and 2:1 at the
downstream.
In cross-section we have measured the top width, inclined length of upstream
and downstream side and the slope at every 10m chainage.
According to above data we have taken the cross- section and longitudinal section of
existing earthen bund.
CAPACITY SURVEY:
The second stage of work is the capacity survey. This work is done by please
table with accessories and the dumpy level. Each contour is of 0.5m interval as
shown in the contour map. These are five contours covering the maximum area of
reservoir from the lower level to the upper level with the help of planimeter. We have
found out the area of each contour. There all area multiplied by the interval and get
the total volume of reservoir. The total volume of this reservoir is 91010 m3.
DETAILS OF WASTE WEIR:

The waste weir is at the right side of reservoir. It has located at the higher
elevation but lower than the top of bund to discharge excess water.
There was no built structure for work weir simply open. We have proposed to build a
suitable structure for waste weir. For waste weir we have done the block leveling up
to 30m from the 0 end. The cross-section is taken at each 5 m interval 15m on each
side U / s and D / s.
DETAILS OF SLUICE:
The sluice has the simple structure of stone masonry. There was an opening at
the bottom and no controlling device at the top for sluice we have proposed to
construct a good structure with a controlling device at the top to property discharge
the reservoir water into the canal.
DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR FOR EXISTING TANK
[1] Area by planimeter
[i] Contour interval 94.600
I.R. = 4.6
F.R. =4 N= 2.34 M=20 C= 23.31.
A1 = 20(4.4.62+10x2.34+23.31)
= 3920 m2
[ii] Contour interval 95.600
I.R. = 12
F.R. = 15.98 N = 4.290
A2 = 20(15.98-12+10X4.29+23.31)

= 124880 m2
[iii] Contour interval 96.600
I.R. = 11.7
F.R. = 15.98 N = 5.06
A3 = 20(10.06-11.7+10x5.06+23.31)
= 229840 m2
[iv] Contour interval 97.600
I.R. = 13.82
F.R. = 13.63 N =7.52
A4 = 20 (13.63-13.82+10x7.52+23.31)
= 786560 m2
[v] Contour interval 98.600
I.R. = 14.19
F.R. = 15.93 N = 10.25
A5 = 20 (15.93-14.19+10x10.25+23.31)
= 1020960 m2
[2] Volume by Trapezoidal Formula
V= 0.5 (3920+1020960) /2) + 124880+229840+786560]
V= 826860 m3

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF EXISTING BUND

DISTANCE Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced REMARKS
L C R sight Sight sight instrument level
2.790 102.790 100.000 T.B.M

0 2.790 100.000
5 2.700 100.090
5 3.200 99.590
10 2.140 100.650
5 2.010 100.780
5 1.610 101.180
20 1.770 101.020
5 2.000 100.790
5 1.700 101.090
30 1.500 101.290
5 1.560 101.230
5 1.660 101.130
40 1.560 101.230
5 1.440 101.350
5 1.640 101.150
50 1.580 101.210
5 1.680 101.110
5 1.620 101.170
60 1.710 101.080
5 1.660 101.180
5 1.760 101.030
70 1.760 101.030
5 1.790 101.000
5 1.890 100.900
80 1.820 100.970
5 1.930 101.860
5 1.820 100.970
90 1.710 101.080
5 1.860 100.930
5 1.790 101.000
100 1.750 101.040
5 1.760 101.030
5 1.640 101.150
110 1.840 100.950
5 2.040 100.750
5 1.740 101.050
120 1.860 100.930
5 1.840 100.950
5 1.740 101.050
130 1.590 101.200
5 1.680 101.110
5 1.660 101.130
140 1.560 101.230
5 1.670 101.120
5 1.450 101.340
150 1.530 101.260
5 1.630 101.160
5 1.460 101.330
160 1.50 101.290
5 1.520 101.270

5 1.700 101.090

L C R sight Sight sight instrument Level
170 1.680 101.110
5 1.790 101.000
5 1.550 101.240
180 1.560 101.230
5 1.620 101.170
5 1.520 101.270
190 1.630 101.160
5 1.650 101.140
5 1.600 101.190
200 1.670 101.120
5 1.710 101.080
5 1.760 101.030
210 1.700 101.090
5 1.860 100.930
5 1.710 101.080
220 1.730 101.060
5 1.810 100.980
5 1.700 101.090
230 1.810 101.980
5 1.720 101.070
5 1.470 1.750 102.510 101.040 CP 1
240 1.450 101.060
5 1.410 101.100
5 1.350 101.160
250 1.550 100.960
5 1.450 101.060
5 1.410 101.100
260 1.490 101.020
5 1.560 100.950
5 1.710 100.800
270 1.600 100.910
5 1.730 100.780
5 1.790 100.720
280 1.560 100.950
5 1.550 100.960
5 1.740 100.770
290 1.470 101.040
5 1.430 101.080
5 1.780 100.730
300 1.510 101.000
5 1.470 101.040
5 1.610 100.900
310 1.450 101.060
5 1.670 100.840
5 1.350 101.160
320 1.310 101.200
5 1.220 101.290
5 1.430 101.080
330 1.320 101.190
5 1.420 101.090
5 1.350 101.160
340 1.330 101.180
5 1.500 101.010
5 1.680 1.450 102.740 101.060 CP 2
350 1.770 100.970

5 2.150 100.590
5 1.610 101.130

360 1.540 101.200
5 1.900 100.840
5 1.570 101.170
370 1.470 101.270
5 1.190 101.550
5 1.200 101.540
380 1.390 101.350
5 1.240 101.500
5 1.310 101.430
Arithmetic Check For L/S of Bund Line:
ΣB.S - ΣF.S = Last R.L - First R.L

5.940 - 4.510 = 101.430 - 100.000
1.430 = 1.430

BLOCK LEVELLING OF WASTE WEIR OF EXISTING TANK

0 1.340 102.770 101.430
5 0.900 101.870
10 1.120 101.650
15 1.070 101.700
5 1.380 101.390
10 2.090 100.680
15 3.190 99.580
5 1.340 101.430
5 1.400 101.370
10 1.490 101.280
15 1.530 101.240
5 1.400 101.370
10 1.420 101.350
15 1.500 101.270
10 1.350 101.420
5 1.370 101.400
10 1.350 101.420
15 0.980 101.790
5 1.310 101.460
10 0.630 102.140
15 0.500 102.270
15 1.020 101.750
5 0.980 101.790
10 0.550 102.220
15 0.600 102.170
5 0.850 101.920
10 0.200 102.570
15 0.330 102.440
Arithmetic Check For L/S of Bund Line:

1.340 - 0.330 = 102.440 - 101.430
1.010 = 1.010


NEW TANK PROJECT

INTRODUCITON:
A survey project pertaining to the construction of a new tank is undertaken at a site
1KM from Solpur village. It forms an ideal site area with the natural topography.
The main purpose of this project is to go for the construction of the dry lands in the
western part of the Ashtur village.
The set of instruments utilized in conducting the survey work for New Tank project
etc, theodolite, dumpy level, plane table, prismatic compass, chains, tapes, cross-staff,
level-staff arrows pegs, ranging rods.
STAGES OF WORK:
The survey work for new tank project is divided into following stages of work;
ALIGNMENT OF EARTHEN BUND:
* The position occupied by the center line of a bund in plan is called alignment
of bund.
* The center line of the bund is so located it should be short preferably straight
with less cost of construction and maintenance and the capacity of reservoir being
more.
* The starting and ending point of a bund is chosen on a high-elevated hard
ground and a small hillock respectively with a natural valley to a basin in between.
The starting and ending points forms a good ideal site for the dam bearing of the
bund.
* Set the theodolite near to flog station A of the proposed starting point of bund.

