Chapter1 Gology (Section 1)

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1General Introduction
What is Geology?
Geology (from Greek, Geo = Earth, Logos =science) is the science that deals with the study of
earth as a whole. Thus, it is the science, which deals with the origin, age, and structure of the
earth. Further more it studies the evolution, modification and extinction of surface and
subsurface features. Similarly Geology also includes the study of various natural dynamic and
physiochemical processes operating on and in the earth, and the agents, forces involved and
evolved in such processes.
What is Engineering Geology?
Engineering geology is branch of science, which deals with the study of construction sites, and
construction material. It has great importance in safe, economic and stable designs of
engineering projects.
1.2 Internal structure of the earth

The real interior of the earth is nowhere exposed to our direct observation. But there are two
methods of investigation of the internal structure of the earth. These are:
i) Direct method
ii) Indirect method.
i) Direct method: is the method in which the investigation of the internal structure of the earth
is carried by direct drilling. But with our present scientific skills we can hardly penetrate more
than a few kilometers below the surface.
ii) Indirect method: is the method in which the investigation of the internal structure of the
earth is done by seismic refraction and reflection. Much of Our knowledge of the internal
constitution of the earth has come from the study of the seismic waves generated by
earthquakes. On the basis of these studies, a three-fold shell like structure has been suggested
for the earth and this has almost been universally accepted. Fig 1.1 shows the internal division
of the earth.
1.2.1. Seismic waves

Seismic wave is a general term for elastic wave produced by earthquake or originated
artificially by explosions. Elastic wave is a wave propagated by medium having inertia and
elasticity in which displaced particles transfer momentum to neighboring particles, and are them
selves restored to the original position. Seismic wave includes both body and surface waves.
(a) Body waves: are seismic waves, which are penetrating the interior of the earth. These waves
creat little damage because of their low amplitude. These waves further divide into primary (p)
waves and secondary (s) waves.
(i) Primary (P) waves: are longitudinal or compressional waves that involve back and forth
vibrations of particles of matter in the same direction in which waves travel. So the
disturbances proceed as series of compressions and rarefaction.
Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

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The velocity of P wave Vp is given by
k + 43 M
Vp = where K is bulk modulus
g
M is rigidity
 is density of medium.
Because the rigidity of the fluid is zero, Vp decreases when P wave transmitted by such
medium.
(ii) Secondary (S) waves: are shearing waves or transverse waves that involve vibration of the
particles of the matter perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel. The velocity of
secondary wave is given by

Vs=

Because the rigidity of a fluid is zero, S waves cannot be transmitted by such a medium.
(b)Surface (L) waves: are analogous to water waves, which involve orbital motions of
particles of matter and are limited to the vicinity of a free surface. These waves are destructive
because they have high amplitude.
The three kinds of seismic waves travel with different velocities. Hence they arrive geophone
at different time after an earthquake. P waves arrive first, next S waves and finally L waves.
The velocities of P and S waves increase with depth, so refraction causes them to travel along
curved paths through the earth. In addition, both refraction and reflection occur at boundaries
between regions with different physical properties.
The analysis of seismic waves received at different observatories around the world has led to
the identification of 3 principal regions with in the earth. These regions are crust, mantle and
core.
1.2.2. Seismological evidence

Seismology is the study of seismic waves generated with in the body of the earth during an
earthquake or an explosion. The records of earthquakes are known as seismograms and the
recording instruments are known as seismographs.
The interpretation of the internal structure is based on the detection of abrupt changes in the
velocity of P and S waves during their travel from the focus (the point of origin of the shock
below the surface) to various stations on the surface of the earth. These waves reach the
stations after being reflected and refracted at various depths below. The major change in the
velocity of waves at some depth below the surface can be taken to mean that there is a change
in the nature of the medium at particular depth. Such particular depth where there is a major
change in velocities of seismic waves is called seismic discontinuity.
These discontinuities are now accepted as a definite significance in demarcating different

zones with in the body of the earth. The two most important seismic discontinuities are: (i)
The Mohorovicic and (ii) Gutenberg discontinuity

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(i) The Mohorovicic discontinuity: is crust-mantle discontinuity. It occurs at depths
corresponding to 33-35km below the continents and 5-6 km below the oceans. It has been
observed sharp change in Vp from 5.54 km/sec to 7.75km/sec and Vs from 3.35km/sec to
4.35km/sec occurred at the above depths.
(ii) The Gutenberg discontinuity: is the mantle-core discontinuity. Some of the seismic waves
that cross the Mohorovicic discontinuity continue to travel towards the central part of the earth
with almost a uniform increase in their velocities. But at 2898 km below the surface there is
sharp change in Vp from 13.64km/sec to 8.1km/sec and Vs from 7.3km/sec to 0.
1.2.3 Composition of crust, mantle and core
(a) Crust
Crust is the upper most shell of earth, which extends to an average depth of 35 km below
continents and 5km below oceans. The Mohorovicic discontinuity marks its lower boundary.
Crust has two layers or regions separated by minor discontinuity called Conrad discontinuity.
These are A layer and B- layer.
A-layer is the upper zone, which has granitic composition. The granitic layer of the crust is
discontinuous below oceans. It is made up of mostly light density, light colored silicates of Al
and K. There for this layer is refered SIAL in composition.
B-layer is the lower zone, which has basaltic composition. The basaltic layer of crust is
continuous forming the base of the ocean. It is also continuous where the granitic layer rests
upon it. It is made up predominantly of basic minerals, which are rich in magnesium silicates.
They are also referred as SlMA. These silicates are dark coloured and have high density.
(b) Mantle
This is the zone, which constitutes the largest internal subdivision of earth by mass and volume.
It lies below the crust everywhere. This zone continues up to a depth of 2898km. The most
appropriate rocks that make up the mantle would be similar to peridotite, dunite, and eclogite. It
is generally agreed that at least 90% of the mantle by mass can be presented in terms of oxides
Feo, MgO and SiO2 and 5-10% oxides CaO, Al2O3 and Na2O.
(c) Core
It is the inner subdivision of earth that begins at 2898km below the surface and extends up to
6370km that is the center of the earth. Core has two zones. These are the outer and inner zones.
The outer part of core is fluid like in its nature. Because of this it does not transmit S-waves and
retards P- waves.
The inner core is believed to start at 5121 km and extends up to the center. This part is believed
to be more near to solid substances in its nature.
1.3 Scope of Engineering Geology

Engineering geology deals with the geotechnical study of the construction sites and construction
materials. It has a great importance in safe, economic and stable designs of engineering projects.
At present application of geological knowledge in different engineering works is considered not
only desirable but also essential. The followings are some of engineering fields where geology
is involved.

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(a) In construction jobs
In all types of heavy construction jobs which include buildings, towers, dams, reserviors, high
ways and bridges, traffic and hydropower tunnels, embankments and retaining structure,
geological information about the site of construction and construction material is important.
In the matter of planning of an engineering project, geology serves the engineer in the
following ways.
(i) It provides the engineer with a general guidance about the suitability of
site for a proposed project.
(ii) It enables him to appreciate the limiting factors imposed upon his
planning by topography, geomorphology, and ground water conditions of
the area.
(iii) It gives him a general idea about the availability of different types of
construction materials.
(iv) It guides him in limiting the exploratory operations (drilling etc) for
selecting the final site.
Some of the geological characters that have a direct or indirect impact on the design of a
proposed project are:
(i) The existence of hard bed rocks and their depth and inclination from the ground
surface
(ii) Mechanical properties of rocks along the proposed site, especially their bearing
strength, shear strength, modulus of elasticity, permeability and resistance to
decay and disintegration.
(iii) Presence of structurally weak planes (joints, faults, and fractures) and work
zones (peat deposit, glacial deposit and sheared beds), especially at critical
regions of the site selected for the project.
The engineer, who is responsible for the quality control of the construction materials, will be
greatly benefited by his geological background of the natural materials as sands, gravels,
crushed rocks etc.
Similarly for construction in geologically sensitive areas like in coastal belts and seismic
regions geological information is important. In coastal regions the behavior of rocks towards the
sea should be studied before planning and designing of the project in these areas. In the
seismic zones, which are frequently visited by earth quakes; the past seismic history of the area
will enable the engineer to assess nature and magnitude of danger to a proposed civil structure
from seismic shocks.
(b) In town and regional planning

Engineering geology contributes significantly towards better town and regional planning by
providing the planning engineer a broad perspective of nature and properties of the materials
that make the landscape of the area or region.

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(c) In water resources development
In exploitation of water for human use from both surface and subsurface sources, the engineer
has to depend to a great extent on the geological information. Study of the water cycle is an
essential pre- requisite for planning and execution of major water development programs. This
obviously involves understanding of the water bearing properties of the rocks as well as the
factors that influence the movement of water through them.
(d) In Miscellaneous fields

Geology is becoming important in many other engineering fields of activity of the modern times.
These include land evaluation, oceanography, space exploration and nuclear explosion for
industrial and engineering purposes.
Fig. 1.1 Internal structure of the earth

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MINERALS AND ROCK PETROLOGY
2.1 Crystal
A Crystal is a natural solid body bounded by smooth and plain surfaces (i.e. faces) arranged in
an orderly (i.e. geometrical) pattern which is an out ward expression of a regular, internal
atomic structure.
Occurrence of complete and independent crystals is rare in nature. However, most of the solid
substances possess a crystalline character though an out ward crystal shape is missing. Good
crystals develop only under favorable condition such as
- Slow cooling (i.e. slow crystallization)

- Free surrounding to facilitate the crystal growth in different directions.
- Inherent capacity of certain minerals to develop into good crystals (like garnet, pyrite
etc)
- Non- interference by the adjacent growing minerals during solidification.
Crystallography is science, which studies internal structure and external features of crystal.
2.1.1 Characteristics of crystals
The following are characteristics related to crystals and minerals.
1. Faces: The crystals are bounded by flat surfaces, which are known as faces.
2. Edge: The line of intersection formed by any two adjacent faces in a crystal is called
an edge.
3. Solid angle: The points of intersection formed by 3 or more adjacent faces in crystal
are called solid angles.
4. Distortion: In spite of perfect internal atomic arrangement, sometimes crystals develop
faces of different sizes and shapes. This kind of geometrical irregularity in the shape of
crystals is called distortion. This is may be due to some restraint on the growth of the
crystal in certain directions or to a greater supply of material being available in one
direction as compared with another.
5. Interfacial angle is the angle formed in between the normal of adjacent crystal faces.
6. Simple form and combination: If a crystal is bounded by all similar or like faces it is
called a simple form. If a crystal is bounded by dissimilar or unlike faces it is called a
combination (i.e. combination of different simple forms)
7. Crystallographic axes: These are the imaginary lines (or directions), which intersect at
the center (or origin) of the crystal. The growth or development of the crystal is
considered to take place along these axes.
8. Crystal systems: The six possible crystal systems are cubic system, tetragonal system,
hexagonal system, orthorhombic system, monoclinic system and triclinic system.
2.2 Minerals
A mineral is natural, inorganic, homogeneous, solid substance having a definite chemical
composition and regular atomic structure. But there are a few exceptions to the mineral
definition (1) precious gemstones like diamond can be synthetically produced under controlled
laboratory condition. (2) Coal, petroleum etc typical organic substances that are considered as

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minerals (3) Asphalt, mercury, petroleum natural gas are semisolids, liquids and gas
respectively, but they are considered as minerals.
Since rocks that make up the earth are simply natural aggregate of minerals, a study of minerals
is of fundamental importance.
Most rock forming minerals such as feldspars, Quartz, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas,
felspathoids and olivine are formed out of magma during different stages of solidification.
2.2.1 Common rock forming minerals and their abundance

Many rocks contain predominantly only one mineral with a few others being present only in
small or accessory amounts. Such common essential minerals that make up the rocks of the
earth crust are named as rock forming minerals.
The average composition of crustal rocks in terms of oxides is given below as follows:
Oxides %
Si O2 59.26
Al2O3 15.35
Fe2O3 3.14
FeO 3.74
MgO 3.46
CaO 5.08
Na2O 3.81
K2O 3.12
H2O 1.26
P2O5 0.28
TiO2 0.73
Rest 0.77
Total 100.0
Eight elements in their order of abundance in crustal rocks are given below and out of these
Silicon and Oxygen together make up nearly 75% of crustal rocks. Since Silicon and Oxygen
predominate in the rocks, the chief rock forming minerals are silicates.
The most abundant elements are

Element %
Oxygen 46.60 %
Silicon 27.72 %
Aluminum 8.13%
Iron 5.00 %
Calcium 3.63 %
Sodium 2.83 %
Potassium 2.59 %
Magnesium 2. 09%

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In the order of abundance, among different rock forming minerals, Silicates rank first in the
earth’s crust, Oxides come next, then carbonates, Phosphates, Sulphates etc in greatly reduced
amount.
Silicate - Si O4 is fundamental unit of all silicate.

- is the most dominant rock forming mineral.
Example feldspar, Pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, quartz, and mica.
Oxides - are compounds made by chemical Reaction of elements with Oxygen. Examples Iron
Oxides like hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe304)
Carbonates
Example- Calcite (CaCo3) in marble.
- Dolomite CaMg (Co3) 2
2.2.2 Physical Properties of mineral

The following physical properties are studied for identification of a mineral.
1. Colour 2. Luster 3. Streak 4. Hardness 5. Structure
6. Cleavage 7. Fracture
1. Colour: -the colour shown by a mineral depends up on the degree of absorption and
reflection of light rays
e.g. Black mineral - it absorbs all light rays.

White “ - it reflects all light rays
Red “ - it reflects the red, but absorbs all others.
2. Luster: - is the nature of shinning on the surface of the mineral.

e.g. Metallic luster –shine resembles that of metals. Examples: Silvery, Golden luster.
Non - metallic luster – examples Earthy luster = no shine

Vitreous luster = shine of glass.
Adamanting luster = brilliant luster of diamond.
3. Streak: is the colour of powder of a mineral obtained by rubbing the mineral on rough
surface.
4. Hardness: is the resistance offered to abrasion or scratching by the mineral.