LOCATION OF THE PROJECT:
The project site is located at 1 KM from Solpure village and about 3 KM from Bidar
fort. It is proposed to build an earth dam (bund) across small stream flowing through
the site.
REASONS FOR PROPOSAL OF NEW TANK:
A tank project is justifiable as the area to be irrigated in isolated small catchment,
which cannot be otherwise included in large scheme. And other methods of irrigation
are not suitable due to topographic restrictions.
The project site is situated in a rocky and highly hilly region with undulations on a
ground and these are huge areas of cultivable land which are fertile enough on the
downstream side of the tank which can be irrigated under this new project.
The stream flows for about 1 Miles to 2 Miles from up stream origin and meander
greatly.
The discharge will be large during rainy season.
EXISTING METHODS OF IRRIGATION:
The people of the area mainly depend on rainfall and only a small area is irrigated
from water of old tank these are very few wells that are used for irrigation purpose.
RAIN FALL:

The rain fall of the area is moderate about 80 cm To 90 cm which is distributed
throughout the season and in often partial or complete failure therefore the people of
the area struggle hard for water supply.
EXISTING CROPS:
The people of the area mainly grow maize, sugarcane and paddy. It is proposed to
irrigate for the same time of crops on a large scale.
EFFECT OF SUBMERGENCE:
The area submergence being small under the tank and there is no village or cultivated
lands. Hence cost of acquisition of land is negligible.
BENEFITS FROM THE PROJECT:
After the completion of the tank project, it project area of famine and good lot and
labor in the locality is utilized usefully in cultivation. There by providing a means for
these livelihood qualities of crops.
This fields an increased in the level of water in the neighborhood wells.
And it provides water supply to Solpur village.
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES:
The site reveals that there are two types of rocks;
1) Black cotton
2) Bonded latrite
The new tank project is divided into four phases:-
1) Longitudinal and cross section of bund

2) Contour survey
3) Block levelling
4) Canal alignment
CONTOUR SURVEY:
To fix the storage levels of the reservoir or tank contours are traced with a contour
interval of 0.5mt of 200.000M RL and area with the contour lines are found out.
Using planimeter, the volume of water between every 5mt interval is found out from
mainly available formula etc., and all such volumes are summered is to get gross
storage of the tank. The dead storage can also be found out.
Site and debris are connected by runoff and consists of fine clay, which gets sediment
in the bed and sides of the reservoir.
The canal head regulator regulates supply of water entering to the canal controls entry
of site in canal and prevents the river floods from entering the canal.
SITE FOR WASTE WEIR:
Suitable site for waste weir is on right flanks. The excess water is led into a
subsidiary valley after sum distance on downstream side and flows separately.
Availability of Materials and Labours:
Materials in the form of large amount of laterite block granite stone rocks which can
be quarried and from the deposit of stream.
Labours are available from the nearby villages and Ashtur village itself. Many of
them are skilled labours worked for broad gauge line of by Bidar station.
L/S AND C/S FOR PROPOSED BUND:

The object is to estimate the cost of bund and the sluice. The centre line of bund is
fixed keeping in view that;
1) Length of proposed bund should be minimum.
2) These should be good and hard foundation soil.
3) A natural subsidiary is described at bund site for locating the waste weir.
The centre line of the bund is fixed by flag posts.
BLOCK LEVELS AT WASTE WEIR:
Before selecting the location of waste weir sum of these should be considered as there
should be natural diversion canal to carry the surplus water. These should be hard
stream available at the weir. The length and breadth of the body wall should be
minimum. Also the cost of protective work should be minimum. All those points are
satisfied for the weir at the right side of the bund as there is saddle or subsidiary
valley to drawn of surplus water.
The procedure adopted for taking block levels at waste weir site as follows the levels
are taken at the intervals of 5mts on either sides of the proposed line of weir up to the
length of 25mts from the centre line towards downstream side.
CANAL ALIGNMENT:
Irrigation canal can be aligned in any way as follows:
1) Water shed canal which is aligned along natural water side.
2) Contour canal which irrigates only one side because the area on the either side
are at a higher levels.
3) Side slopes of canal:- Which is aligned at right angle to the contour and is
parallel to the natural drainage flow, the cross drainage work are required. The canal
system consists of;

1] Main canal
2] Branch canal
3] Distribution
4] Minors
5] Water courses
The various alternative for canal are examined on a to geographical survey map.
Thus the object of canal alignment survey is to be estimated the cost of anal which is
aligned in cross drainage work and to determine the extent of area available for
irrigation.
The canal is aligned to a gradient of 1 in 400m. The cross drainage works and curves
must be available as for as possible. The transition curve must be used between a
straight curves.

DETERMINATION OF AREA OF CONTOUR BY PLANIMETER:
Procedure:-
1} Set the index mark on the beveled edge of the side of the slide to the scale to
which the figure is drawn.
2} Fix the needle or anchor point firmly in the paper outside or inside the figure
according as the figure is small or large. Move the tracing point always in the
clockwise direction around the figures so as to see that all point in the boundary can
be reached without any difficulty, and at the same time observed the dial in order to
see whether the total rotation of the wheel is a forward or a backward motion.
3} Mark a definite point on the outline of the figure and set the tracing point
exactly at it.
4) Read the dial and wheel, and record it as the initial reading (I.R.) alternatively,
set the dial and wheel to zero.
5) Move the tracing point exactly around the outline always in a clockwise
direction until it again reaches the starting point exactly. Again read the dial and the
wheel, recording it as the final reading (F.R.)
6) Note the number of times of zero mark of the dial passes the fixed index in a
clockwise direction, while the tracing point is moved along the outline of the figure.
Area of the figure may be obtained by the formula.
A= M (F.R.I.-I.R. + 10N+C)
M= The multiplier whose value is marked on the tracing arm next to the scale
division.
F.R. = Final reading

I.R. = Initial reading
N = The number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the fixed index mark.
C = The constant marked on the tracing arm just above the scale division.
NOTE:-
1] Use plus sign when the zero mark of the dial passes the fixed index mark in a
clockwise direction, use minus sign when in a counter-clockwise direction.
2] The constant C is to be added only when the anchor point if fixed inside the
figure.
VOLUME OF RESERVOIR
1] The reservoir volumes are determined from contour maps. The area enclosed
by each contour line is measured by a plain meter, knowing the vertical distance
between the first and second contour lines and their area. The volume of water
between them may be calculated either by a trapezoidal formula or by the primordial
formula.
I] Trapezoidal formula
V= n[(A1+An)/2) +A2+A3+…………………..An-1]
II] Primordial formula
V = Σ [D(A1+4Am+A2)/2]
V = Σ [(A1+4A2+A3)/2]
Where A = Mid area
D = Contour interval
A = Area within successive contour

DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY OF RESERVAITON FOR NEW TANK
[1] Area by planimeter

[i] For R L 120.500 m
I.R. = 8.2. F.R.= 4.7 N= 0.55
A1 = 10(4.7-8.2+10x0.55+23.51)
= 255.1x100=25510 m2
[ii] For R L 123.500 m
I.R. = 10.25 F.R.= 5.76 N= 0.88
A2 = 10(5.76-10.25+10x0.88+23.51)
= 27820 m2
[iii] For R L 124.000 m

I.R. = 8.42 F.R.= 4.17 N= 0.94
A3 = 10(4.17-8.42+10x0.94+23.51)
= 28660 m2
[iv] For R L 125.500 m
I.R. = 8.3 F.R.= 8.1 N= 1
A4 = 10(8.1-8.3+10x0. +23.51)
= 33310 m2
[v] For R L 127.500 m

I.R. = 12.3 F.R.= 10.5 N= 1.66
A5 = 10(10.5-12.3+10x1.66+23.51)
= 38310 m2
[vi] For R L 128.500 m

I.R. = 12. 5 F.R.= 13.75 N= 1.75
A6 = 10(13.75-12.5+10x1.75+23.51)
= 42260 m2
[vii] For R L 129.500 m

I.R. = 14.9 F.R.= 15.5 N= 2
A7 = 10(15.5-14.9+10x2.+23.51)
= 44110 m2

[2] Volume by Trapezoidal formula
V =0.5[(25510+44110)/2) + 27820+28660+33310+38310+42260] = 102485 M3
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF PROPOSED EARTHEN BUND

L C R sight sight sight instrument level
3.745 103.745 100.000 T.B.M

0 3.230 100.515
5 3.285 100.460
10 3.605 100.140
15 3.890 99.855
5 3.330 100.415
10 3.850 99.895
15 0.175 3.450 100.470 100.295 CP 1
30 3.775 96.695
5 3.850 96.620
10 3.905 96.565
15 3.995 96.475
5 3.705 96.765
10 3.905 96.565
15 0.150 3.620 97.000 96.850 CP 2
60 2.150 94.850
5 2.385 94.615
10 2.765 94.235
15 3.345 96.655
5 1.915 95.085
10 1.845 95.155
15 1.660 95.340
90 2.625 94.375
5 2.820 94.180
10 3.170 93.830
15 3.560 93.440
5 2.125 94.875
10 2.280 94.720
15 2.185 94.815
120 1.330 95.670
5 2.045 94.955
10 2.150 94.850
15 2.195 94.805
5 1.395 95.605
10 1.200 95.800
15 1.095 95.905
150 2.380 94.620
5 2.540 94.460
10 2.680 94.320
15 3.055 93.945
5 2.205 94.795
10 2.150 94.850
15 1.045 95.955
180 1.405 95.595
5 1.505 95.495
10 2.420 94.580
15 2.715 94.285

5 1.235 95.765
10 1.635 95.365
15 0.970 96.030
210 0.240 96.760
5 0.720 96.280
10 1.245 95.755
15 3.910 1.815 99.095 95.185 CP 3
5 2.565 96.530
10 2.235 96.860
15 1.825 97.270
240 1.615 97.480
5 1.835 97.260
10 2.195 96.900
15 2.605 96.490
5 1.535 97.560
10 1.330 97.765
15 1.365 97.730
270 0.955 98.140
5 1.065 98.030
10 1.160 97.935
15 1.260 97.835
5 0.840 98.255
10 0.355 98.740
15 0.195 98.900
300 1.300 97.795
5 1.570 97.525
10 1.630 97.465
15 1.740 97.355
5 1.080 98.015
10 1.025 98.070
15 1.695 0.850 99.940 98.245 CP 4
330 1.880 98.060
5 1.980 97.960
10 2.155 97.785
15 2.350 97.590
5 1.765 98.175
10 1.595 98.345
15 1.445 98.495
360 3.985 95.955
5 3.980 95.960
10 3.950 95.990
15 3.900 96.040
5 3.980 95.960
10 3.950 95.990
15 0.650 99.290
390 1.720 98.220
5 2.240 97.700
10 2.515 97.425
15 2.825 97.115
5 2.855 1.450 101.345 98.490 CP 5
10 1.455 99.890
15 1.300 100.045
420 2.460 98.885
5 1.065 100.280
10 1.505 99.840
15 1.915 99.430
5 3.165 98.180

10 3.215 98.130
15 3.950 97.395
Arithmetic Check for L/S of Bund Line:

12.530 - 15.135 = 97.395 - 100.000
-2.605 = -2.605
BLOCK LEVELLING OF TANK SLUICE
1.240 90.780 89.540
0 3.600 87.800
5 1.950 88.830
10 1.770 89.010
15 1.760 89.020
5 1.890 88.890
10 1.300 89.480
15 0.650 90.130
7 3.470 87.310
5 1.950 88.810
10 2.010 88.770
15 1.260 89.520
5 1.730 89.050
10 0.900 89.880
15 0.400 90.380
14 3.620 87.160
5 1.270 89.510
10 2.070 88.710
15 1.160 89.620
5 1.530 89.250
10 0.860 89.920
15 0.320 90.460
21 3.430 87.350
5 1.300 89.480
10 1.430 89.350
15 0.980 89.800
5 1.310 89.470
10 0.980 89.800
15 0.390 90.390
28 3.200 87.580
5 1.160 89.620
10 0.980 89.800
15 0.670 90.110
5 1.190 89.590
10 0.850 89.930
15 0.280 90.500
35 2.850 87.930
5 1.480 89.300
10 0.660 90.120
15 0.250 90.530
5 1.560 89.220
10 0.490 90.290
15 0.270 90.510
42 1.200 89.580
5 1.450 89.330
10 0.280 90.500
15 0.300 90.480

5 1.500 89.280
10 0.620 90.180
15 0.340 90.440
Arithmetic Check for Waste Weir
Σ BS - Σ FS = LAST R.L - FIRST R.L
1.240 - 0.340 = 90.440 - 89.540
0.900 = 0.900
BLOCK LEVELLING OF WASTE WEIR

DISTANCE Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced REMARK
L C R sight sight sight instrument level S
1.045 101.045 100.000 T.B.M
0 1.480 99.565
5 1.500 99.545
10 1.775 99.270
15 2.945 98.100
5 1.195 99.850
10 0.970 100.075
15 0.695 100.350
5 1.390 99.655
5 1.495 99.550
10 1.940 99.105
15 2.525 98.520
5 1.100 99.945
10 0.835 100.210
15 0.490 100.555
10 1.295 99.750
5 1.425 99.620
10 1.965 99.080
15 2.735 98.310
5 1.025 100.020
10 0.735 100.310
15 0.380 100.665
15 0.955 100.090
5 1.265 99.780
10 2.220 98.825
15 2.775 98.270
5 0.870 100.175
10 0.605 100.440
15 0.050 100.995
20 0.905 100.140
5 1.345 99.700
10 1.800 99.245
15 2.500 98.545
5 0.835 100.210
10 1.905 0.450 102.500 100.595 CP 1
15 1.370 101.130
25 2.490 100.010
5 2.580 99.920
10 3.215 99.285
15 3.555 98.945
5 2.165 100.335
10 1.625 100.875
15 1.060 101.440
30 2.465 100.035
5 2.515 99.985
10 3.205 99.295

15 3.530 98.970
5 2.030 100.470
10 1.320 101.180
15 1.075 101.425
35 2.110 100.390
5 2.230 100.270
10 2.765 99.735
15 3.095 99.405
5 1.805 100.695
10 1.245 101.255
15 0.725 101.775
40 1.550 100.950
5 1.795 100.705
10 2.165 100.335
15 2.805 99.695
5 1.385 101.115
10 1.065 101.435
15 0.680 101.820
Arithmetic Check for Waste Weir:
Σ BS - Σ FS = LAST R.L - FIRST R.L