The relative hardness of unknown mineral is determined by scratching and comparing with a
set of ten standard minerals, which are referred as called Moh’s scale of hardness. The
standard minerals and their relative hardness scale is given below
Talc = 1 Gypsum = 2 Calcite = 3 Fluorite = 4 Apatite = 5
Orthoclase = 6 Quartz = 7 Topaz = 8 Corrundum = 9 Diamond = 10
5. Structure of a mineral: is characteristics arrangement in its outward expression that

indicates the order in which the atoms of a mineral arranged. Examples
Acicular – Need like structure
Fibrous - thread like structure in Asbestos

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Dendritic – tree like structure.
Foliated – the structure in which the mineral consists of thin and separable layers like in
mica.
Granular – the structure in which equidimensional grains packed together constitute the
mineral.
6. Cleavage: - is the tendency of crystallized mineral to break along certain definite planes
yielding more or less smooth surfaces or smooth planes. The terms used in
cleavage description are
- Perfect, good cleavage – split up in to smooth planes.
- Poor, imperfect cleavage– does not split up into smooth planes.
7. Fracture: - refers any nature of break. Common terms used to describe fracture are
Even fracture – smooth and flat surfaces.
Uneven fracture – irregular surface
Concoidal fracture – shows concentric rings
Hackly fracture - irregular with sharp pricing projections.
2.3 Rocks
- Rock is a natural aggregate of one or more minerals, which form the earth’s crust.
- Petrology (from Greek, petro = Rock, logos = study) is branch of geology, which studies
mode of formation, composition, and uses of rocks. Rocks may be classified in to 3
groups on the basis of their mode of origin.
2.3.1 Rock cycle
The 3 groups of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, which occur in nature,
give birth one to each other due to different geological process acting on them. This
phenomenon is called rock cycle. Fig. 3.1 shows rock cycle.
Fig. 2.1 Rock cycle

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2.3.2 Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are the first formed rocks, which made up the original earth’s crust. Hence
they are called primary rocks. They are the most abundant rocks in the earth crust.
2.3.2.1 Origin of Igneous rocks
The temperature of the materials of the earth increases with depth. This may become so high
at certain depth below the surface that materials may acquire molten state where the effect of
temperature is greater than the effect of pressure due to over burden. This molten material,
which exists below the earth’s surface, is called magma. But when the same material forced to
flow out (erupted) on the earth’s surface, it is called Lava. The process of solidification of lava
or magma gives birth to igneous rocks.
2.3.2.2 Classification of Igneous rock
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of

Silica percentage and mode of solidification the magma.
1. Classification based on silica percentage
Among different oxides, silica (Silica dioxide, Si02) is most abundant in igneous rocks. Hence
this makes them as a suitable basis for the classification of igneous rocks. Four groups have
been defined in terms of silica %. These are:
1. Acidic igneous rock – silica > 65% examples: Granite, Rhyolite

2. Intermediate igneous rock – silica 55 – 65% ex. Diorite, Andesite
3. Basic igneous rocks – silica 45-55 % ex- Gabbro, basalt
4. Ultra basic igneous rocks – silica <45%ex. Dunite, peridotite.
Generally igneous rocks, which are rich in silica and Potassium, are often called SIALIC, which
are light in colour and lighter in density. Example. Granite. Where as those igneous rocks rich in
Fe and Mg are often called MAFIC, which are dark in colour and denser. Examples Gabbro and
basalt.
2. Classification based on mode of solidification of magma.
According to this classification, igneous rocks are grouped into 3.

1. Plutonic 2. Hypabyssal 3. Volcanic rocks.

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1. Plutonic rocks are igneous rocks, which have been formed under high pressure at great
depths in the earth’s crust. These rocks are formed at slow rate of cooling. Hence these
rocks are coarse grained. E.g. Granite, Gabbro.
2. Hypabyssal rocks: are igneous rocks, which have been formed at shallow depth under
moderate temperature and pressure. Such rocks are medium grained. Example: Dolerite.
3. Volcanic rocks: are those igneous rocks, which have been formed on the surface at rapid
rate of cooling. Such rocks are fine grained or glassy matter. Example – Basalt, obsidian.
Generally those igneous rocks formed below the earth’s surface are called Intrusive rocks,
which include both plutonic and hypabyssal rocks. Where as those igneous rocks which are
formed on the surface of earth by out pouring of magma are termed as extrusive igneous rocks
and also called volcanic rocks, which include both lava flows and pyroclastic rocks.
Examples of igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks: Granite Tonalite, Syenite, Diorite, and Gabbro
Extrusive igneous rocks: Rhyolite, Dacite, Trachyte, Andesite, and Basalt
2.3.2.3. Texture of Igneous rocks
The term ‘Texture’ refers the size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. In the
study of texture four points are considered.
1. Degree of crystallization
2. Size of grains
3. Shape of crystals
4. Mutual relations of constituent mineral grains.
1. Degree of crystallization - reflect the rate or speed of cooling. Crystallinity is measured by

the ratio between crystallized and non -crystallized matter. On the basis of degree of
crystallization, textures of igneous rocks are divided into 3 groups.
(i) Holocrystalline texture- when rock is made up entirely of crystals, its texture is
described as ‘Holo crystalline’
(ii) Holo hyaline texture when a rock is composed entirely of glassy material, its texture
is called Holo hyaline.
(iii) Mero crystalline texture- when the rock is composed partly of glass, the texture is
called Merocrystalline.
2. Size of grains: The size of grains in an igneous rock varies considerably depending on the
amount of volatiles, viscosity, rate of cooling and pressure. The presence of much volatiles,
low viscosity, slow cooling and great pressure help to grow large mineral grains. On the
basis of grain size two major textures are known (i) Phaneritic texture (ii) Aphanitic texture
(i) Phaneritic texture: If minerals grains in igneous rocks are big enough to be seen by
the naked eye, the texture is described as phaneritic texture. It is further divided into
3
(a) Coarse grained texture - > 2 mm
(b) Medium grained texture - 0.06-2 mm
(c) Fine grained texture - <0.06 mm

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(ii) Aphanitic texture: If mineral grains in igneous rocks are too small to be seen with
the naked eye, the texture is described as Aphanitic texture. It is further divided into
3
(a) Microcrystalline texture – Mineral grains can be distinguished only under a
microscope.
(b) Crypto crystalline texture – cannot be seen with a microscope but can be sensed
from birefringence of groundmass.
(c) Glassy texture – if the rock is amorphous and minerals are not noticed at all
under the microscope, the texture is described as glassy texture.
3. Shape of crystals
Based on the grain shape texture is grouped in to 3
a. Euhedral – If the grains of igneous rocks show well developed crystal faces.
b. Subhedral – If the crystal faces are partly developed.
c. Anhedral – If crystal faces are absent.
4. Mutual relations of grains

On the basis of mutual relations of grains, the texture of igneous rocks can be classified as
a. Equigranular texture
b. Inequigranular texture
c. Directive texture
d. Inter growth texture
e. Inter granular texture or inter serial texture
f. Inter locking texture
a. Equigranualr texture: igneous rocks having more or less equal size of grains, their
texture is described as Equigranular. This texture further classified into the following
types:
Pandiomorphic texture- is texture in which most of the grains are euhedral. E.g.
aplites
Hypidiomorphic texture- is the texture in which most of the grains are sub hedral.
E.g. Granite and Syenite.
Allotriomorphic texture- is the texture in which most of the grains are anhedral in
shape. E.g. Lamprophyres
b. Inequigranular texture: Igneous rocks showing variation in the size texture of

minerals grains are said to have inequigranular texture. The common ones are
porphyritic texture and poikilitic texture.
Porphyritic texture: When an igneous rock contains few large sized grains of some
minerals set in a matrix, which is finer grained mass or even glassy material, the
texture is called porphyritic texture. The large crystals are called Phenocrysts and the
finer grained mineral is called ground mass or Matrix. This texture is a common
feature in volcanic and hypabyssal rocks. Igneous rocks showing porphyritic texture
are known as Porphyries. E.g. Granite porphyries, Rhyolite porphyries.
Poikilitic texture: When in the rock smaller crystals are enclosed with in the larger
crystals without common orientation, and then the texture is known as poikilitic
texture. This texture is common in Syenite and Monzonite rocks.

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Ophitic texture is a special case of poikilitic texture in which plates of augite enclose
numerous thin laths of plagioclase. E.g. common in Dolerite.
c. Directive texture: This texture produced as a result of flow of lava during their
consolidation. This texture exhibits perfect or semiperfrect parallelism of crystals in
the direction of magmatic flow. The common type of directive texture is Trachytic
texture. It is a characteristic of certain volcanic rocks like Trachyte, which contain
feldspar laths arranged in lines parallel to the direction of flow of lava. Such texture is
called Trachytic texture.
d. Inter growth texture: During the formation rocks sometimes two or more minerals
may crystallize out simultaneously and the resulting crystals are mixed up or inter
grown in the space available and giving rise to an intergrowth texture. This
intergrowth frequently produces graphic textures in which quartz crystal present in
smaller quantity embedded in the orthoclase. The two ingredient minerals have the
same optical orientation over large areas.
e. Inter granular or inter sertal texture: In many basaltic rocks, plagioclase lathes occur in
such away that they form a net works with triangular or polygonal inter spaces. These inter
spaces are filled with minute grains of augite, olivine and iron oxides. Such a texture is
called Inter granular texture. But, when glassy and fine-grained materials like chlorite or
serpentine occur in the interspaces, then this type of texture is called Inter sertal.
f. Inter locking texture: As the name indicates in this texture the different minerals are
closely interlinked or mutually locked with one another. It develops when a melt solidifies.
It can be best observed in very coarse-grained rocks such as pegmatite and some granite. Fig
2.2 shows the different types of textures in igneous rocks

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Intergranular texture Graphic texture Interlocking texture
Fig 2.2 Textures of igneous rocks
2.3.2.4. Structures of Igneous rocks

Although igneous rocks are exhibiting different types of structures, the followings are
common:
1. Flow structure
2. Pillow structure
3. Vesicular structure and amygdaloidal structure
4. Columnar structure
5. Sheet structure
1. Flow structure: Some times an igneous rock shows parallel bands or streaks, which are
caused by the flow of lava or magma during cooling and crystallization. Such structure
is called Flow structure. It is common in Rhyolite and Trachyte. Fig 2.3 shows flow
structure

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Fig. 2.3 Flow structure
2. Pillow structure: These are structures in which volcanic igneous body appears as a pile of
numerous overlying pillows or sacks. The pillows are generally interconnected and have
vesicular and glassy tops. As the lava flows its upper surface gets solidified while the
interior remains hot and fluid. Such a situation may result in the rupturing of the earlier
formed thin crust and the draining out of unconsolidated lava. This process, when repeated,
produces a pillow structure usually under submarine conditions. It is typical structure of
basaltic lavas that are comparatively mobile.
3. Vesicular and Amygdaloidal structure Most lava contains large amounts of gas and
volatiles. These gases and volatiles escape into the atmosphere when they solidify on the
earth’s surface. As a result of this numerous gas cavities are formed near tops of lava flow.
These gas cavities are called Vesicles and the volcanic rock that contains vesicles is said to
have a vesicular structure. It is common in Pumice, Scoria and Basalt. But sometimes the
vesicles of volcanic rocks may subsequently be filled by secondary minerals that are called
Amygdaloids e.g. calcite. Such filled vesicles are called Amygdales and the rock is said to
have Amygdaloidal structure. Fig. 2.4 shows vesicular and amygdaloidal structure.
Fig. 2.4 (a) Vesicular structure (b) Amygdaloidal structure
4. Columnar structure: In this structure the volcanic igneous rock appear to be made up
numerous parallel polygonal prismatic columns bundled together. This is the result of the
contraction of lava during cooling. Fig 2.5 shows columnar jointing in basalts.

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Fig. 2.5 Columnar structure
5. Sheet structure: In this structure the rocks appear to be made of a number of sheets. This
is because of the development of nearly horizontal cracks. This is the effect of erosion over
rocks formed at a depth. When erosion takes place the overlying strata gradually disappear,
ultimately exposing plutonic rocks on the surface. In this process, the earlier pressure no
longer exist and this release of pressure results in the development of joints or cracks,
roughly parallel to the surface. Fig. 2.6 shows sheet jointing in granite.
Fig. 2.6 sheet structure
Generally structures and textures are physical features associate with rocks. They are
generally primary in nature that is they occur along with the formation of rocks and are
important because:
a. Serves they contribute to the strength or weakness of rocks
b. They are distinguishing features of the rock groups
c. They reveal the mode of origin of rocks
The term structure used in this context is different from the secondary geological
structures like fold, faults formed due to tectonic activity

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2.3.2.5 Engineering importance of some of igneous rocks
Granite, Syenite and Dolerite that are plutonic igneous rocks characterized by very high
compressive strength and can be easily trusted in most construction works.
Examples:
Granite: It is massive, dense, competent, and has inter locked texture. It is
impermeable and non porous. These properties give strength to this rock.
It has either equigraanular or porphyritic texture and on polishing granite

takes a mosaic appearance or mottled appearance respectively.
It is rich in silica. This makes it very resistant to decay or weathering
The constituent minerals are very hard. This makes the rock tough and
resistant to abrasion.
It is easily available, because it is the most abundant plutonic rock.
Granites offer reasonable fire and frost resistant because of uniform nature of
minerals.
Due to its high crushing strength, good polishing, resistant to fire, frost and
abrasion granite becomes suitable as foundation rock, building stone, road
stone, rail way ballast or for flooring. Being non-porous and impermeable
granites do not pose ground water problem during tunneling. Furthermore
rock tunneling through granite does not require any lining because of its
competence.
Basalt: Basalts like other dark colored igneous rocks are preferable only as road
stones and concrete aggregate. This is because of their dark color they are not
pleasant to be used as building stone in face work. Because of its highest load
bearing capacity or crushing strength massive basalt is used as good
foundation rock.
Generally igneous rocks, which are crystalline, compact and impervious in nature, are safe
to be used as a foundation rocks, abutment, wall and roof in tunnels.
2.3.3 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by consolidation and cementation of sediments (rock

fragments) deposited under water environment. Sedimentary rocks occur in layers and
frequently contain fossil.
2.3.3.1 Formation of sedimentary rocks
Formation of sedimentary rocks involves 3 stages. Theses are:
a. Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks.