2.950 - 1.130 = 101.820 - 100.000
1.820 = 1.820

PROPOSED CANAL

0.920 100.920 100.000 T.B.M

0 1.760 99.160
2.5 1.670 99.250
5 1.735 99.185
2.5 1.710 99.210
5 0.840 100.080
15 1.340 99.580
2.5 1.265 99.655
5 1.200 99.720
2.5 2.720 98.200
5 2.550 98.370
30 2.310 98.610
2.5 2.305 98.615
5 2.285 98.635
2.5 2.190 98.730
5 2.050 98.870
45 2.830 98.090
2.5 2.200 98.720
5 2.450 98.470
2.5 2.860 98.060
5 2.675 98.245
60 1.130 3.950 98.100 96.970 CP 1
2.5 1.570 96.530
5 1.860 96.240
2.5 1.560 96.540
5 0.390 97.710
75 1.200 96.900
2.5 1.330 96.770
5 1.420 96.680
2.5 1.000 97.100
5 1.010 97.090
90 3.560 94.540
2.5 3.630 94.470
5 3.600 94.500
2.5 3.650 94.450
5 3.615 94.485
105 3.080 95.020
2.5 3.115 94.985
5 3.120 94.980
2.5 3.085 95.015
5 3.030 95.070
120 3.060 95.040
2.5 3.120 94.980

5 3.140 94.960
2.5 3.030 95.070
5 3.000 95.100
135 2.700 95.400
2.5 2.950 95.150
5 3.100 95.000
2.5 2.920 95.180
5 2.980 95.120
150 3.110 94.990
2.5 3.125 94.975
5 3.160 94.940
2.5 3.090 95.010
5 1.710 3.100 96.710 95.000 CP 2
165 1.705 96.005
2.5 1.745 94.965
5 1.785 94.925
2.5 1.665 95.045
5 1.640 95.070
180 1.720 94.990
2.5 1.780 94.930
5 1.825 94.885
2.5 1.690 95.020
5 1.645 95.065
195 2.040 94.670
2.5 2.110 94.600
5 2.145 94.565
2.5 2.010 94.700
5 1.930 94.780
210 2.070 94.640
2.5 2.105 94.605
5 1.985 94.725
2.5 1.865 94.845
5 2.110 94.600
225 2.120 94.590
2.5 2.210 94.500
5 2.195 94.515
2.5 1.910 94.800
5 1.550 95.160
240 2.030 94.680
2.5 2.200 94.510
5 2.245 94.465
2.5 1.720 94.990
5 1.540 95.170
255 1.800 94.910
2.5 2.085 94.625
5 2.270 94.440
2.5 1.620 95.090
5 1.080 95.630
270 1.710 95.000
2.5 2.610 94.100
5 2.570 94.140
2.5 1.860 94.850
5 1.050 95.660
285 2.500 94.2510
2.5 2.720 93.990
5 2.890 93.820
2.5 2.190 94.520

5 1.765 94.945
300 2.850 93.860
2.5 3.100 93.610
5 3.230 93.480
2.5 2.800 93.910
5 2.250 94.460
Arithmetic Check:
Σ BS - Σ FS = LAST R.L – FIRST R.L
3.760 – 9.300 = 94.460 – 100.000
-5.54 = -5.54

INTRODUCTION
Transportation is vital for the economic development of any reason since every
commodity produced whether it is food, clothing industrial products or medicine
needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. There transportation
contributes to the economic, industrial social and cultural development of any
country.
Three basic modes of our land, water and air, Land has given scope for
development of road and rail transport. The road or the highway not only includes the
modern highway system but also the city streets feeder roads and village roads,
catering for a wide range of road vehicles and the pedestrians.
The transportation by road is the only mode with could given minimum
service to one and all. This mode has also the minimum flexibility for travel etc.,
through any mode as road vehicle. It is possible to provide door to door service only
by road transport.
The planning, design, construction and maintenance of road and roadway
facilities to cuter to the needs of road traffic are covered under road engineering or
highway engineering.
DIFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air and has given scope
for development of road and rail transport.
The roads or the highway nor only include the modern highway system but
also the city streets, feeder roads and village rods, catering for a wide range of road
vehicles and the pedestrians.

The transportation by road is the only mode, which could give maximum
service to one and all. This mode has also the maximum flexibility for travel with
reference to route, direction time and speed of travel etc., through any mode of road
vehicle. The planning, design construction and maintenance of rods and roadway
facilities to the needs of road traffic are covered under road engineering or highway
engineering.
METHOD OR CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
The classification of road based on location and function is as follows;
 National Highway (NH).
 State Highway (SH).
 Major District Roads (MDR).
 Other District Road (ODR) and
 Village Roads (VR).
* National Highway (NH), are main highways running through the
length and breadth of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of
large states and large industrial and tourist centers including roads required for
strategic movement for the defense of India.
* State Highway (SH), are arterial roads of a state, connecting up with
the national highways of adjacent states, district head quarters and serving as the main
arteries for traffic to and from district roads.
* Major District Roads (MDR), are important roads within a district
serving areas of production and markets and connecting those with each other or with
the main highways of a district. The MDR has lower speed and geometric design
specification than NH/SH.

* Other District Roads (ODR), are serving rural areas of production
and providing them with outlet to market centers, Taluk Head Quarters, block
development head quarters, block development head quarters or other main roads.
These are of lower design specification than MDR.
* Village Roads (VR), are roads connecting villages or groups of
villages with each other to the nearest road of a higher category.
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
The position or the layout of the centerline of the highway on the ground is
called an alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the
horizontal deviations and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered
under vertical alignment of roads.
ENGINEERING SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION
[a] Preliminary surveys
[b] Final location and detailed surveys
OBJECTS OF PRELIMNARY SURVEYS
 To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance
and to collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography,
drainage and soil.
 Compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good
alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and cost of alternate proposals.
 To finalize the best alignment from all consideration.

METHOD OR PRELIMINARY SURVEY
 The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse.
Following the five recommended in the reconnaissance.
 TOPOGRAPHY FEATURES: After establishment of the centerlines of
preliminary survey, the topographical features are recorded. All geographical
and other man made features along the traverse and a certain width on either
side are surveyed and plotted.
> LEVELLING WORK: Leveling work is also carried out side by side to
give the centerline profiles and typical cross sections.
> DRAINAGE STUDIES AND HYDROLOGICAL DATA:
Drainage investigation and hydrological data are collected so as to estimate size of
cross drainage structures.
> SOIL SURVEY:
Soil survey in an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of the
proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data.
> DETAILED SURVEY:
Leveling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthen work
calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross
section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of in plane terrain.