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b. Sedimentation
c. Lithification (digenesis)
a. Weathering is a process of disintegration and decomposition of the pre-existing rocks
under the influence of certain physical and chemical agencies. The decayed product
(sediment) generally remains at or near the parent or pre-existing rock, because
weathering agents do not involve themselves in the removal of disintegrated particles.
Erosion is the process of breaking down of rocks by natural agencies such as wind,
running water (river), and glaciers (moving ice) and accompanied by transportation of
disintegrated product for considerable distance.
b. Sedimentation: is the process of accumulation of sediments at the site of deposition.
c. Lithification and digenesis

Lithification: is the process of conversion of soft and loose sediment into hard and firm
rock. Lithification involves physical and chemical changes and the changes involved are
called digenetic changes
Lithification involves the following process:
Compaction: is the process by which sediments are compressed due to their

load.
Cementation: is the process by which loose grains are held together by
foreign binding or cementing material. Percolating or
circulating water commonly supplies these binding substances.
Recryastallization: is the process by which the constituent minerals are
rearranging them selves to form rocks like limestone, salt,
gypsum etc.
2.3.3.2 Classification of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of their mode of formation. These
are: 1. Clastic (detrital) rocks
2. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks
1. Clastic rocks: These are rocks formed from accumulation of broken rock or fragments.
These rocks are further subdivided into 3 classes on the basis of average grain size of
sediments. These are:
a. Rudacious rocks
b. Arenaceous rocks
c. Argillaceous rocks
a. Rudacious rocks: are Clastic sedimentary rocks formed from sediments having more
than 2mm in grain size. These rocks may be composed of boulders (>200mm), cobbles
(200-60mm), pebbles (60-4mm) and gravels (4-2mm) that are generally held together by
cementing material.
Examples: - Breccias: the constituent grains are angular in shape.
Conglomerate: the constituent grains are rounded in shape.

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b. Arenaceous rocks: These are clastic rocks made up of sediments having grain size
between 2-1/16mm that is sand grain. E.g. Sandstone.
c. Argillaceous rocks: are fine grained clastic rocks that are made of sediments with
average grain size less than 1/16mm that is silt and clay sized. E.g. Shale, mudstone.
2. Non-Clastic rocks: are formed from accumulation of chemically precipitated and

organically derived matter. These rocks are further divided into two main groups. These
are: a. chemically formed rocks
b. Organically formed rocks
a. Chemically formed rocks: are precipitates formed by precipitation, crystallization and

evaporation from aqueous solutions carrying the weathered material dissolved in them.
On the basis of chemical composition precipitates are further subdivided into:
Carbonate rocks: formed by precipitation of calcium and magnesium bearing carbonates.

E.g. Limestone and Dolomite.
Ferruginous rocks: Formed by precipitation of iron oxides, siderite. E.g. Ironstone
Siliceous rocks: formed by precipitation of silica from water.

E.g. Chert, Flint, Jasper etc
b. Organically formed rocks
These are two types:
Biochemical rocks: Plants and animals living under water extract dissolved calcite
from water and form hard parts like shell, corals and concretions. Accumulated deposits
of these materials on the floor are called biochemical rocks.
E.g. Fossiliferous limestone.
Organic rocks: Rock containing organic matter. E.g. coal
2.3.3.3 Textures of sedimentary rocks
Texture is the term, which describes the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grain.
Texture of sedimentary rocks are defined by the following factors:
1. Origin of the grains
Clastic texture - If rocks rich in Clastic grains of any size, shape and
composition, then their texture is termed as clastic.
Non-clastic texture- If rocks are formed from chemically or organically
evolved grains, then the texture is termed as non-clastic.
2. Size of the grain

Fine grained– if the grain size <0.06 mm
Medium grained- if the grain size 0.06-2 mm
Coarse grained-if the grain size >2 mm

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Generally the type of weathering, the nature of parent rock and the duration of
transport are some of the factors that cause a variation of the grain size of the
sediments.
3. Sorting
Unsorted sedimentary rock – If the rock is formed from different grain

sizes, then it is called unsorted sedimentary
rock.
Well-sorted sedimentary rock- If the rock is formed from uniform grain
size, then it is called well-sorted
sedimentary rock.
4. Shape of the grains
Individual outline of sediments generally has considerable significance in defining

the textural characteristics of rocks. These grains outline may be rounded, sub
rounded, sub angular, and angular. Roundness and sphericity are the
indications of a greater amount of abrasion and large distance of transportation in
clastic rocks.
2.3.3.4 Structures of sedimentary rocks
Important structural features of sedimentary rocks are:

1. Stratification: is the layered arrangement in sedimentary rocks.
Different layers are identified by
- Difference in mineral composition.
- Variation in grain size or texture.
- Difference in color
- Variation in thickness.
If layers are greater than one cm in thickness, then they are called Strata. Layering of
these strata is called stratification. E.g. stratification in sandstone.
2. Lamination: If the layers are less than one cm in thickness, then they are called
lamella. The process of layering of this lamella is called lamination. E.g.
lamination in shale.
3. Graded bedding: in some stratified rocks the component sediments in each

layer appear to be characteristically sorted and arranged according to their grain
size that is the coarsest towards to the bottom and the finest towards to the top of
each layer. Such type of bedding or layering is called graded bedding.
4. Current bedding: If beds or layers lie oblique to the major bedding, such type
of bedding is called current bedding or oblique bedding or cross bedding or false
bedding. This is formed due to frequent changes in velocity and direction of the
flow of steam or shallow water and wind.

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5. Ripple marks: In stagnant and shallow water bodies the wave and the current on
the surface of the water produce sympathetic impressions in the form of minor
undulations on the loose and soft sediments, which lie at the bottom. These are
known as ripple marks and develop under shallow water conditions. There are
two types of ripple marks. These are
a. Symmetrical ripple marks: formed due to wave action.

b. Asymmetrical ripple marks: formed due to current action.
Fig 2.7 (a) symmetrical ripple marks (b) asymmetric ripple marks
2.3.3.5 Engineering importance of some sedimentary rocks
Conglomerates: are undesirable at the site of foundation of major civil engineering

structures. This is because of their incomplete cementation,
Compositional heterogeneity of grains and roundness of the grains.
Sandstone:
Siliceous sandstone-It is best to be used as building stone, as site of foundation,

road stone, railway ballast, and for tunneling. This is because
it is well cemented; grains are angular and are quartz in
composition.
Argillaceous sandstone- it is not desirable because clayey matter on contact with

water forms weak and lubricating matter that causes a
slippery base.
Shale: is unsuitable as construction material. This is because of their fine-grained

nature and incompetent nature.
Limestone: massive ones used as building stone and as railway ballast but may not be
durable. Mostly limestone not used as foundation rock because of its soluble nature.
2.3.4 Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been formed by metamorphism of pre-existing
igneous and sedimentary rocks. The terms orthometamorphic and Para metamorphic rocks
are applied to those rocks that have been originated from igneous and sedimentary rocks
respectively. Sometimes, metamorphic rocks may also undergo metamorphism again.
e.g. Orthometamorphic rock-Gneiss

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Para metamorphic rock-Quartzite, Marble
2.3.4.1 Formation of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism is the process that refers change of form (in Greek meta=change;
morph=form). It indicates the effect of temperature, pressure and chemical active fluids
over the texture, minerals and composition of the parent rocks. The parent rocks are in
equilibrium with their surrounding if the temperature, pressure and chemically active
fluids remain unchanged. If any of these factors changes significantly, then the
equilibrium gets upset and necessary metamorphism takes place to create a new
equilibrium or more stable conditions.
There are 3 types of agents responsible for metamorphism. These are temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids.
2.3.4.2 Kinds of metamorphism
Generally different kinds of metamorphism are defined based on the metamorphic agents
that have been the most dominant during the process. The following are the common types
of metamorphism:
1. Thermal (contact) metamorphism: is the metamorphism caused due to the local

heating of rocks by intrusion of hot magma. That is temperature plays a predominant
role. The surrounding region of the magma chamber in which the heat effect is
perceptible is called the metamorphic aureole. As the temperature decreases away
from the intensive magma, the outer rocks in aureole are less metamorphosed than the
inner most rocks. Under this metamorphism the rock acquires a granular fabric and it
is fine grained that does not show schistocity.
E.g. Hornfels.
2. Dynamic metamorphism: pressure due to overburden plays a great role with low
temperature. A new rock is made partly by the mechanical effect of flow due to the
overburden. E.g. Slate has flow cleavage
3. Cataclastic metamorphism: The metamorphism in which the directed pressure (lateral

stress) plays the dominant role. The earth movement such as folding and faulting causes
these stresses. This occurs in the upper parts of the earth’s crust where temperature is low.
Due to these stresses rocks are crushed and deformed. Hence new-formed rocks are called
cataclastic rocks. E.g. Fault breccias, Mylonite.
4. Dynamo thermal metamorphism: is the metamorphism in which the directed pressure

and temperature play dominant role. This metamorphism occurs commonly in the folded
mountain regions. Examples of rocks formed by this metamorphism are gneiss and
schist.
5. Plutonic metamorphism: is the metamorphism in which uniform static pressure due to

the overburden and high temperature play dominant role at great depth. Newly formed
rocks are formed from denser and equidimensional minerals grains. Such rocks are
called Granulites.

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6. Regional metamorphism: is the metamorphism in which the temperature, pressure play
the dominant role in the presence of migrating fluids where the rocks metamorphosed
over wider areas.
2.3.4.3 Classification of metamorphic rocks
Although there are different parameters of metamorphic rock classification, the common
way of classifying these rocks is based on the presence or absence of foliation. The term
‘foliation’ refers the parallelism of inequidimensional (i.e. platy and prismatic) minerals
that develop under the influence of pressure. That is the series of parallel layers.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two on the basis of foliation. These are: 1. Foliated
metamorphic rocks.
2. None-foliated metamorphic rocks.
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks show foliation with in them. The common
types of foliated rocks in the order of increasing the degree of metamorphism and grain
size are Slate, Phyllite, Schist and Gneiss.
2. Massive or non-foliated metamorphic rocks: This group includes rocks without

foliation. E.g. quartzite, marble, Hornfels etc.
2.3.4.4 Texture of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rock’s texture is commonly described by the following factors

1. Banding: Banding is displayed by foliation and lineation within the rocks.
- Foliation is a series of parallel layers.
- Lineation is the series of parallel lines produced by the trace of foliation on a rock
surface.
2. Visible crystallinity:
- Phaneritic: if the individual crystals are identified by naked aye.
- Aphanitic: if the individual crystals cannot be distinguished by naked eye.
3. Crystal size
I. Coarse: if the grain size >2 mm
II. Medium: if the grain size 2-0.06 mm
III. Fine: if the grains size <0.06 mm
4. Origin
- Crystalloblastic texture: This the texture formed during the process of
metamorphism.
- Palimpsest or relict texture: This the texture that the remnant texture of the parent
rock found preserved in the metamorphic rock.
2.3.4.5 Structures of metamorphic rocks

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Among the different types of metamorphic structures the following are common ones:
1. Cataclastic structure: are produced under the influence of shearing and crushing effect
due to direct pressure in the upper zone of the earth’s crust. This structure is common in
mylonite and fault breccias.
2. Maculose structure: It is the spotted appearance of the rock may be due to the
development of few large sized crystals (Porphyroblasts) with in the fine-grained mass.
This is due to incomplete recrystallization of the rock.
3. Slaty structure or Slaty cleavage: is the structure formed due to the parallel
orientation of flaky minerals mainly mica and chlorite which are microscopic. This
structure is formed in shale which undergone slight metamorphism.
E.g. Slaty structure in slate.
4. Schistose structure: is the structure in which the rock consists of parallel bands or
layers of flaky, platy or rod like mineral. This structure is commonly found in schist,
which is coarse grained and largely composed of platy and flaky minerals. The
foliation in schist is known as schistocity.
5. Gneissose structure: is the structure in which bands or layers of platy or flaky mineral
alternate with those of equidimensional and granular minerals. The bands of minerals are
generally contrasting color, composition, texture etc.
Light color bands-represent quartz and feldspars
Dark color bands- represent ferromagnesiam minerals like mica
6. Granulose structure: is the structure in which the component grains are
equidimensional, irregular in outline and mutually interlocked.
E.g. Granulose structure in marble and quartzite.
7. Hornfelsic structure: is the structure in which equidimensional and fine-grained

minerals are abundant. This structure is the result of contact metamorphism E.g.
Hornfelsic structure in Hornfels. Fig 2.8 shows the different structures in metamorphic
rocks.
Fig. 2.8 common structures in metamorphic rocks

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2.3.4.6 Engineering importance of some metamorphic rocks
Gneiss: It is the general name given to any metamorphic rock that shows a gneissose
structure. Gneiss is used as foundation rock, as building stone, as aggregate for
making concrete, as road stone, as railway ballast, as load bearing beams or
pillars etc. It is also used for tunneling work. This is because gneiss is durable,
has pleasing color and good polishing appearance, impermeable and non-porous.
Schist: It is the general name given to all metamorphic rocks bearing schistose structure.
Schist is not used as foundation rock, as building stone, as aggregate for concrete
making, as road stone, as railway ballast. It is also unsuitable for tunneling since
it is permeable and creates ground water problem. Generally schist is unsuitable
because of its incompetent, permeable and unpleasant color.
Quartzite: is Para metamorphic rock which is strong, hard durable and has pleasant color.
Because of this reasons it is highly suitable as road railway ballast, concrete
aggregate, paving blocks etc. They are also used in the manufacturing of silica
bricks. Quartzites are suitable as foundation rock. Being impervious they are
desirable at the reservoir sites. Being competent they are suitable in tunneling
work. But it is not used as building stone because it is not workable.
Marble: is Para metamorphic rock derived from limestone by thermal metamorphism.

Marble is used as building stones for temples and other constructions. They are
also used in ornamental and decorative works where carving, engraving, polishing
are involved. But marbles are not suitable as road metal, as aggregate for concrete
works and as foundation site.
Slate: It not suitable as foundation rock because of its soft and incompetent nature. It is
not used as road stone, as railway ballast, as concrete aggregate. This is because
it doesn’t offer well resistant to wear and tear. It is not used as building stone
because of its cleavage and softness it splits easily.