DRAWINGS
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project.
I. Detailed plan and longitudinal section
II. Detailed cross section
III. Drawings of road inter sections
IV. Drawings of cross drainage if any
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRIC DESIGNS:
The geometric designs of highway deals with the dimension of visible features
of the highway such as alignments, sight distance and inter sections. The geometric of
the highway should be designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations
with minimum safety at reasonable cost and comfort to passengers. The highway
should stages to re-align or upgrade the existing highway.
The geometric design deal with the following elements;
Cross Section Elements:
Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of payment,
formation and land, the surface characteristic and cross slow for pavement are
included.
Pavements Surface Characteristics:
The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decide on the
availability of materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grades and
climatic conditions, construction facilities and cost consideration. The important

surface characteristics of pavement are the frictions roughness, light reflecting
characteristics and drainages of surface water.
Frictions:
The frictions between the vehicles tyre and pavements surface is one of the
factor determining the operating speeds and stance requirements in stopping and
accelerating the vehicles.
For the calculation of stopping distance, the longitudinal friction coefficient
values of 0.35 to 0.4 have been recommended by the IRC depending upon the speed.
In the case of horizontal curve design IRC has recommended the lateral coefficient of
frictions of 0.15.
Camber or Cross Slope:
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface.
Sl.No. Type of Road Surface Range of camber in areas of rainfall

range
Heavy Light
1 Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60
of Bituminous surface (1.7%)
2 Thin Bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 5 (2%)
In our case the camber selected is 1 in 40 since the road surface selected is thin
bituminous surface.
Width of roadway or formation:
Width of formations of roadway is the sum of the width of pavement or
carriage way including separators if any, and the shoulders, formation width is the top
of the width of the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting
excluding the side drains. The width of roadway standard by IRC are given in below
table

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SL.NO. Road classification Roadway width in M
---------------------------------
Terrain Plain & rolling mountainous
Terrain & steep
1 Other district road
[a] Single road 7.5 4.75
[b] Two lane 9.0 --
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SIGHT DISTANCE
The minimum sight distance available on highway at horizontal & vertical
curves and at intersection should be of sufficient length to stop vehicles collision.
Three sight distances situations are considered in this design.
1] Stopping or absolute sight distance
2] Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
3] Safe sight distance for entering into controlled intersection
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCEA:
The absolute minimum sight distance is equal to the stopping sight distance,
which is also sometimes called non passing sight distance.
S.S.D. –Lag distance / Braking distance
S.S.D. (m) = 0278vt+v2/254f

Where v=speed in KMPH
f= longitudinal coefficient of friction
The safe stopping distance various speed recommended by IRC are given below.
Design 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
speed
[KMPG]
Safe 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
stopping
sight
distance
OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE:
The minimum distance open to the vision of driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is
known as minimum overtaking sight distance or the safe passing sight distance.
OSD=0.28vbx5+0.28VbxTx2s+0.28VT
Where
Vb = speed of overtaking vehicle (KMPH).
T = Reaction time of driver [2 sec]
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed (KMPH)
T = √ 4x3.6s /A
S=spacing of vehicle = (0.2Vb+6)
A=acceleration, kmph/s
Safe over taking sight distance value for various speeds
Speed 40 50 60 65 80 100
(KMPH)
Safe 165 235 300 340 470 640
overtaking
sight
distance
[m]
SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION
It is important than all approaches of intersecting road ther is cear view across
the corner from sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This design of
sight distance at intersection may be built on three possible conditions.
1] Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
2] Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
3] Enabling stop vehicle to cross a main road.
HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT:
For smooth change in each direction horizontal curves are introduced super-
elevation is provided by raising the outer edges of pavement to counteract the
centrifugal force development on a vehicle traversing a horizontal curve.
The gradient & vertical curves are introduced in the vertical alignment of a highway.
DESIGN SPEED:
The design is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends the
sight distance, reduce of horizontal curves, super elevation, the extra widening of
pavement, length of horizontal transition curve and length of summit and valley
curves are all depends on design speed.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Road classification Design speed in KMPH various terrain
Plain Rolling Mountainous steep.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rolling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min
Other District 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
Roads
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In our case cross-slope of the country is to be 25% therefore it is a rolling terrain &
we are designing the road as O.D.R So the design speed taken as 40 KMPH.
SUPER ELEVATION:
In order to counter act he effect of centrifugal force and reduce the tendency of
vehicle to overturn or skid, The outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner
edge thus providing a trans\verse slope through out the length of the horizontal curve,
this is also known as cant or banking.
Super elevation is given by the following relation
e+f=V21/127R
Where
e= rate of super elevation
f=coefficient of lateral friction=0.15
V=speed of vehicle (KMPH)
R=radius of horizontal curve, m
Radius beyond which super elevation is not required

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Design speed Radius (M) for camber
4% 3% 2.5% 2% 1.7%
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 180 240 280 650 420
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In our case the super elevation is in between 0 to 0.07
RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE:
For a certain speed of vehicle the centrifugal force is dependent on the radius
of the horizontal curve to keep the centrifugal ratio within a low limit, the radius of
the curve should be kept correspondingly high.
R ruling / min= V2 /127 (e+f)
Where
V=Ruling / min. design speed in KMPH.
E=Rate of super Elevation
F=Design transverse coefficient of friction
WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZONTAL CURVE:
On horizontal curve especially when they are not of very large radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width.
We=n12/2R+V/9.5/R
Where
N= No. of traffic lanes

L=Length of wheel base of longest vehicle (i.e.6.1m)
R=Radius of horizontal curve (in meters)
V=Design speed, in KMPH
It has been practiced therefore to provide the extra width of pavements on horizontal
curve when the rating is less than about 300m.
DEIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES:
A horizontal highway curve is a curve inclined to provide change in direction
to the central line of road when a vehicle transverse a horizontal curve, the centrifugal
force acts horizontally outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVE:
Chainage of P.I. = 1350
Interior angle = (30+180) – 70
= 140o
Deflection angle = 180-14
= 140o
Design speed V= 40 KMPH
The ruling minimum radius of the curve rolling design speed v m/sec.
Ruling radius, R=V 2 /127 [e+f]
Where e= Super elevation (the maximum value of e is not grater than 0.07)
F = coefficient of lateral friction, f (minimum value 0.15)
R= (40 2) /1237 (0.07+0.15)
= 57.26 m /s
So providing 200m radius

Therefore super elevation e for 75% of design speed is calculated neglecting the
fiction.
e=V 2 /22
e= (402/ 225x200
= 0.0357<0.07 which is safe
First tangent length T1V= R tan / 2
= 200x tan 40/2
= 72.8m
Chainage of T1 = chainage of P.1- T1V
= 1350-72.80
= 1277.2m
Length of curve T1T2= II R /180
L = II x200x40/180
= 139.6m
Chainage of T2= chainage of T1+L
= 1272.2 + 139.6
= 1416.8m
Setting the curve by Rankine method
Nos. of chords = length o curve /30
= 139.6/30
= 4.65
Length of first sub chord C1=25 m
Length of intermediate chord c2, C3, C4= 30
Length of last sub-chord C5=24.6m
Angles p 1 =1718.9xC1/60R
= 1718.9x560x200
30 34’ 51”

P2=p3=p4=1718.9x30/200x60
40 17’50”
P5 -1718.9x24.6/200x60
=30 31’25”
Deflection angle
1= p1=30 34’51”
2= 1+p2=30 34’51”+40 17’50
=70 52’41”
3= 2 + p3 = 7.52’41”x4” 17’50”
= 120 10’35”
4= 3+ p4=120 10’35”+4’ 17’50”
= 16028’25”
5= 4 + p5 = 190 59’46”
Check 5 = /2=400 / 2=200
Design of Vertical Curve:
Ascending gradient = 1 in 21
Descending gradient = 1 in 50
Assuming speed as 40 kmph
As per assumed speed IRC given
The stopping sight distance =45m
And overtaking sight distance = 165m
N1=+1/21
N2=-1/50
S =45 m
S= 165m
1] Considering SSD
[i] When L> SSD
L = NS2 /4.4