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GEOLOGICAL WORK OF NATURAL AGENCIES
3.1 Weathering
Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks under the influence of
certain physical and chemical agencies without removal or transportation of the fragments from
original place. There are two types of weathering. These are (a) Physical (mechanical)
weathering (b) Chemical weathering
(a) Physical weathering: is the process of mechanical break down of rock masses under the
attack of certain climatic conditions like temperature, moisture etc. The most important factors
by which rocks are mechanically broken down are :
1. Differential expansion by pressure release when rock is exposed to the surface.
2. Growth of foreign materials like ice in cracks.
3. Differential expansion and contraction during unequal or rapid heating or cooling.
4. Growing roots of plants.
(b) Chemical weathering: is essentially the process of chemical reactions between the gases of
the atmosphere and the surface of rocks under the presence of water. Typical weathering
reactions are:
1. Oxidation
2. Carbonation
3. Hydration
Rivers, wind, moving ice and sea waves are described as agents of erosion since they are
capable of loosening, dislodging and carrying of particles.
3.2 Geologic work of rivers (streams)

Surface water flowing in channels of their own are defined as streams. A large stream flowing
through extensive area and receiving water from smaller side streams is distinguished as river.
During its life from head to mouth regions the stream water performs geological work, which
can be studied under 3 phases. These are erosion, transportation, and deposition.
3.2.1 Erosion
Erosion is the disintegration of the rock by a natural agent through mechanical, chemical
processes accompanied by removal of disintegrated product from its original place. Streams or
rivers cause erosion in 4 ways:
1. by abrasion
2. by attrition
3. by hydraulic action
4. by chemical action (corrosion)
(1) Abrasion - The flowing water uses rock fragments such as pebbles, gravels, and sands as a
tool for rubbing, grinding and bumping the sides and the floor of the river valley. This type of
erosion is called abrasion.
(2) Attrition- it is the breaking of the transported materials themselves due to mutual collision.
Attrition causes the rock fragments to become more rounded and smaller in size.
(3) Hydraulic action is erosion in which the inherent kinetic energy of running river water only
takes part in causing the physical break down of rocks. This process is effective in uneven faces
of the jointed rocks exposed along the river channel.
(4) Chemical action-The slow but steady chemical action of stream water on the rocks with
which it comes into contact. It depends much on the character of the rock and the composition
of the stream water.

26
The rate of stream erosion depends on a number of factors. These are (a) velocity of stream
(b) lithology (c) load carried by stream.
The velocity of stream depends upon channel size, channel shape, channel gradient, discharge
and load.
Erosional features of stream

(1) Pot holes (2) Gorges (3) Ox-bow lake (4) Water fall (5) Meanders
(6) Stream terraces. Fig 3.1 shows ox-bow lakes and meandering rivers.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.1 (a) Ox-bow lake development (b) meandering river development
3.3.2 River transportation

Rivers are very powerful transporting geological agents.
The amount of solid material transported by a river is called load. Load is transported by a river
in 3 ways.
(a) As dissolved load: this comprises all soluble matter in the stream water in solution form.
(b) As suspended load: this consists of silt, clay, fine sand etc. Such load is carried by the river
in suspension form.
(c) As bed load-The bed load comprises heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravel, etc, which are
transported mainly by their rolling, skipping, gliding along the bottom of the stream. This kind
of movement of load is discontinuous and slow. The process of intermittent jumping of stones is
called saltation.

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3.2.3 River deposition
Deposition takes place whenever geological agents lose energy. That is the loose rock materials
transported by stream to the lower course down and deposited whenever the velocity of the
flowing water is reduced.
The separation of materials takes place automatically as the larger and heavier particles settle
quickly while the smaller and the lighter ones continue their journey farther a head. The
material that a stream deposits as sediment is called Alluvial or Alluvium deposits. The term
alluvium means sediment deposited by a stream. It contains fine material such as silt, clay,
coarse sand and gravel.
River deposition takes place in 4 ways. Deposits taking place
(1) in the river channel during periods of normal flow.
(2) by spreading over the plains on either side of the river during periods of flood.
(3) Across the Estuary and interbedded with the sediments carried into the Estuary by the sea.
Estuary is wide river mouth into which the tide flows.
(4) In deltas
There are 5 types of river deposits. These are:

(1) Alluvial fans (2) Flood plains (3) Natural levees (4) Point bar (5) Deltas
(1) Alluvial fans: The alluvial materials that flow down from mountains accumulate at the
foot of hills where the stream enters a plain. The deposition occurs due to the abrupt
change in the gradient of a river valley. Such deposits spread in the shape of FLATE
FANS in which the apex points uphill and such deposits are called Alluvial fans.
Usually the coarser material is dropped near the base of the slope while the finer
material is carried farther out on the plain. Fig (3.2) shows alluvial fans.
Fig. 3.2 Alluvial fan
(2) Flood plains deposits: During flooding a river over flows its banks and submerges the
adjacent low-lying area where deposition of alluvial material takes place. A wide belt of alluvial
plain formed in this way on either side of the stream is called FLOOD PLAIN. Flood plain gets

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submerged only when a river overflows its bank at flood stage. Fig 3.3 shows flood plain and
natural levees.
Fig. 3.3
(3) Natural levees: These are low ridges that are formed on both sides of a river channel by the
accumulation of sediments along the banks. This is because river water suffers first check in
velocity on the banks while over flowing them. Development of such levees by flooding causes
raising of the banks. So that these sometimes become helpful in preventing floods of previous
intensity. As result, most of the coarse sediment is deposited along the area bordering the river
channel and the finer sediments are deposited more widely over the flood plain.
(4) Point bars - In the meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur at the inside bends of a river.
They are crescent shaped and are called point bars. Fig (3.4) shows point bars
Fig. 3.4 Point bars. The shaded parts indicated by D are point bars.
(5) Deltas: are alluvial deposits, which are roughly triangular in shape with their apex pointing
upstream, that are laid down by the streams at the points where they enter into lake or seas i.e.
mouth. When a stream enters an ocean or a lake, the currents of the flowing water dissipate

29
quickly. This results in the deposition of a series of sediment layers, which make up the delta. A
delta deposit is generally composed of a number of layers or beds inclined at different angels
towards the sea or lake. Fig (3.5) shows deltas
Fig.(3.5) Deltas deposition structure
3.2.4 Engineering consideration of work of river

Generally any site for an engineering project is selected away from the path of a river or running
water. But in the case of dams and bridges, where the site has to be with in the path of the
running water, suitable measures are adopted to stop or minimize the adverse effects of running
water. In such cases, foundations of the dam or piers of the bridge are made to rest on some firm
strata and suitable measures are also adopted to strengthen the sides and the bed of the river by
stone-pitching both up stream and down stream of the bridge or dam to stop erosion.
3.3 Geologic work of ocean (sea)

Sea is extension of the oceans towards to the land areas. Sea is continuous salt-water body
having numerous inland extension or embayment. Exceptionally deep seas with an average
depth of more than 4kms are commonly known as oceans.
The apparent calm seawater is affected by periodic disturbances (rise and fall) called tides and
irregular disturbances grouped as waves.
The land area adjoining the sea commonly referred as coast. Seashore is a term given to that
part of the land adjoining to the sea, which lies between high water level and low water level.
Seawater will normally transgress beyond seashore and such a demarcation between land and
sea makes the shoreline of the area.
All the geological works such as erosion, transportation, deposition performed by sea are due to
wave, tide, and current action of sea water.
Sea waves are described as undulatory disturbances on the surface seawater caused by strong
rushing wind, earthquake where water particles are moving in a circular pattern before coming
to rest again.
Currents - These are layers or strips of seawater that are actually pushed forward in a particular
direction. They are the result of disposal of the extra volume of water thrust on the shore by
advancing waves.
Tide- is the periodic rise and fall of sea due to the pull exerted by the sun and moon on the earth.
The bulge of water thus produced moves round the earth as the moon rotates.
3.3.1 Sea erosion

Erosion by seawater is accomplished in 3 ways
(1) Hydraulic action

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(2) Abrasion
(3) Corrosion
Some common features of sea erosion are
(1) Head lands and bays (2) Sea cliff (3) Plate form or wave cut terrace
(1) Head lands and bays: If originally uniformly sloping shore line is composed of material of
unequal resistance, the stronger rocks stand out as head lands, where as the softer and fractured
rocks are quickly eroded by the waves and the areas are changed into bays.
(2) Sea cliff is seaward facing steep front of a moderately high shoreline. It is the first stage of
the work of waves on the shore rocks. Fig (3.6) shows sea cliff and a wave cut terrace
(3) A wave cut terrace is a shallow water shelf slopes gently seaward and carved out of the
shore rocks by advancing waves. These waves first cut a notch where they strike against the
cliff rocks. The notch is gradually deepened so much that a part of the over hanging cliff
becomes unsupported from below and falls. A plat form is thus created and which is also called
a wave-cut terrace.
sea cliff
Fig (3.6) sea cliff and wave-cut terrace. H.T.L = Higher tide level and L.T.L = lower tide
level. P = Plat form or wave cut terrace
3.3.2 Transportation
The eroded rock particles are carried by the sea in 2 ways. These are (1) In solution form
(2) In suspension form.
3.3.3 Sea deposition

Seas are generally regarded as the most important and extensive sedimentation basins. Sea or
ocean deposits are broadly classified into two. These are:
(1) Sallow water or Neritic deposits eg. Beach - is the deposit near the shore made by sea from
eroded material. Spit is ridge shaped deposit of sand often extended incompletely across the
embayment. If it is complete and closes the bay it is called bar.
(2) Deep water or pelagic deposits. eg. Coral reef
3.3.4 Engineering consideration of the work of sea.

31
Engineers engaged in harbour maintenance or improvement or those who are carrying out their
work near the sea shore face either of the following two problems as a result of the wave action.
(1) Erosion of seashore or harbour structures.
(2) Silting up of harbour.
The protective measures, for erosion, to be adopted depend up on the direction and strength of
the waves as well as nature of the coast at particular site. When waves erode the harbour
structures protection walls are made in order to prevent the erosion and destruction of the
harbour structure.
When waves carry particles towards the shore, siltation increases on the harbour. To prevent
siltation barriers are constructed in the sea, which considerably reduces the velocity of the
waves, and thus the rock particles deposited beyond the barriers and are carried back towards
the sea.
3.4 Geologic work of wind

Atmosphere is composed of gases and these gases collectively known as air. Air in motion is
called wind. Wind is one of the agents of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
3.4.1 Wind erosion
Erosive works of wind are 3 types. These are deflation, abrasion, and attrition.
(1) Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles of sand and dust by fast wind. In desert
areas deflation may remove the sand from a particular location to such extent that a depression
of small or large size is created and the base eventually touching the water table. Such
depressions with shallow water table are called blowouts. But deeper water filled depression is
called oasis. Fig. (3.7) shows oasis
Fig. (3.7) oasis
(2) Abrasion- during dust storms the wind carries minute grains of sand in suspension. They
scoure, abrad and collide against the exposed rock masses and cause erosion. This process in
which sand grains are used as tools for eroding rock is called abrasion.
(3) Attrition-The particles that travel with wind collide against one another. This mutual
collisions lead to their further break down and the process is called attrition.
Features of wind erosion

There are some features of wind erosion. These are (1) Ventifacts or Driekenters

32
(2) Pedestal or mushroom rocks.
(1) Ventifacts or Driekenters

Small rock fragments lying in the path of abrading winds may soon become faceted and
polished in one or more directions. Such wind-carved fragments of the deserts are called
Ventifacts or Driekenters. The latter one is used specially when the Ventifacts show three
polished faces on them. Fig (3.8) shows ventifacts or driekenters
Fig. (3.8) Ventifacts or driekenters
(2) Pedestal or mush room rocks are flat-topped rock bodies, which have very thin supporting
lower regions. They are generally a few meters high. Fig (3.9) shows mushroom rocks
W=
Fig. 3.9 mushroom rock
3.4.2 Wind transportation

Wind carries its load either in suspension or by the process called saltation. The finer dust and
silt particles may be lifted up high in the upper regions of the wind and moved along with it.
This type of transport by the wind is called transport in suspension form. Where as sands and
heavier particles are transported in a series of jumps and they merely roll along the ground. This
process by which sand travels by series of jumps is called saltation. Each particle suffers a fall

33
after reaching the maximum height and transmits an impact on the particle on which it strikes
while settling down. This impact is commonly sufficient in magnitude to displace the next
particle and make it available for a lift by the wind.
3.4.3 Wind deposition

Sediments picked up by the wind from any source are carried forward to different distances
depending upon the carrying capacity of the wind. Whenever velocity of wind is checked a part
or whole of the load is laid down or deposited. Wind deposits are commonly called Aeolian
deposits. The rock particles in the Aeolian deposits are generally well rounded and are sorted
out according to their size and weight. There are two main types of Aeolian deposits. These are:
(1) sand dunes (2) Loess
(1) Dunes: These are wind deposits made up of sand grade particles. A dune is defined as any
mound or ridge of sand with a crest. A normal type of dune is generally developed when
velocity of sand-ladden wind is checked partially by some obstruction. A normal dune is
characterized by a gentle windward side and a steeper leeward side. Their outline and
orientation are controlled by the wind velocity, duration, and variation in the wind direction.
The sand deposits may acquire a regular or irregular shape. Fig (3.10) shows dunes
Fig. (3.10) Normal dunes. W= wind direction, WW= wind ward, LW= Lee ward and
C=crest
Types of sand dunes

The common types of sand dunes are longitudinal, transverse, and barchans.
(a) Longitudinal dunes: They are also called Seifs because it appears like Arab sword and are
elongated ridges of sand with their longer axes broadly parallel to the direction of the prevailing
wind. Their formation favoured by constant wind direction in regions with dry climate and
small supply of sand. They may have height up to 100mts and length up to 90km. Fig (3.11)
shows longitudinal dunes.

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Fig. (3.11) Longitudinal dunes. W=wind direction
(b) Transverse dunes: They have longer axis at right angles to the direction of the prevailing
wind. They are formed in the areas where strong winds prevail and more sand is available. eg.
Seashore areas
(c) The barchans- are crescent shaped dunes where the convex side faces the wind direction.
The horns and wings of the crescent point in the direction of the wind. Barchans are formed
where the wind is nearly unidirectional. They occur in groups where sand is available in plenty.
They have a gentle windward slope and much steeper leeward slope. Fig (3.12)
Fig. (3.12) Barchans dune

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(2) Loess
Fine particles such as silt and clay are carried high up in the wind in a state of suspension for
considerable distances. Their deposition normally takes place when the wind becomes moist due
to precipitation. Thus a rain intervening the movement of a dust-ladden wind will cause these
finer sediments to settle down in the ground below. Such deposits are called Loess. It is
characterized by absence of stratification or layered structure. e.g. Loess in North China. (200-
300mts thick)
3.4.4 Engineering consideration of the work of wind

In general no site is selected for any type of important work on the dunes because dunes are
always source of trouble. In sand dune areas or in towns situated in close vicinity of deserts a
major civil engineering problem is due to the migration of sand dunes. Dunes may travel for
considerable distances and bury forests, agricultural lands and make life condition severe.
Methods commonly used at present for combating the advancing sand and thus protecting the
towns, agricultural lands and high ways passing through dune area include:
(1) Establishing sand tolerant vegetation. E.g. grass, conifers
(2) Construction of the wind breaks or walls around the areas to be protected.
(3) Treating the sand with crude oil where transport by the wind is considerably
reduced.
In the case of loess it has been observed that upon construction loads are exerted and as the
result this makes the loess to settle down when the loess is wetted. This forms dangerous
foundation condition especially for dams.
3.5 Geologic work of glaciers

A glacier is a thick mass of ice, which moves over the ground under the influence of gravity. It
originates on the land from the compaction and recrystallization of snow. They are formed
chiefly in high latitudes as in the Arctic regions or at higher elevations as in the Himalayan
mountains above the snow line. The snow line is the lowest level up to which glacier extends
without melting.
Types of glaciers- There are 3 kinds of glaciers. These are: (1) Valley glaciers
(2) Piedmont glaciers
(3) Ice sheet
(1) Valley glaciers: The glaciers, which originate near the crests of high mountains and
move along the valleys just like rivers, are called valley glaciers. Also they are termed
mountain glaciers. E.g. Alpine glaciers
(2) Piedmont glaciers: At the end of hilly region, a number of valley glaciers may unit to
form a comparatively thick sheet of ice. Such a compound glacier is called Piedmont
glacier.
(3) Ice sheets: These are massive accumulation of ice covering extensive areas. They are
often very thick that all surface features except the high peaks stand buried under them.
The two well-known ice sheets of our earth are the Antarctic ice sheet and Green land
ice sheet.

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3.5.1 Glacier erosion
Glaciers cause erosion in 3 ways
1. By plucking or Quarrying
2. By abrasion
3. By frost wedging
Some features of glacier erosion are:
1. Striations 2. U-shaped valley 3. Hanging valley 4. Cirques 5. Serrate ridges
6. Roches moutonne 7. Fiords
3.5.2 Transportation by glaciers

Glaciers in 3 ways transport the material or load as described below
(1) As super glacial load
(2) As englacial load
(3) As sub glacial load
3.5.3 Glacial deposits

There are mainly two types of glacial deposits. These are:
1. Till: These are deposited directly by the glacier, which are the mixture of
sand,clay, pebbles and boulders. They are also unsorted, unsratified and
heterogeneous in composition.
2. Fluvioglacial or out wash deposits: These are deposited by glacial melt water.
They are well sorted and stratified accumulation of silt, sand, and gravel.
There are various types of glacial depositional land features. These are:
1. Morains
2. Kettle holes 2. Drumlins 3. Eskers 4.Kames 5. Varves 6. Buried valley
3.5.4 Engineering considerations

Glacial deposits are among the most heterogeneous types of materials as far as their engineering
properties are concerned. Hence they are dangerous and must be avoided.
There is also the possibility of occurrence of highly compressible clay layer. Hence such site
would be obviously unsafe as foundation.

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CHAPTER IV: STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ROCKS, LANDSLIDE AND EARTH
QUAKES
4.1. Introduction
Structural Geology is the study of the origin, occurrence, classification and effects of various
secondary structures like folds, faults and joints.
Primary structures are those structures, which are developed in a body of a rock during its
formation. E.g. bedding for sedimentary rocks, flow structure for lava.
Secondary structures- The modification of the original shape, arrangement and development
of new forms in the rock body subsequent to its formation are termed secondary structures.
The forces most commonly responsible for development of secondary structures are tectonic in
nature eg. Faulting, folding N-Tectonic causes also responsible for some secondary structures
eg. Intrusion of magma, loading due to over burden.
4.2. Definition of some basic terms
Out crop- is the exposure of solid rock on the surface of the earth. It is also used as a general
term to refer to exposed folds, faults, joints etc.
Dip- is the maximum angle of slope of bed of rock with the horizontal. It is expressed both in
terms of degree of inclination and direction of inclination.
Strike- is direction of intersection of bedding plane with a horizontal plane. True dip is
measured in a direction at right angle to strike of bedding plane.
Diastrophism- refers to movements of the solid rock of the earth’s crust. An example is the
relative displacement of the rocks on both sides of a fracture along which slippage has occurred
is called a fault. Some times a crustal segment subjected to a stress may flow instead of faulting;
thus folds in rock strata result from gradual horizontal compression..
4.3 Folds
Folds are bends or curvature or undulations developed in the horizontal rocks of the earth’s
crust a result of compressive stresses.
4.3.1 Parts of fold
1. Limbs- are the layers which form the sides of fold after buckling
2. Axial plane- is the imaginary plane, which divides folds as symmetrically as possible. It
may be vertical, inclined or horizontal.

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3. Axis of fold- is the line of intersection of the axial plane with the bed of fold. It may be
horizontal or inclined or vertical.
4. Crest- curved portion of the fold at the top.
5. Trough- curved portion of the fold at the bottom.
6. Plunge- the axis of a fold may be horizontal or inclined. The angle of inclination of the
fold axis with the horizontal as measured in a vertical plane is termed as pitch or plunge
of the fold. Fig (4.1)
4.3.2 Causes of folding
1. Folding due to tangential compression

2. Folding due to intrusion of magma or salt bodies
3. Folding due to differential compaction.
4.3.3 Types of folds
Most important types of folds are

(1) Folds that are recognized by upward or downward curvature. These are syncline and
anticline.
(i) Anticline and (ii) Syncline

(ii) Anticline fold - the beds bent upward i.e. become convex upward
1. The older rocks occupy a position in the interior or core of
curvature
2. The limbs dip away from each other at the crest.
(ii) Syncline fold – are just opposite to anticline in its nature
(2) Folds that are recognized on the basis of position of axial plane. These include:
(i) Symmetrical fold: is the fold in which the vertical axial plane divides it into two
equal halves. Fig (4.2)
(ii) Asymmetrical fold is the fold in which the axial plane divides the fold into two unequal
parts. Fig (4.3)
(iii) Recumbent folds: these are folds in which the axial plane acquires almost horizontal
attitude. In such folds limbs are more or less horizontal. Fig (4.4)
(iv) Over turned folds: A fold in which the axial plane is inclined with the horizontal and
the limbs dip out at unequal angles in the same direction, is called over turned fold.
Fig (4.4)
(v) Isoclinal fold: A fold, in which the axial plane is inclined with the horizontal and the
limbs dip essentially at equal angles in the same direction is called an Isoclinal fold.
Fig. (4.5)
4.3.4 Effects of folding

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1. Folding causes shattering in rocks, especially in axial regions, that reduces rocks bearing
capacity. Hence shattered rocks are not suitable to be used as foundation rock.
2. Shattering due to folding makes the rocks permeable. This causes a great trouble in tunnels
and in dams.
3. Folded rocks are generally under considerable strain. Excavation through them may become
risky. Because this will result in the release of pressure that may be accompanied by slips of
blocks causing rock burst.
4. Folding induces change in the altitude of the rocks and this may lead to the repetition of
same beds or encounter of some unexpected rocks in any given alignment.
4.4 Faults
Faults are fractures along which the movement of one block with respect to the other has taken
place.
4.4.1 Parts of faults
Fault plane: the plane along which rupture has actually taken place and one block has move d
with respect to the other.
Fault trace or out crop: is the line of intersection of the fault plane with the ground surface.
Hanging wall: is the block above the fault plane.
Foot wall: is the block below the fault plane.
Dip of fault plane: is the inclination of fault plane with the horizontal and it has amount in
angles and direction.
The hade of fault plane: is the inclination of the fault plane with the vertical.
Throw: is the vertical displacement between the hanging wall and the footwall.
Heave: is the horizontal displacement between the hanging wall and the footwall.
(Fig. 4.6)
4.4.2 Causes of faulting

Faulting is caused by shearing stress.
4.4.3. Common types of faults

These are (i) Normal faults (ii) Reverse faults (iii) Trancurrent fault (iv) Vertical faults
(i) Normal faults: are faults in which hanging wall has apparently moved down with respect to
the footwall. Fig (4.7)
(ii) Reverse faults: are faults in which the hanging wall has apparently gone up relative to the
footwall. Fig (4.8)
(iii) Transcurrent faults: are faults in which blocks have moved relative to each other
essentially in horizontal direction. Fig (4.9)
(iv) Vertical faults: are faults in which the adjacent blocks have moved relative to each
upward or down ward. Fig (4.10)

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4.4.4 Recognition of faults:
Very common and important field evidence of faulting are

a) Presence of slickensides
b) Abrupt termination of strata
c) Repetition and omission of strata
d) Aligned spring
e) Offset of streams
4.4.5 Effects of faults
1. Faults cause considerable fracturing and shattering of rock along fault zones. This will
reduce the bearing capacity of rocks at foundation site.
2. The shear zones and fault zones serves as easy pathways for water. These can cause
leakage.
3. Since faults bring totally different rocks together, hence such areas cannot have any
homogeneity or uniformity of physical character. Foundations across these areas are
undesirable.
4. In some cases where the dip direction of the fault plane and the surface slope occur in
the same direction, landslides may occur.
4.5 Joints
Joints are divisional planes or fractures in the body of rocks along which there has been no
relative movement.
4.5.1 Nature of joints
Joints may be opened or closed. Open joints are those in which the blocks are separated or
opened up for small widths in a direction at right angle to the fracture surface. In close
joints, there is no separation (i.e. filled with secondary materials)
Joints may have either smooth or rough surface. And also they are may be straight or curved
in out line.
Joints may extend through the whole or a portion of the rock, hence it is termed continuous.
It may disappear at shallow depth and hence termed as discontinuous joints.
Joint set is a number of joints having the same orientation. Joint system is a system in which
two or more joint sets intersect at constant angle.
If a few sets of joints appear for a considerable length in a rock, such joints are called major
joints or master joints.

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4.5.2 Types of Joints
Common types of joint are
(1) Strike joints- are joints in which the joint sets strike in the same direction as the
bedding planes of the rock.
(2) Dip joints- are joints that strike parallel to the dip of the bedding planes of the
rock.
(3) Oblique joints- are those joints where the strike of the joints makes an oblique
angle with the strike of the bedding planes of the rock.
4.5.3 Effects of joints
1. Since joints are a set of cracks they act as planes of complete breakage. Hence this
reduces the bearing capacity of the rocks. Heavily jointed rocks areas are not used as
foundation site.
2. Joints can percolate water down to the ground. Hence they are source of leakage through
rocks. If heavily jointed rocks forming the foundation for dam or reservoir in the
shallow water table area, then leakage from the reservoir and from the dam may become
so heavy. Also this leakage may cause decay of rocks.
3. When the dip direction of joint planes and the surface slope occur in the same direction
in association with argillaceous rocks, joints may cause sever landslides along hill
slopes.
4.6 Land Slides
All movements of land masses are referred to as earth movements.

All types of earth movements may be classified as (i) earth flows, (ii) land slides and (iii)
subsidence.
Solifluction
Earth flows Creep
Rapid flows
Debris slides and slump

Earth movements Land slides Rockslides
Rock falls
Plastic out flows

Subsidence compaction
Collapse.
Earth flow is the land mass movement, which is distributed through the displaced mass.
There are 3 types of earth flows, namely, solifluction, creep and rapid flows.
Solifluction: refers to the downward movement of wet soil along the slopes under the influence
of gravity.
Creep: refers to the extremely slow downward movement of dry surfacial matter. It is always
limited to the surface.

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Rapid flows are similar to creep but differ with respect to the speed and depth of the material
involved is considerable.
Subsidence
This essentially represents vertically the down ward movement of the surface. Subsidence may
take place due to plastic out flow of underlying strata, or due to the compaction of underlying
material or due to collapse.
Landslide: is the down ward movement of landmass along the slope under the influence of
gravity confined to definite shearing plane. There are 3 types of landslides. These are debris
slides, rock slides and rock falls.
Debris slides are the failures of unconsolidated material on a surface of rupture. They are
common along the steep sides of rivers, lakes, etc. Debris slides of small magnitude are called
slumps. Slump is often accompanied by complementary bulges at the toe.
Rockslides are the movements of essentially consolidated material, which mainly consists of
recently detached bedrock.
Rock falls refer to the blocks of rocks of varying sizes suddenly crashing down ward (from
cliff) along steep slopes. These are common along steep shorelines and in the higher mountain
regions, during the rainy season.
4.6.1 Causes of Landslides
The inherent or internal causes of landslides are associated with influence of slope, water,
constituent lithology, geological structure, and human factors.
Effect of slope
Steeper slopes are prone to land slides of loose over burdens, due to gravity influence; where as
gentle slopes are not prone to land slides.
However, it should be remembered that hard consolidated and fresh rocks remain stable even
against any slope.
Effect of water
Water adversely affects the stability of the loose ground in different ways as follows:
1. Its presence greatly reduces the intergranular cohesion of the particles of loose ground.
2. A film or thin sheet of water above the under lying hard rocks acts as a lubricating
medium between the soft and hard strata, and induces down ward movement in the
overlying loose material along its own direction of flow.
3. A thin band of clayey matter at the interface of loose overlying material and underlying
hard rock becomes very plastic in the presence of water, and may form a slippery base.
This further enhances the chance of loose over burden to slip down wards.