N=(1/21) – (-1/50)
= 71/1050
=0.06762
L=0.06762x452 / 4.4
= 31.12m
[ii] When L< SSD
L=2S-4.4 /N
L=2x45-4.4 / 0.06762
=24.93m
2] Considering OSD
[i] When L>s
L= NS2 / 8H
= NS2 / 9.6
=0.06762x1652 / 0.6
= 191.76m
[ii] When L<S
L=2S-9.6/N
=2x165-9.6/0.06762
=188.03m

LONGITUDINAL LEVELS OF PROPOSED HIGHWAY

Distance Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced Remark
2.400 117.400 115.000 T.B.M
0 2.550 114.850
5 2.660 114.740
10 2.775 114.625
15 2.500 114.900
5 2.605 114.795
10 2.195 115.205
15 1.890 115.510
30 1.950 115.450
5 2.145 115.255
10 1.810 115.590
15 1.810 115.590
5 1.805 115.595
10 1.790 115.610
15 1.455 115.945
60 1.995 115.405
5 1.990 115.410
10 1.895 115.505
15 1.585 115.815
5 1.680 115.720
10 1.675 115.725
15 1.490 115.910
90 1.655 115.745
5 1.810 115.590
10 1.820 115.580
15 1.760 115.640
5 1.600 115.800
10 1.650 115.750
15 1.320 1.545 117.175 115.855 CP 1
120 2.170 115.005
5 2.150 115.025
10 2.130 115.045
15 1.795 115.380
5 1.550 115.625
10 1.220 115.955
15 1.330 115.845
150 1.990 115.185
5 2.185 114.990
10 2.025 115.150

15 1.250 115.925
5 1.445 115.720
10 1.550 115.625
15 1.505 115.670
180 1.750 115.425
5 1.880 115.295
10 1.970 115.205
15 1.310 115.865
5 1.900 115.275
10 0.805 116.370
15 1.700 115.475
210 1.240 115.935
5 0.955 116.220
10 1.025 116.150
15 1.595 115.580
5 1.460 115.715
10 1.650 115.525
15 0.520 116.655
240 1.180 115.995
5 1.065 116.110
10 1.150 116.025
15 1.080 116.095
5 0.750 116.425
10 0.700 116.475
15 0.390 116.785
270 1.140 116.035
5 0.955 116.220
10 1.105 116.070
15 0.820 116.355
5 0.870 116.305
10 0.965 116.210
15 0.325 116.850
300 1.450 115.725
5 0.840 116.335
10 0.860 116.315
15 0.935 116.240
5 0.530 116.645
10 0.510 116.665
15 1.410 0.130 118.455 117.045 CP 2
330 0.825 117.630
5 0.630 117.825
10 0.625 117.830
15 0.805 117.650
5 0.615 117.840
10 0.470 117.985
15 1.355 117.100
360 1.895 116.560
5 1.750 116.705

10 1.800 116.655
15 1.780 116.675
5 1.650 116.805
10 1.700 116.755
15 1.250 117.205
390 1.500 116.955
5 1.710 116.745
10 1.750 116.705
15 1.755 116.700
5 1.690 116.765
10 1.760 116.695
15 1.715 116.740
420 1.735 116.720
5 1.760 116.695
10 1.685 116.770
15 1.745 116.710
5 1.235 117.220
10 1.225 117.230
15 1.650 116.805
450 1.600 116.855
5 1.605 116.850
10 1.505 116.950
15 1.740 116.715
5 1.130 117.325
10 1.090 116.965
15 1.490 116.965
480 1.455 117.000
5 1.425 117.030
10 1.610 116.845
15 1.560 116.895
5 1.660 116.795
10 1.760 116.695
15 1.700 116.755
510 1.380 117.075
5 1.350 117.105
10 1.355 117.100
15 1.750 116.705
5 1.700 116.755
10 1.565 116.890
15 1.480 116.975
540 1.315 117.140
5 1.270 117.185
10 1.740 116.715
15 1.730 116.725
5 1.660 116.795
10 1.000 117.455
15 0.950 117.505

570 1.515 116.940
5 1.090 117.365
10 1.090 117.345
15 1.420 117.305
5 1.560 116.895

10 1.565 116.890
15 0.810 117.645
600 1.330 117.125
5 1.080 117.375
10 1.010 117.445
15 1.410 117.045
5 1.500 116.955
10 1.510 116.945
15 2.600 0.900 120.155 117.555 CP 3
630 2.360 117.795
5 2.120 118.035
10 1.980 118.175
15 2.680 117.475
5 2.460 117.695
10 2.540 117.615
15 1.780 118.375
660 2.160 117.995
5 2.010 118.145
10 1.850 118.305
15 2.715 117.440
5 2.515 117.640
10 2.560 117.595
15 1.785 118.375
690 1.950 118.205
5 1.900 118.255
10 1.755 118.400
15 2.500 117.655
5 2.595 117.560
10 2.730 117.425
15 1.740 118.635
720 1.950 118.205
5 1.460 118.695
10 1.315 118.840
15 2.565 117.590
5 2.025 118.130
10 2.245 117.910
15 1.495 118.655
750 1.820 118.235
5 1.465 118.690
10 1.320 118.835
15 2.300 117.855

5 2.110 118.045
10 2.230 117.925
15 1.440 118.715
780 1.750 118.405
5 1.225 118.930
10 1.120 119.035

15 2.080 118.075
5 2.040 118.115
10 2.105 118.050
15 1.380 118.775
810 1.700 118.455
5 1.355 118.800
10 1.090 119.065
15 2.130 118.025
5 2.070 118.085
10 2.235 117.920
15 1.200 118.955
840 1.300 118.855
5 0.925 119.235
10 0.500 119.655
15 1.960 118.195
5 1.980 118.175
10 2.250 117.905
15 0.610 119.545
870 0.720 119.435
5 0.755 119.400
10 0.425 119.730
15 1.540 118.615
5 1.725 118.430
10 1.705 118.450
15 0.885 119.270
900 0.545 119.610
5 1.720 118.435
10 1.700 118.455
15 1.695 118.460
5 0.600 119.555
10 3.910 0.950 123.115 119.205 CP 4
15 0.865 122.250
930 0.455 122.660
5 0.350 122.765
10 0.850 122.265
15 0.815 122.300
5 2.800 120.315
10 2.915 120.200
15 2.550 120.565
960 2.220 120.890
5 1.845 121.270

10 3.030 120.085
15 2.900 120.215
5 2.990 120.125
10 1.750 121.365
15 1.950 121.165
990 1.800 121.315

5 1.565 121.550
10 2.225 120.890
15 2.215 120.900
5 2.185 120.930
10 0.910 122.205
15 1.110 122.005
1020 0.815 122.300
5 0.405 122.710
10 1.390 121.725
15 1.450 121.665
5 1.435 121.680
10 3.550 0.150 126.515 122.965 CP 5
15 0.330 126.185
1050 0.235 126.280
5 0.115 126.400
10 0.625 125.890
15 0.450 126.065
5 0.450 126.065
10 2.220 124.295
15 2.605 123.910
1080 2.410 124.105
5 2.415 124.100
10 2.360 124.155
15 2.500 124.015
5 2.610 123.905
10 1.190 125.325
15 1.710 124.805
1110 1.385 125.130
5 1.310 125.205
10 1.620 124.895
15 1.495 125.020
5 1.490 125.025
10 3.320 0.280 129.555 126.235 CP 6
15 0.835 128.720
1140 0.290 129.265
5 0.595 128.960
10 0.770 128.785
15 0.625 128.930
5 0.615 128.940
10 2.615 126.940
15 3.260 126.295