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4. Along steep slopes the presence of water in loose, unconsolidated material adds to its
weight, there by increasing the influence of gravity, which, in turn promotes land slides
occurrence.
Effect of lithology
1. Rocks, which are highly fractured, porous and permeable, are prone to land slides
occurrence.
2. Rocks, which are rich in clay, mica, calcite glauconite, gypsum, rock salt and calcareous
cementing materials, are more prone to landslide occurrence.
3. Thinner strata are more susceptible to sliding than thicker strata.
4. A sequence of strata having thin, soft and weak beds lying in between hard and thick
beds provide a chance for land slides occurrence.
Effect of associated structures
Planes of weakness such as inclined bedding planes, joints, fault it their dip direction coincides
with that of the surface slope they can create good conditions for landslide.
Effects of land slides
From engineering practice point of view, if land slides occur at vulnerable places, they may
cause
i- Disruption of transport or blocking of communications by damaging roads,

railways and telegraph poles
ii- Obstruction to the river flow in valleys, leading to their over flow and floods:
iii- Damage to sewer and other pipe lines
iv- Burial or destruction of buildings and other constructions.
4.6.2 Preventive measures for land slides
1- To counter the effect of slope

Retaining walls may be constructed against the slopes. Terracing of the slope is another
effective measure for landslide.
2- To counter the effect of water.

A Proper drainage system is the suitable measure. Construction of surface drainage such as
suitable ditches and trenches along slopes. Construction of subsurface drainage such as
tunnels and deep-water wells help to drain off water from the ground.
3- To counter the structural defects

Their defects may be either covered or grouted suitably so that they are effectively sealed
off.
4- To counter the loose nature of over burden: Growing vegetation, plants and shrubs on loose
ground helps in keeping the loose soil together.

44
5- Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations near the vulnerable places naturally helps in
preventing the occurrence land slides.
4.7 Earth quake
An earthquake may be described as a sudden shaking phenomenon that creates irregularities

on the earth’s surface. The intensity of this shaking may be too insignificant or it may be
highly catastrophic. The study of earthquake is known as “ seismology”. The records of
earth quakes are known as” Seismograms” and the recording instruments are known as
“seismographs” (In Greek, seismos means shaking.)
4.7.1 Earthquake terminology
- The place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earthquake is known as focus
or hypocenter.
- The place on the earth’s surface, which lies exactly above the focus of the earthquake is
known as the epicenter. The point on the earth’s surface diametrically opposite to the
epicenter is called the anticentre.
- The imaginary line, which joins the center (focus) and the epicenter is called the
seismic vertical. This represents the minimum distance, which the earthquake has to
travel to reach the surface of the earth.
- An imaginary line joining the points of the same intensity of the earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
- An imaginary line which joins the points at which the earth quake waves have arrived
at the earth’s surface at the same time is called a “ coseismal”.
4.7.2 Classifications and causes of earthquakes
Earthquake can be classified based on
- the depth of the focus

- the causes responsible for their occurrence.
Based on the depth of their origin earth quakes can be classified into 3 groups. These are
- Shallow earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus less than 60 km.
- Intermediate earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus between 60km and 300
km.
- Deep earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus greater than 300 km.
Earthquakes with a depth of focus greater than 700 km are extremely rare.
Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence, earthquakes are described as tectonic
or non-tectonic.

45
- Tectonic earthquakes are exclusively due to internal causes, i.e., due to disturbances of
geological formations taking place in the earth’s interior. Generally they are less
frequent, but more intensive and hence more destructive in nature.
- Non-tectonic earthquakes are generally due to external or surfacial causes. This type of
earthquake is very frequent, but minor in intensity and hence generally not destructive
in nature. Such earth quakes occur due to a variety of reasons, some of which are as
follows:
1. Due to huge water falls
2. Due to avalanches
3. Due to meteorites
4. Due to the occurrence of sudden and major landslides.
5. Due to volcanic eruptions
6. Due to tsunamis
7. Due to man made explosions
8. Due to collapse of caves, tunnels etc.
9. Due to dams and reservoirs.
4.7.3 Seismic belts and shield areas
Seismic belts are those places where earthquakes occur frequently and shields areas are
those places where earthquakes occur rarely. Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an
indication of under ground instability there.
Generally instability of the earth is common in subduction Zones, in mountains building

regions, and in mid oceanic ridges and in rift valley.
Earth quakes occur frequently in the principal seismic belts on the earth’s surface-these are
1. Circum – pacific belt: the belt that encircles the Pacific Ocean that accounts about
68% of earthquake occurrence.
2. Alpine – Himalayan belt: This belt starts from the east India and passes through the
Himalayan foothill region to the alpine mountain arcs of Europe. This belt accounts
for 25% of earthquake occurrences.
A minor belt of epicenters occurs along the mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.
4.7.4 Intensity of earthquake

The intensity of earthquake refers to the degree of destruction caused by it. The intensity at
a given place depends on the following factors. These are
1. Distance from the epicenter.

2. Compactness of the underlying ground
3. Type of construction
4. Magnitude of earth quake
5. Duration of earthquake
6. Depth of the focus.
The modified Mercalli scale of earthquake intensities has 12 divisions. This scale takes into
account the factor of acceleration produced during earthquake.

46
4.7.1 Magnitude of the earthquake
It is the measure of the amount of energy released by the earthquake. This released energy
(E) travels in the form of seismic waves through the subsurface geological formations. Part
of the energy is absorbed by the medium and part of it reaches the recording station.
There is relation ship between magnitude of earthquake (M), energy released (E), and
acceleration of the ground (a).
i.e log E
10 = 4.4 + 2.14M − 0.054M 2 . In this equation E is obtained from the formula
E = C ( a / h) (D 2 + h 2 )
Where E = the total amount of energy released.

a = the ground acceleration
h = depth of focus.
D = distance of the recording station from the epicenter
C = a constant, equal to 0.625
Earthquakes may have Richter magnitude from 3 to 9 (the maximum known is 8.9 only), but
no shock smaller than 5 causes severe damage. Magnitude 2 is the smallest tremor that can
be felt.

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CHAPTER V : SITE EXPLORATION
6.1 Introduction
Exploration is the scientific investigation of the site to find out the properties of the material in
the ground as engineering parameters in designing the engineering structure.
The site investigations are usually carried out by two methods. These are
(i) Field or in site exploration
(ii) Laboratory investigation
In this chapter we are more interested in dealing with field exploration than laboratory
examination.
The objectives of field explorations are
- Identification and determination of depth, thickness, extent and composition of each soil
stratum.
- Identification and location of rock formation.
- Identification of geological structural features like faults, joints, bedding planes, folds,
solution channels etc, in the rock beds.
- Locating of ground water table.
- In-situ measurement of strength and other engineering properties of strata
The stages in the investigation of site for construction are:

1. Collection of available information i.e., preliminary or reconnaissance survey
2. Field matching of reconnaissance survey
3. Detailed exploration
6.2 Types of field explorations

There are two types of field explorations. These are
1. Indirect method
2. Direct method
1. Indirect methods of explorations (Geophysical methods)

These include a. Seismic reflection and refraction method
b. Electrical resistivity method
c. Magnetic method.
d. Radiometric method
e. Gravity method
f. Bore hole logging
g. Electromagnetic method
2. Direct methods of explorations

These include a. Test-pits, trenches, shafts, tunnels or drifts.
b. Bore holes and drill holes
Test- pits, trenches, shafts, tunnels or drifts

- Excavation of trial pits and trenches is a simple and reliable method of exploration but it is
limited to shallow depths, up to 3m.

48
- Pits and trenches have a great advantage over borings, in that strata can be visually
examined, large samples can be easily collected, or tests may be made insitu. Excavation is
usually carried out manually.
- If Trial pits are deeper than 3m, they will be shaft which is properly supported by timber or
steel shuttering.
- Test trenches are used to provide a continuous exposure of the substrata.
- Tunnels or drifts are used to explore areas beneath the steep slopes, or on the back of cliff
like places.
- For depth over about 6m and particularly below ground water table, boreholes are more
commonly used than pits or shafts.
B) Exploration by drilling bore holes or drill holes
1) Hand auger and power auger borings

2) Wash boring
3) Percussion drilling (cable tool) machine drilled holes
4) Rotary drilling machine drilled holes.
1) Hand auger and power auger borings
Hand auger borings

Hand augers can be used to excavate bore holes to depths of about 6m in favorable types of
soils, which have sufficient cohesion to stand unsupported in an unlined bore hole and are free
from coarse gravel and other obstruction.
There are two common types of hand augers. These are (i) Post-hole auger, which has up to 200
mm diameter, and (ii) The small helical or spiral auger, which has 50 mm diameter. The auger
is rotated and pressed down into the soil by means of T-handle on the upper rod. When the
blades are loaded with all the soil that can be held, the auger is withdrawn and the soil is
removed. As the hole progresses down wards, extension rods are added to the auger.
Power auger borings
For deeper explorations, power (mechanical) operated augers may be used. There are two
common types of power-operated augers. These are the short flight screw auger and continuous
flight screw augers. Small portable power augers are suitable for making 10-15m deep bore
holes ranging from 75mm to 300 mm in diameter. Continuous flight augers can be used to
auger up to depths of 30m.
2) Washing boring
In wash boring, water is pumped through a string of hollow drill rods called the ‘wash pipe’.
Water issued and jetted under pressure through narrow holes in a chisel attached to the lower
end of the wash pipe. The wash pipe is moved up and down or rotated by hand. The soil is
loosened and broken up by the water jets and the up-and-down movement and rotation of the
chisel. The water carries the soil up through the annular space between the wash pipe and the
side of the borehole. The washing fluid is allowed to settle in a pond or tank at the ground level

49
and the fluid is re-circulated again. The borehole is generally cased. Drilling mud may be used
in place of water, eliminating the need for casing.
A soil sample is taken at every change of soil formation by tube sampler attached to the drill
rod.
3) Percussion (cable tool) drilling machine drilled hole: This drilling method is done by
breaking up of formation by repeated blows a tool bit or chisel bit. Water should be added to
the hole at the time of drilling and the debris should be bailed out at intervals by means of a
bailer or sand pipe. The bit may be suspended by means of cable or rods from a walking beam.
It possible to take samples at suitable intervals in ground by employing sampling equipment.
But in soft ground the samples may not be reliable since the percussion action disturbs them.
4) Rotary drilling machine drilled holes: Rotary drilling methods are suitable for drilling in rocks
and soils. This method is used to drill holes from 2-5 cm to more than a meter diameter depth.
There are two types this method. These are:
I. Mud rotary drilling (uncased hole): In this system, drilling is done by the cutting action
of a rotary bit, which is kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. The bit is
attached to the end of a hollow, jointed drill string (drill rods), which is rotated by a
suitable check (prime mover). A mixture of water and bentonite clay or cement-water is
pumped continuously down the hollow drill rods and the fluid returns to the surface
through the annular space between the rods and side of the hole. This fluid makes mud
cake on the side of the hole and there fore the protective casing may not be necessary.
The return (out) flow brings the cutting to the surface
II. Cone drilling (cased)

Core drilling is used for obtaining rock cores. A core barrel fitted with a drill bit is
attached to a string of hollow drill rods and is rotated in the hole. As the bit advances, the
rock core passes in to the core barrel and is retained by the core lifter. Continuous
pumping of water through the drill rods keeps the bit cool and brings the disintegrated
material to the surface.
If a diamond bit is used, it is called Diamond core drilling. If a steel bit is used, it is
called chilled shot core drilling (calyx drilling)
Diamond core drilling is superior to calyx drilling.

If diameter of drill hole is greater than 15cm, calyx drilling is recommendable.
6.3 Investigation of Dam site
A Dam is a solid barrier, which is constructed across a river to store water. A dam is
built mainly
1) To store water for irrigation
2) To generate hydro electric power
3) To supply water to industries
4) To supply water for domestic use
5) To Control flood

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6) To control Siltation
A dam that serves more than one purpose is called a multi purpose Dam.
6.3.1 Parts of dams
Heel: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the up stream side.
Toe: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the down stream side.
Abutments: These are the sloping sides of the valley on which the dam structure rests.
Galleries: These are small rooms or openings with in the dam for draining water
seeping through the face or the foundation, act as openings to drill grout and
drainage holes. They provide access to equipment with in the dam. They are also
used for observing dams performance.
Spillway: It is a structure constructed to discharge the surplus water from storage or
reservoir into the river on the down stream side of the dam.
Axis of the dam: An imaginary line that passes along the length of a crest of a dam
through its center. Fig (1)
6.3.2 Types of dams

Depending on the materials used in the construction, dams are classified into 3
divisions.
1) Concrete or Masonry dams (2) Rock-fill dams (3) Earth- fill dams.
The concrete or masonry dams are usually built to big heights. The earth dams are
however used for small projects with small heights.
Concrete or masonry dams are classified into 4 types based on the method of their
design.
(1) Gravity dam (2) Arch dam (3) Buttress dam (4) Coffer dams
1. Gravity dam: This dam has heavy and massive wall like concrete or masonry
structure in which the whole weight acts vertically down ward and it stands by its
own weight. The entire force acting on the dam wall is transmitted to small area of
the foundation. Therefore a sound foundation rock is required for the construction of
gravity dam. Fig (2)
2. Arch dam: This dam has an arch shape, which is always convex in the upstream
side. The shape or design of an arch dam transmits the water pressure to the
abutments by the arching action. Hence, very strong rocks are required in the
abutments for the construction of the arch dam. Fig (3)
3. Buttress dam: This is concrete structure in which there is a deck sloping upstream.
This deck, which takes the entire load, supported from behind by walls called
buttresses, extending perpendicular to the axis of the dam from down stream side.
Fig (4)
4. Coffer dam: these are small wall like structure made for diverting of the river water
before construction of the main dam.
Forces acting on dam
(a) Vertical Static forces: These are forces, which act vertically down ward due to the
weight of the dam, the water in reservoir, and sediments settled from the water.
(b) Horizontal forces: These are forces acting on the dam due to the lateral pressure of
water and silt deposited in the reservoir behind the dam in the upstream side.

51
(c) Pore pressure: The water entering into the permeable rocks below the dam exerts
an upward pressure on the base of dam. This pressure, which is equivalent to the
hydrostatic pressure, is called the pore water pressure or the up lift pressure. Pore
pressure acts against the weight of the dam and thus tends to slide or over turn the
dam on its base.
(d) Earthquake forces: These are dynamic forces, which may act away or towards the
dam.
6.3.4 Geological considerations in the selection of a dam site
The important geological requirements, which should be considered in the selection of a

dam site, are as follows:
1. Narrow river valley
2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation
4. Proper geological structures
6.3.5 Problems Associated with dam sites

Most of the dam failures that have occurred in the past are not due to faulty design or
construction but mainly due to the negligence of the geological considerations. The main
geological problems that are usually met at the dam sites are as follows:
(1) Problems, which are related to incompetence of rocks. These include
(i) Dams on shale
(ii) Dams on soluble rocks
(2) Problems which are related to improper geological structures

(iii) Dam on strata dipping up stream.
(iv) Dam on strata dipping down stream.
(v) Dam built across strike of rocks.
(vi) Dam on jointed and permeable rocks.
(vii) Dam on faults
(3) Problems associated with abutments
(i) Dam on shale

Shale is soft rock and when saturated with water under pressure likely produces
lubricating material making a slippery base. Shale’s bearing capacity is low and
it becomes plastic when wetted. Hence shale has a tendency to flow away from
the loaded area and then the structure settles. Swelling and caving may result
during the excavation work, which may cause trouble. Therefore construction of
dam on shale is not recommended and it should be avoided. To improve this
foundation site excavation of shale should be done and then either concrete (hard
rock) should be placed immediately without delay or its surface should be coated
with asphalt to avoid swelling and caving.
(ii) Dam on soluble rocks. The soluble rocks include limestone, dolomite, and
marble. These rocks are generally strong to support the weight of the dam. But
they may contain underground openings.
(iii) Dam on strata dipping up stream:

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If a dam is located on the beds dipping upstream, these beds are the most capable
of supporting the weight of the dam and water pressure of the reservoir, because
the resultant of these two forces acts nearly at right angles to the bedding planes
of the rocks. Also the up stream dip of the rock does not allow the water in the
reservoir to percolate below the dam. As a result, the leakage of water and the
development of the up lift pressure will be minimum Fig (5)
(iv) Dam on strata dipping down stream

Dams built on rock beds dipping down stream are not safe due to the following reasons
(a) The percolating water may cause lubrication along the bedding plane, which may
facilitate sliding of the dam.
(b) The water percolating through the strata dissolves the cementing materials of the
rock beds and enlarges the openings by mechanical erosion. This undermines the
strength of the rocks and increases the seepage of water.
(c) The water, which enters the openings of the rocks below the dam, causes uplift
pressure that tends to decrease the stability of the structure.
(d) The resultant force R, which is due to the weight of the dam and the horizontal water
pressure acts nearly parallel to the bedding planes and endangers the stability of the
dam. Fig (6)
(v) Dam built across the strike of the rocks
The best foundation condition is when only one type of uniform rock is present along
the entire length and width of the dam.
If a dam is aligned across the strike of the strata, then its foundation will be on different
rock types of varying properties. This situation leads to unequal settlements of the dam
foundation. As the bedding planes of the strata lie across the axis of the dam there is
possibility of series leakage of water, not only through the porous beds, but through the
bedding planes also. Fig (7)
(vi) Dams on jointed and permeable rocks
When fissured, fractured and jointed rocks exist in the foundations may cause leakage of
water through them and uplift pressure takes place. Uplift pressure may cause sliding of
the dam. This is because up lift pressure acts opposite to the weight of the structure.
There fore such rocks are to be consolidated by grouting. Grouting is a method by
which suitable mixture of cement and water or cement-calcium chloride, is injected into
the rocks to seal the openings. Grouting is done to consolidate the rock and to stop
seepage of water through them.
(vii) Dam on fault

Faults are most trouble sources if they are active, dipping down stream and encountered
across the length of the dam. The fault zones cause the following problems:
(a) A fault zone causes leakage of water and it is difficult to seal these fault zones at
reasonable cost.
(b) The rocks may be weathered up to a great depth along a fault zone. This requires
digging and excavating out the weathered rock and refilling the trench with
concrete.

53
(c) The crushed and fissured rocks that exist along a fault zone are not competent in
the foundation. Hence they have to be grouted intensively to increase their
bearing capacity.
(d) Along a fault, some displacement of strata is always expected, particularly during
an earthquake. Such a movement will not only reopen the fault fissure, but also
rupture the dam.
(e) A site, where the fault is known to have been active in the recent years, Should
always be discarded.
(viii) Abutment problems

Attention should be given to the orientation of joints, bedding planes, foliation and weak
zones present in the abutments.
If such weak zones are parallel to the thrust of water in the reservoir, the stability of the
dam is endangered.
The rocks that are present in the abutments of an Arch dam should be strong enough to
resist the pressure with out being crushed.
If the bedding planes are dipping toward to the sides of the valley slope, then this
condition is very prone for landslide occurrence.
6.4 Investigation of Reservoirs Sites
Reservoirs are artificial lakes formed along the course of a river by impounding of the natural
flow of river water by constructing dam across the river.
6.4.1 Considerations for successful reservoirs
A reservoir can be claimed to be successful if

- It is water tight that is it does not suffer from any serious leakage of water.
- It has a long life due to a very low rate of silting in the reservoir basin.
- It should have adequate capacity to hold a large and desirable quantity of water.
- It should have less chances of occurrence of seismicity and lands lides.
- It must have good bearing geology.
6.4.2 Problems associated with reservoirs
The main geological problems associated with the reservoirs are
1) Ground water conditions

2) Silting
3) Permeable rocks
1. Ground water conditions

If the water table occurs at considerable depth below the river floor, the river water
percolates through the country rock and reaches the ground water. This means loss of water
from the river continues till the water table rises to the level of the river. Such rivers are
called influent rivers. Hence there is leakage.

54
If the water table occurs at shallow depth or near or intersecting the valley sides, then
seepage of ground water will occur and water will be added to the river. Hence there is no
leakage. Such a river is known as Effluent Rivers. Fig (8)
2. Silting of reservoirs
The reservoirs built on rivers, which carry large amount of sediments, may silt up very soon
and its water storage capacity may be reduced considerably. The amount of silt produced
and supplied to the rivers depends mainly upon lithological character and topography of the
catchment’s area. The rivers flowing over the soft rocks and high gradient areas carry
greater amounts of silt. On such rivers silt traps may be constructed up stream in order to
check the rate of silting in the reservoir. Provisions should also be made for washing out the
silt through the passage of the dam.
The measures that help to reduced silting of reservoirs are

a) Vegetation
b) Covering with slabs on weak zones
c) Terracing of the slope and construction of retaining walls
d) Check dams e) by diversion of sediment-loaded waters.
3) Permeable rocks
During the geological investigations it is necessary to locate the highly permeable rocks that
are present in the reservoir area. The rocks, which are highly porous, are likely to cause
series leakage from the reservoir.
Generally the leakage of water from the strata that have down stream dip, will be more than
those which have upstream dip. Fig (9)
The following methods used to seal permeable zones:
a) Natural silting
b) Grouting
c) Covering weak zones with concrete slabs.
6.5 Geological investigations of dams and Reservoirs
The geological investigation, which is one of the investigation methods, is done to detect
geological defects and to select suitable site for dam and reservoir construction.
The objectives of the geological investigations are.
a) To study the physioographic features of the area.
b) To determine the depth and inclination of bedrock in the river channel at proposed
site.
c) To determine the lithological composition and the structure of the rocks present in
the proposed site.
d) To locate the secondary structural defects such as fault, joints, fractures, and solution
channels etc in the proposed site.
e) To evaluate the rate of silting in the reservoir.
f) To locate the construction materials in the vicinity of selected site.
Geological Survey
The first stage or the preliminary surveying in geological investigation of dam and reservoir
site is called Reconnaissance survey. This is done by collection information about the site

55
from Air photos, Geological maps, Topographical maps etc. It is office work rather than
fieldwork. This survey serves as guide for detailed geological survey.
Generally geological investigation normally starts with the interpretation of the Air photos,
Geological maps etc, followed by field work and laboratory testing, and ends with the
preparation of field report. The geological investigations include the study of
I) Physiography
II) Lithology (nature of rock)
III) Geological structures
I. Study of physiography
1. The physiographic features of the reservoir such as:-

a) Shape and size of the valley,
b) Its stage of development
c) Stability of valley slopes
d) Potential rate of scouring and erosion are studied from Air photographs,
Geological maps as well as from field inspections.
2. The bedrocks in the river valley are often covered up with a layer of overburden whose
thickness is required to be known. Geophysical surveys, bore holes, drill holes etc reveal
the extent of overburden and its classification.
3. In river valleys, the existence of concealed fault is always suspected. This is particularly
the case when a river cuts through a mountain range.
II) Study of Lithology

1) During fieldwork, a detailed geological map is prepared on the basis of
geological surveys, bore hole, and drill hole data. From this data, the
lithological characters are examined.
2) The pervious and impervious strata are located and the potential leakage
zones are identified.
3) The rocks present in the foundations and abutments of the dam must be
sound enough to withstand the expected static and dynamic pressures.
Necessary in-situ testing and laboratory testing are to be under taken to find
out the rock strength.
4) The rocks exposed in the reservoir must be resistant to solution, erosion and
other damaging effects of water.
5) By studying the lithology of the catchment area of the river, the amount of
silt likely to be contributed annually to the reservoir is to be estimated.
6) During geological survey lithological study is needed to locate the
construction materials near the dam site. This will reduce the construction
cost considerably. The construction materials are stones for masonry,
concrete, rip rap, aggregates and clay for impervious cut off.
III) Study of geological rock structures
1) A site where the strata dip upstream is preferable to the site where the strata
dip down stream.
2) If rocks exposed in the foundation and abutments of dam are highly jointed,
the spacing and intensity of jointing are to be recorded. This will help in
assessing the grouting problem and grouting pattern.

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3) If faults are present and close to the dam, the site has to be abandoned.
6.6 Investigation of tunnel site
Tunnels are under ground passages or routes used for different purposes. They
are made by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills or
mountains, or sides of valley.
6.6.1 Purpose of tunnel
1) To reduce distance between places of interest across natural obstacles like
hills to save time i.e. to lay roads or railway tracks.
2) To divert the normal flow of river water to facilitate the work of dam
foundation i.e. dug along the valley sides.
3) For power generation i.e. tunnels allow water to pass through them under
force.
4) For supplying drinking water or for laying cable.
6.6.2 Types of tunnels

Tunnels are classified according to their purposes. The following tunnels are the
common ones (I) Traffic tunnel (II) Hydropower tunnel (III) public utility
tunnels (iv) diversion tunnel.
6.6.3 The geological factors which influence tunneling

These include I) Inclined strata (v) Water bearing rocks
(II) Folded rocks (VI) swelling Rocks
(III) Fault Zones (IV) Jointed rocks
I. Inclined strata
1. Tunnel along the strike line: In the inclined rock beds, when a tunnel is driven
parallel to the strike direction, there is tendency in the rocks to slide into the
tunnel. This is particularly the case when hard and soft rocks like sand stone and
shale is inter bedded. Fig (10)
2. Tunnel across the strike of the rocks: When a tunnel is made across the strike of
the rocks, it will pass through different beds of rocks. In such cases, there will be
arching action or down ward pressure from the roof. Water problems are likely
to be met in a place where porous beds are found. Fig (11)
(II) Folded rocks
1) Tunnels along troughs: This encounters unfavorable conditions, because rock

masses along trough are harder and more resistant. This means excavation through
them will be difficult process. Further, the inclination of bedding planes may guide
the percolated water to wards the trough and create undesirable ground water
problems. Such problems will be very severing if artesian conditions prevail. Fig
(12)
2) Tunnels along crests: The rock masses along the crest may be in a highly fractured
condition due to development of tension joints. As a consequence of this, if tunnels
are driven in such places, there may be frequent fall of rocks from the roof. Of
course, such joints, which develop perpendicular to the bedding planes of rocks,

57
produce some wedge-shaped blocks, which may act as keystones preventing the fall
of adjacent rock masses. Hence lining is necessary. Fig (12)
3) Tunnel aligned parallel to fold axis through limbs: This is desirable because
similar rocks with similar properties are encountered along the course of the tunnel.
Fig (13)
4) Tunnel aligned perpendicular to fold axis through limbs: This is undesirable
because, under such a condition, different rock formations are encountered from
place to place along the length of the tunnel, and also the tunnel has to pass through
a series of anticlines and synclines which will pose additional problem like water
problem. Fig (14)
(III) Fault zones

Faults are commonly found associated with a zone of highly crushed rock or fault
gouge. The crushed rocks, being highly permeable, allow the ground water to seep
into the tunnel. In addition to this, they also form unstable roof rock. The fault
gouge is a very fine and soft material upon wetting, it becomes plastic and caves into
the tunnel. Therefore faults are a serious source of major trouble in tunnels.
Generally it is better to deviate from the fault zones.
(IV) Jointed rocks
In one way, the jointed rocks facilitate, easy tunneling but in the other way they
present many difficulties. If the joints are closely spaced and are water bearing,
rock falls and ground water seepage may occur into the tunnel. If larger water
bodies like lake, canal, or river are side by, more flow of water into the tunnel
through open joints and fissures takes place.
(v) Water bearing rocks
Excavation a tunnel through the water bearing rock is difficult since ground water
rushes into the tunnel and causes flooding during excavation. If soft rocks like
clayey rocks are present, their strength will be diminished due to water flow.
(VI) Swelling rocks
Shale, unconsolidated tuff and anhydrite are examples of swelling rocks. They
absorb moisture and swell when they are exposed. If a tunnel is to be constructed in
these rocks, special treatment is to be adopted. Strong supports are to be used and
they should be protected from wetting as far as possible.
6.6.3 Geological survey of tunnels

- A detailed geological map is prepared, showing various rock types present in the area.
Their lithological characters and mechanical properties are determined. The geological
or structural features such as folds, faults, joints, shear zones etc are studied and marked
on the geological maps.
- The surface water seepage’s if any, and depth of water table, at various places along the
tunnel alignment, are also shown on the map.
- Deep exploration that is drilling and geophysical survey may confirm the results of the
surface geological survey.
6.7 Investigation of bridge sites

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Bridge is a structure constructed across a barrier or river that separates the two land areas,
for commination.
6.7.1 Types of Bridges

The common types of bridges are
(i) Simple beam (ii) Canti lever (iii) Arch (iv) Rigid-Frame (V) Suspension Bridges
6.7.2 Important terms

Abutment is the embankment that connects the bridge to the roadway.
Pier is the intermediate bridge support built mostly of concrete often with granite facing.
6.7.3 The factors that influence the bridge sitting