1170 3.190 126.365
5 3.200 126.355
10 3.160 126.395
15 2.945 126.610
5 2.850 126.705
10 1.710 127.845

15 2.285 127.270
1200 2.460 127.095
5 2.500 127.055
10 2.440 127.115
15 2.135 127.420
5 2.250 127.305
10 0.870 128.685
15 0.760 128.795
1230 0.930 128.625
5 0.245 129.310
10 1.565 127.990
15 1.530 128.025
5 1.515 128.040
10 1.735 0.080 131.210 129.475 CP 7
15 0.800 130.410
1260 0.505 130.705
5 0.400 130.810
10 0.180 131.030
15 1.005 130.205
5 0.805 130.405
10 1.250 129.960
15 2.025 129.185
1290 1.930 129.280
5 1.665 129.545
10 2.130 129.080
15 2.305 128.905
2.140 129.070
5 1.490 129.720
10 1.980 129.230
15 1.885 129.325
1320 1.850 129.360
5 2.960 128.250
10 2.900 128.310
15 2.270 128.940
5 1.850 129.360
10 2.130 129.080
15 2.055 129.155
1350 1.980 129.230
5 2.110 129.100
10 2.510 128.700
15 2.360 128.850

5 0.920 1.960 130.170 129.250 CP 8
10 1.330 128.840
15 1.115 129.055
1380 0.860 129.310
5 0.500 128.670
10 1.095 129.075

15 0.420 129.750
5 1.230 128.940 Angle 140’
10 1.315 128.855
15 1.405 128.765
1410 1.600 128.570
5 1.105 129.065
10 0.515 129.655
15 0.405 129.765
5 1.170 129.000
10 1.270 128.900
15 1.340 128.830
1440 0.270 129.900
5 0.310 129.860
10 0.435 129.735
15 2.790 0.430 132.530 129.7400 CP 9
5 0.885 131.645
10 0.700 131.830
15 0.540 131.990
1470 0.705 131.825
5 0.850 131.620
10 0.900 131.630
15 0.705 131.825
5 0.490 132.040
10 0.705 131.825
15 0.885 131.645
1500 0.895 131.635
5 2.460 130.070
10 2.400 130.130
15 2.635 129.895
5 2.610 129.920
10 2.100 130.430
15 2.105 130.425
ARITHMETIC CHECK:
ΣB.S – ΣF.S = last R.L - first R.L

23.955 – 8.53 = 130.425 - 115.000
15.425 = 15.425

LONGITUDINAL LEVELS OF EXISTING HIGHWAY

Distance Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced Remarks
L C R sight Sight Sight Instrument Level
1.580 101.580 100.000 T.B.M

0 1.600 99.980
5 1.800 99.780
10 1.950 99.630
15 1.970 99.610
5 1.550 100.030
10 1.570 100.010
15 1.630 99.950
30 1.200 100.380
5 1.530 100.050
10 1.760 99.820
15 1.900 99.680
5 1.370 100.210
10 1.350 100.230
15 1.280 1.230 101.630 100.350 CP 1
60 1.300 100.330
5 1.830 99.800
10 1.950 99.680
15 1.940 99.690
5 1.100 100.530
10 1.150 100.480
15 1.190 100.440
90 1.200 100.430
5 1.600 100.030
10 1.700 99.930
15 1.760 99.870
5 1.550 100.080
10 1.420 100.210
15 1.460 100.170
120 0.970 100.660
5 1.370 100.260
10 1.250 100.380
15 1.280 100.350
5 0.690 100.940
10 1.150 100.480
15 0.980 1.260 101.350 100.370 CP 2
150 0.740 100.610
5 1.560 99.790
10 1.480 99.870
15 1.580 99.770
5 0.680 100.670
10 0.910 100.440
15 0.920 100.430
180 0.670 100.680
5 1.300 100.050
10 1.520 99.830

15 1.580 99.770
5 0.650 100.700
10 0.710 100.640
15 0.550 100.800
210 0.560 100.790
5 0.940 100.410
10 1.280 100.070
15 1.270 100.080
L C R Sight Sight Sight Instrument Level
5 0.760 100.590
10 0.590 100.760
15 1.260 0.570 102.040 100.780 CP 3
240 1.200 100.840
5 1.760 100.280
10 1.780 100.260
15 1.800 100.240
5 1.400 100.640
10 1.550 100.490
15 1.660 100.380
270 1.100 100.940
5 1.640 100.400
10 1.670 100.370
15 1.850 100.190
5 1.600 100.440
10 1.740 100.300
15 1.870 100.170
300 1.100 100.940
5 1.470 100.570
10 1.450 100.590
15 1.560 100.480
5 1.720 100.320
10 1.340 100.700
15 1.610 100.430
330 0.900 101.140
5 1.250 100.790
10 1.300 100.740
15 1.330 100.710
5 1.250 100.790
10 1.310 100.730
15 1.440 100.600
360 0.900 101.140
5 1.100 100.940
10 1.080 100.960
15 1.270 100.770
5 1.240 100.800
10 1.380 100.660
15 1.750 1.440 102.350 100.600 CP 4
390 1.840 100.510
5 2.220 100.130
10 2.610 99.740
15 2.720 99.630
5 1.850 100.500
10 2.100 100.250
15 2.050 100.300
420 1.480 100.870
5 1.820 100.530
10 2.420 99.930

15 2.460 99.890
5 2.050 100.300
10 1.800 100.550
15 1.640 100.710
450 1.220 101.130
5 1.660 100.690
10 1.970 100.380
15 2.060 100.290
5 1.750 100.600
10 1.480 100.870
15 1.380 100.970
480 0.900 101.450
5 1.500 100.850
10 1.600 100.750
15 1.640 100.710
5 1.420 100.930
10 1.250 101.100
15 1.200 101.150
510 0.420 101.930
5 1.150 101.200
10 0.960 101.390
15 1.040 101.310
5 1.100 101.250
10 0.850 101.500
15 0.870 101.480
Arithmetic Check:
ΣB.S – ΣF.S = last R.L - first R.L
6.850 - 5.370 = 101.480 - 100.000
1.48 = 1.48


A WATER SUPPLY – THE HUMAN ASPECT
INTRODUCTION
Water for drinking purpose has been appreciated by human race from times
immemorial. It is possible to service without food and shelter for some days but not
without water. It is free gift of nature human race. In ancient times human required
water for drinking, cooking, bathing etc., But with the advancement of civilization the
utility of water choromously increased and now such a stage has come that without
well organized public water supply scheme it is impossible to run the present civil life
and develop the towns.
Due to knowledge with their supply scheme, complete designing construction
and maintenance of water supply scheme becomes the every civil engineer.
Therefore every civil engineer should have the full knowledge of its planning and
design.
ESSENTIAL OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES
The most important aspect of any water supply scheme is the chair of sources
of supply. The sources should be permanent, reliable and should provide water with
minimum impurities.
SOURCES OF WATER
There are three possible sources of water for our daily use. One is rain water
collected from roof of buildings or special water sheds and stored in ponds.
Another is natural surface water in streams and lakes the third and most important in
rural areas ground water is stored in the earth.

RAIN WATER
In the regions where there is fair amount of rain fall, rain water is after
collected from building roofs or from outdoors water shed and stored in ponds. In
some rural section this is used for all domestic purposes including drinking.
WATER SUPPLY & TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Preliminary investigation for water supplies scheme.
Before any water supply project is taken up a scheme is drawn and different aspects
of scheme are carefully viewed from different viewpoints following points are taken
for investigation.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
The success of any water supply scheme depends almost entirely on a good
and reliable source of water. The source should be selected keeping in view quality
and quantity of water available from it.
POPULATION
From the census data the present population to be screed should be accurately
determined. The requirements of water for the present population 30% to 50% for
future growth are estimated. The scheme may be executed in two stages. The first
stage of the scheme is installed for present population. Second stage may be installed
by the coming generation at the end of one or two decades.

FINANCIAL ASPECTS
In initial stages of the scheme the data regarding the availability of funds for
the fulfillment of the water supply scheme should be obtained by the scheme may be
adjusted in relation to the funds available.
PER HEAD WATER SUPPLY
Per head rate of consumption should be decided carefully considering all the
possible uses. This rates when multiplied by the population gives the total quantity of
water required for the scheme.
QUALITY OF WATER
Quality of water available from the source decided the line of treatment of
water. The population pure the water of the sources losses is the easy of its treatment.
SANITARY SURVEY OF THE AREA
The sanitary survey of the area surrounding the water source should be
carefully conducted such a survey help is estimating he possible degree of population.
TOPOGRAPHY OF AREA
The area to be covered by the scheme is carefully mapped and it should be
studied in relation to the low laying areas, ridges, density of population etc.,
TREND OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN

The future development trends of the town should be predicted and large size
pipeline should be laid for the side of the city, which is likely to develop more. The
problems of estimating quantity of water given factors as;
POPULATION
The population to be served by the scheme is estimated with the help of
suitable method.
PER CAPITA DEMAND
Per capita demands depend on so many factors some assumptions are given below.
POPULATION L.P.C.D
1000 to 5000 70
5000 to 20000 90
20000 to 50000 125
50000 to 200000 180
Over 200000 205
SELECTION OF SOURCE
Source of water may be central pure water tank of village, channel, lake, or
river, wells, streams, springs etc, among these the priority may be given to the source
available. The following important factors are generally considered in selection of a
particular source for supplying water to a city or a town.
THE QUANTITY OF AVAIALABLE WATER

The quantity of available water at the source must be sufficient to meet the
various demands during the entire design period of the scheme.
THE QUALITY OF AVAILABLE WATER
The water available at the source of water must not be toxic poisonous or in
other way injurious to health. The impurities present in water should be as less as
possible.
DISTANCE OF THE SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY
The source of water must be situated as near the city or locality as possible
because it will help reducing the cost of pipes and other appurtenances.
GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF AREA
The area of land between the sources should not contain deep valleys or high
mountains and ridges in such un even topographies, the cost of project shall be
enormous.

QUALITY OF WATER
A potable water is one that is safe to drink, pleasant to taste and usable for
domestic purposes.
These standards are ground in the following tables.
PHYSICAL TURBIDITY 5 to 10 mg/1

COLOUR 10 to 20 ppm
TASTE AND ODOUR Threshold number should
be between 1 to 3
CHEMICAL TOTAL SOLIDS 500 to 1000 mg/1
P.H. VALUE 6.6. to 8.0
HARDNESS 77.5 to 115
CHLORIDE 250 mg/l
NITRATE 45 mg/l
IRON 30 mg/l
MANGANESE 0.05 mg / 1
LEAD 0.05 to 0.1 mg / 1
ARSENIC 0.05 mg / 1
SELENIUM 0.05 mg / 1
BARIUM 1.0 mg / 1
CADMIUM 0.01 mg / 1
CHROMIUM 0.05mg / 1
SILVER 0.05 mg / 1
COPPER 1.0 to 3.0 mg / 1
ZINC 15 mg / 1
MAGNESIUM 125 mg / 1
SULPHATE 250 mg / 1
PHENOLIC SUBSTANCE 0.001 mg / 1
FLOURIDE 1.5 mg / 1
CYANIDE 0.2 mg / 1
B.O.D Nil
Biological and coli form --- should not exceed Micro-organism Bacteria
-- More than one coli form per 100 ml of water
Sample
Radiological -- Alpha emitters 1 micro c/lit
Beta emitters 10 micro c/lit.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
It should be plants on rational lines taking into account the present prospective
development in distinctive zone and with the optimum lay out and the service storage
and distribution.
In rural areas, it may be desirable to provide distribution reservoirs of at least a
day’s capacity with taps all rounds. It is reasonable to provide one public fountain for
200-300%. Peak distribution factor for rural area may be taken as 250-300% of
average demand or on intermittent basis. The minimum Terminal pressure in a rural
distribution system may be 3-5 m, where the house service connections are given at
7m.
The distribution of water may be carried out through distribution of reservoir
and than fed into the distribution pipe.
DEAD END METHOD
It consists of one supply main from which sub main are taken. The sub mains
are divided into several branch lines from which service connections are given to the
consumer. This method is adopted in localities, which are expending irregularly.

Survey Project Complted

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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT

2. EXISTING TANK PROJECT

3. NEW TANK PROJECT

5. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 1

In Civil Engineering, project is a structural work undertaken as the

necessary detailed estimation of quantities of materials and other costs.

data, calculations, drawings, specifications, rates etc,.

of its execution and completion.

justifications and effects of its assistance and adjoining inhabitants should be

Every engineering project when completed successfully will give a valuable

asset for country. During the construction of Project it provides employment

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 2

SIGNIFICANCE OF IRRIGATION PROJECT:

Irrigation is a primary need of any country. Before executing the irrigable

accordingly an irrigation project should be planned.

An irrigation project offers sufficient amount of water for drinking purpose if

The importance of irrigation is well started as “Irrigation in many countries is

BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS:

There are many benefits or advantage of irrigation such as;

 Increase in food production.

 Cultivation of cash crops.

 Domestic and industrial water supply.

 Generation of hydro electrolytic power etc.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 3

 Sufficient funds for the project.

 Skilled labours experienced in the civil engineer work.

 Adequate transportation facility in the form of tractors, dumpers, lorries,

survey work of the filed under consideration.

Survey is confined to any measurement of distance, direction and elevations for

chain, compass and dumpy level etc.

Survey is like an investigation carried out for obtaining details and

information required for the commencement of any project by gathering information

to the topography soil strata, physical features etc.

and other important features surrounding it.

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TERMS USED IN SURVEYING:

Chain surveying is that type of surveying in which only linear measurements

open ground fairly flat ground.

subsidiary or tie lines may be run through them.

middle of the areas to be surveyed.

known as check line or proof line.

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 Ranging is of two kinds

Surveying in which a compass is used to determined direction of survey line in

the survey lines are measured by means of a tape as in chain surveying.

The bearing of line, whether expressed in whole circle bearing system or

AB is measured from, A towards B, it is known as fore bearing (forward bearing).

If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B towards A, it is known as

WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING

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In this system the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north in

Example: - Prismatic compass.

meridian and the direction can be either Clockwise or anticlockwise direction

depending upon the position of the line.

The value of the bearing varies from 00 to 900.

Example: Surveyor of compass.

3. PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

It is graphical method of survey in which the filed observation and plotting

and transcribing filed notes.).

It is a very effective method of surveying for preparing small or medium size

topographical plan. It is not so accurate as other systems of surveys.

It is ground point on which plane table was set up.