The weight of bridge, the load of traffic and pressure of the wind and flowing water are
ultimately transmitted to the foundations of piers and abutments. Therefore the design and
construction of bridge is governed largely by
(I) Nature of rock (II) Structure of rock (III) Types of river channel
(I) Nature of rocks: The rocks over which the piers and abutments are to be founded must be
strong and durable. They should be free from closely spaced joints, fissures, shear zones,
solution channels and other zones of weakness. Poorly cemented, thinly bedded and softer
sedimentary rocks should be avoided. Grouting may consolidate the rocks having joints and
fractures.
(II) Structure of rocks: If a bridge is aligned across the strike of the country rocks, different
types of rock beds having varying strength and composition are met with along the
foundation. In such cases putting boreholes in the ground used for a close examination of
the foundation rock under each pier and abutment. If thinly bedded soft rocks such as shales
were exposed in the riverbed the water current would easily cut deep grooves parallel to the
bedding and hence would undermine the foundation of piers.
For placing the abutment of a bridge, the valley walls are thoroughly examined. The valley
walls, where the strata dip into the river channel, form unstable slope, because they have a
tendency to slide in to the river channel. Such unstable valley slopes should be avoided.
A fault, if it is running across the bridge alignments, is a source of many troubles. The
highly crushed and watered zones of rocks, which exist in the fault zones, make the
foundation treatment extremely expensive. It is therefore a advised that the possibility of
avoiding the fault by shifting the bridge alignment upstream or down stream.
(III) Types of river channel: In alluvial channels the thickness of loose sands and gravel’s
may be so great that it is not economical to reach the bed rock for placing the piers. In such
cases pile foundation is used. The piles are generally driven through the alluvial material to
the bedrock. Friction piles are used where the bedrock is not available up to a great depth.
Fig (16)

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7.1 Quarry
Quarry: is place where rock is separated from its natural beds and processed for use in
construction. Quarrying is the process of breaking and obtaining stones from their
natural rock out crops.
7.2 Types of quarries
There are two types of quarries: Open and under ground quarries. Open quarries may be
shelf quarries, where the rock is extracted from hillside, or pit quarries, where the rock is
extracted from a certain depth in the ground. Fig (1)
Quarry products are dimension stone, crushed stone, and broken stone (riprap).
7.3 The controlling factor for selection of quarry site
The search of rock material for building stone, crushed rock, or riprap is controlled by
factors (1) quality (2) supply of the material (quantity) and (3) economics of production
and delivery.
1) Quality
Rock for dimension stone must be free of cracks, uniform texture, attractive color, and in
some cases capable of taking a polish. Crushed stone and riprap must have satisfactory
strength, soundness, and low water sorption. Particularly rock selected for riprap should
be roughly squared and reasonably flat faced. Values of specific gravity of 2.6 and
higher are preferred because the rock has to be resistant for wave action etc.
2) Supply
The rock supply of a quarry generally is estimated in tones. For dimension and crushed
stone operations, the supply should be sufficient for about 20 years if initial expense and
costs are to be justified. For riprap quarries economically feasible operations usually is
possible even if the supply is only sufficient for the immediate use on the structure.
3) Economic factor
One of the most important factors, which may make the operation economically
prohibitive, is the cost of transportation of the product to the place of consumption. This
is provided that populated areas should be at safe distance.
7.4 Quarrying methods
Quarrying is done by one of the following 4 methods after investigation of its quality,
quantity and economic benefit.
i) Excavating ii) Wedging iii) Heating iv Blasting.

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i) Excavating: This method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried in
earth or are under loose overburden before excavating.
a) Cut and grade the access road to the sit
b) Cut an access road to the area, which will become the head, or top, of the quarry
face.
c) Carry out the initial leveling and grading of the area.
d) Remove at least sufficient over burden to allow an early start on developing the
largest practicable rock face.
After these arrangements Shovels, Pick. Axes, Hammers and Chisels etc. are made ready to
use in the excavation work.
ii) Wedging: This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. The operation
is started near a vertical face. In this method steel wedge is hammered in to the rock to
create cracks into which steel bars are inserted and the stone blocks are separated.
If vertical face is absent, cutting or boring channel or drilled holes create a vertical face
by power drilling machines. To separate big blocks of proper dimensions, lifting crane,
plugs, steel hammers (sledgehammers) are used in drilled holes.
iii) Heating: This method is suitable where only small blocks of more or less regular
shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal layers, which have not much
thickness to be quarried.
This method consists of filing a heap of fuel on small area of the exposed rock face and
burning a steady fire for some hours. Because of uneven heating to top and bottom
layers, the rock masses separate themselves along the joint with some sound.
iv) Blasting: It is the quarrying of stones using explosives. The purpose of blasting for
the quarrying is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blowup the whole
rock mass into pieces. Quarrying by blasting requires the following steps:
a) Drilling of blast holes of calculated dimensions at predetermined places in the rock.
b) These drilled holes are charged with the explosives of suitable quality in a carefully
selected manner.
c) Igniting or firing of charge or shot, which explode with in the body of the rock and
thus rocks, break in to parts and thrown into at distances that depend upon the
quantity and quality of the explosives used in the shot.
The two basic kinds of explosives are black blasting powder and high explosives.
1) Black blasting powder: is used in dimension stone quarries. Black blasting powder may be
either “A” blasting powder of “B” blasting powder type.
“A” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate, and sulfur in proportion
of about 15:75:10 respectively.
“B” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, sodium nitrate, and sulfur in proportion of
about 16:72:12 respectively. “B” blasting powder is slower and less expensive than “A”
2) High explosives: are used in crushed stone quarries and in most civil engineering
excavation operations. High explosive may be:
a. Those containing mainly Nitroglycerin and Nitroglycol both are designated by symbol
NG. These are the main types used in civil engineering. They commonly referred as

61
dynamite, and they may have either a granular or gelatinous nature. Nitroglycol is less
expensive than Nitroglycerin.
b. Those, which do not contain NG-types (mostly military type explosives). Dynamite
should not explode by detonation.
Blasting powder or Gunpowder can be ignited by means of fuse.
7.5 Quarry hazards: Accidents in quarries mostly are due to
1. Falls of the over burden or slides of the rock slopes.

2. Mishandling of explosives.
3. Poorly organized haulage transport of the rock material together with
carelessness and of fatigue a rear tiredness of the drivers.
4. A serious occupational disease of stone cutters is silicosis, a lung infection that
develops as a result of inhaling quartz powder during working hours. For
protection against the disease dust respirators are used.
7.6 Rocks as building materials
Building materials (stones) are products of rocks that are used in construction of
buildings, dams, bridges etc. The rock materials used for construction include:
i) Building stones in the form of masonry blocks.
ii) Rubble-in the form of small irregular fragments.
iii) Crushed stones-to make concrete
iv) Limestone-to make lime and cement.
7.7 Properties of Building Stones

The properties that are commonly examined for rock materials, which used for
construction, are:
i) Mineral composition: The rocks are aggregates of minerals. If the

constituent minerals of rock are hard, free from cleavage and resistant to
weathering, the rock is likely to be strong and durable. The rocks, which
are rich in weak minerals such as mica, talc, calcite and clay minerals are
not durable.
ii) Texture: Fine-grained rocks are generally more dense and stronger than
coarse-grained rocks. It is for this reason that Basalt and Dolerite are
widely used as road metal.
iii) Structure: Many rocks contain structures like stratification, lamination,
flotation and cleavage. Such rocks can withstand greater loads if their
beds are perpendicular to the line of action of load. Since laminated or
banded rocks may scale badly with weathering, it is not advisable to
place them in civil engineering works with the cleavage or bedding
planes vertical.
Iv Porosity: The porosity of a rock is the ratio of the volume occupied by
pores to the total volume of rock sample. It is generally expressed as
percentage. A less porous rock is generally more durable and stronger
and therefore it is preferred for construction work.

62
V Permeability: is capacity of a rock to transmit water. It indicates the ease
with which water can percolate through the openings of the rock. The
permeable rocks are considered harmful because they cause seepage of
water. Permeable are not only result in loss of stored water, but may also
endanger the civil engineering structures by developing pore water
pressure.
Vi Durability: It is the capacity of stone to retain its original size, strength
and appearance through out along period. The durability of a rock
depends upon (a) its chemical composition (b) its mineral constituents (c)
its texture, (d) its permeability and porosity (d) its structure (f) climatic
conditions.
Vii Strength of rock: is determined by knowing its crushing strength,
shearing strength, and resistance to abrasion.
Crushing strength is the resistance offered by a stone to pressure or

compressive strength. Shear strength is the resistance offered by a stone
against shear stresses that tend to move one part of the specimen with
respect to other.
Resistance to abrasion is the resistance of stone against scratching or
rubbing action. The stone used for paving and flooring purposes must
have high resistance to abrasion.
Viii Resistance to fire: The resistance of rock to fire will be more if it
expands or contracts uniformly throughout its body. This in turn depends
on the mineral composition and grain size. Mono minerallic rocks quartzite, marbles, compact
limestone and dolomite possess greater fire resistance property because such rocks have
uniform expansion or contraction.
Sandstone generally suffers the least damage. Next in the order of decreasing resistance to
damage are fine-grained granite, limestone, gneiss and marble.
Grain size is also important in this context because, in Aphanitic rocks, the minerals being very
small in size, each grain will not exert any significant volume change by itself and therefore the
rock as a whole undergoes expansion or contraction uniformly. Generally stones which are free
from calcium carbonate and oxides of iron resistance to fire.
7.8 Rocks used as building and industrial materials
i) Granites
- Granites are plutonic igneous rocks, which have high crushing

strength, durability and weight. They have low porosity, pleasing pink,
and gray colors and takes good polish.
- They are used for the construction of massive masonry required in heavy
civil engineering works like dams, bridges, retaining walls, harbor and
etc
- Granite stones are also used for architectural works, ornamental works
and face coverings
- Buildings, which are facing to sea and exposed to dusty winds, are built
by granite because of its compactness and hardness due to the presence
of Silica.
- Granites are also used in the constructions in the industrial towns, since
acids, flumes and smoke do not affect granite.

63
- Granite is also used as road metal and as aggregate for concrete making
because of its hardness. Toughness, and resistance to abrasion.
(Toughness is the resistance to impact forces).
ii) Gneiss
- Gneiss is high-grade metamorphosed form of Granite. It has high

crushing strength, durability and weight. It is also used for the
construction of heavy engineering structures like Dams, Bridges etc.
iii) Basalts and Dolerites
- They are fine-grained igneous rocks, which are basic in composition.

They make excellent road metal ad aggregate for concrete because of
their high crushing strength.
- They are not commonly used as building stone because of their dull and
unpleasant color, eventhough they have easy workability and durability.
iv) Sandstones
- Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock.

- Well-cemented sandstones are good building stones. They are used both
in building masonry and as flagstones. (I.e. facing stones) used for
ornamental works.
- Fine-grained sandstone is used for buildings, which face to sea and
exposed to dusty winds because of their compactness and hardness due
to presence of silica,
- Compact sandstone is used in fire resistance construction since they have
better fire resistance
- Sandstone is also for making Ballast for constructing railway track.
v) Quartzite
- Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone.

- Quartzite is not used as building stones since its workability is difficult
due to its extreme hardness. However quartzite broken stone is used as
road metal. As aggregate for concrete making, and as ballast for railway
track.
- Pure and white quartzite is used in glass making industry.
vi) Limestone and marble
- Limestone is non-clastic sedimentary rock

- Marble is metamorphosed limestone
- Due to homogenous texture, easy workability and pleasing colors,
limestone and marble are used for building and ornamental works
- Compact limestone is also used for ballast along railway track
- Lime stone is also used in the cement making industry
vii) Slates
- Slates are metamorphosed form of shale

64
- Slates can be split easily into thin and smooth slabs. Hence they are
chiefly used for roofing, flooring (or paving) in buildings.
- Slates and marbles slabs also used in the electrical industry for making
electrical switch boards since they have poor electrical conductivity, and
they can be easily cut into any shape and size. Also they take very fine
polish.

65

Chapter1 Gology (Section 1)

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Chapter1 Gology (Section 1)

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.2 Internal structure of the earth

1.2.1. Seismic waves

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

1.2.2. Seismological evidence

These discontinuities are now accepted as a definite significance in demarcating different

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

1.2.3 Composition of crust, mantle and core

1.3 Scope of Engineering Geology

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

(b) In town and regional planning

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

(d) In Miscellaneous fields

Fig. 1.1 Internal structure of the earth

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

- Slow cooling (i.e. slow crystallization)

2.1.1 Characteristics of crystals

The following are characteristics related to crystals and minerals.

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

2.2.1 Common rock forming minerals and their abundance

The most abundant elements are

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

Silicate - Si O4 is fundamental unit of all silicate.

2.2.2 Physical Properties of mineral

e.g. Black mineral - it absorbs all light rays.

2. Luster: - is the nature of shinning on the surface of the mineral.

Non - metallic luster – examples Earthy luster = no shine

4. Hardness: is the resistance offered to abrasion or scratching by the mineral.

5. Structure of a mineral: is characteristics arrangement in its outward expression that

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

2.3.1 Rock cycle

Fig. 2.1 Rock cycle

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

2.3.2.1 Origin of Igneous rocks

2.3.2.2 Classification of Igneous rock

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of

1. Classification based on silica percentage

1. Acidic igneous rock – silica > 65% examples: Granite, Rhyolite

2. Classification based on mode of solidification of magma.

According to this classification, igneous rocks are grouped into 3.

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

2.3.2.3. Texture of Igneous rocks

1. Degree of crystallization - reflect the rate or speed of cooling. Crystallinity is measured by

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

4. Mutual relations of grains

b. Inequigranular texture: Igneous rocks showing variation in the size texture of

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

Fig 2.2 Textures of igneous rocks

2.3.2.4. Structures of Igneous rocks

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

Fig. 2.4 (a) Vesicular structure (b) Amygdaloidal structure

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

Fig. 2.6 sheet structure

Engineering geology& Rock Mechanics lecture note Prepared By Welela Y

It has either equigraanular or porphyritic texture and on polishing granite

It is rich in silica. This makes it very resistant to decay or weathering

It is easily available, because it is the most abundant plutonic rock.

2.3.3 Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by consolidation and cementation of sediments (rock

2.3.3.1 Formation of sedimentary rocks

Formation of sedimentary rocks involves 3 stages. Theses are:

a. Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks.