Running Head: Rediscovering Perceptual Theory

Exploring the Relationship between Perception and Education:

Rediscovering Perceptual Theory and Its Impact on Teaching and Learning

(A paper developed to accompany a poster presentation on the same topic)

Sean Schat
ss12bm@brocku.ca
Brock University
May, 2014
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Abstract

The purpose of this conceptual study is to explore the relationship between perceptual theory

(Combs, 1999; Combs et al, 1976; Wasicsko, 2002) and education. Perceptual theory has been

somewhat overlooked in the social sciences. Behavior is a symptom of perception. Perception

is shaped by belief and experience. If we want to understand the behavior of another person,

or if we want to be part of the process of supporting their growth and flourishing, we need to

understand their perceptions. Building on Comb’s suggestion that education is a “helping

profession,” focused on enabling the growth and flourishing of students, this study will seek to

answer the question, “What impact could an awareness of perceptual theory have on

educational practices?” The design of this study is descriptive and exploratory, and will include

a review of relevant literatures and proposals for future research. The results of this study will

explore the possible impact of perceptual theory for students, teachers, and educational

leaders.
 Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 3

Introduction

Why do people do the things they do? Human behavior can be fascinating to observe. It

can also be very perplexing and surprising at times. People are “messy”—they do unexpected

things, and do not always behave as others expect them to. Any human enterprise or

interaction needs to acknowledge and anticipate this “messiness factor.” According to

perceptual theory (Combs et al, 1976; Combs 1999), human behavior is a symptom of

perception. Perception is shaped by belief and experience. Every behavior makes sense to the

behaver in the moment of behaving. If we want to understand the behavior of another person,

or if we want to be part of the process of supporting their growth and flourishing, we need to

recognize and explore the nature and impact of their perceptions.

1. What is Perception?

Merriam Webster’s dictionary defines perception as “the process of registering sensory

stimuli as meaningful experience” (www.merriam-webster.com). Wikipedia describes it as “the

organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and

understand the environment” (en.wikipedia.org). Perception refers to the way the brain

processes sensory information into memory and experience. The brain actively seeks to make

meaning from perception. This processing often occurs at a preconscious level and appears to

be effortless and automatic. The challenge, of course, is that perceivers assume that their

perceptions are accurate (i.e., “real”). However, this is not always the case.

2. An Introduction to Perceptual Theory

Perceptual theory, also known as perceptual field theory is a systematic framework for

the study of people and their behavior. Art Combs originated perceptual theory with Donald
 Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 4

Snygg in 1949 (Snygg & Combs, 1949), and he continued to work with this framework for the

remainder of his life. Although the clearest articulation of his theory was essentially rejected by

professional psychologists in 1976, Combs and his colleagues continued to focus attention on

what he referred to as the “helping professions,” practitioners in medicine, counseling,

education, etc., who worked to authentically enable and support the growth and self-

actualization of individuals. Perceptual theory found a home at this grassroots level, and has

had a marked impact. Just prior to his death, Combs suggested that the time was “ripe for

psychology to adopt a field approach to human personality and behavior” (Combs, 1999, vii).

Combs based this important conclusion on three events: (1) the failure of behaviorism (and the

accompanying exploration of cognitive theories), (2) the increasing needs of applied workers in

the helping professions, and, perhaps most significantly, (3) the growing use of field theory in

various sciences.

A “field” is a hypothetical construct that allows scientists to address that which is not

directly observable. Scientists can posit the existence of a field, and then use this construct to

explore their areas of study. Combs noted that this is a common practice in fields such as

quantum physics, astronomy, anthropology, sociology, and biology. According to Combs

(1999), “Human beings are also organizations, and because experience occurs inside of persons,

it is not available for direct observation. Accordingly, a field approach to the study of persons

and their behavior seems a natural for psychology” (p. viii).

3. What is the Problem?

The main “thesis” of my own work with perceptual theory is that perceptual theory has

been overlooked as a viable explanation for human behavior. It was developed around the
 Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 5

same time that cognitive theories began to challenge the behaviorist tradition. Cognitive

theories soon emerged as the dominant theory, particularly when combined with the emerging

computer technology revolution and the parallel emphasis on the “Information Processing

Model” that was also introduced around the same time. Mainline psychology did not “take” to

perceptual theory. However, practitioners in the “helping professions” were drawn to the

perceptual tradition, primarily because it worked so well: it helped individuals (1) to shift their

perceptions and (2) to change their behavior.

I also believe part of the “problem” with perceptual theory is that perceptions occur just

before the level of consciousness. Behaviors seem automatic, and perceptions, therefore, seem

to be un-addressable. Another “practical” problem is that the theory almost seems too

intuitive and almost explains too much about human behavior. The results can almost seem

self-evident (e.g., Of course that is why that person does that!), so the theory appears to lose

credibility in the process (e.g., for pointing out the obvious). Interestingly, many contemporary

theories resonate with perceptual theory and essentially have built on the foundation the

theory sought to establish (e.g., self-determination theory, social and emotional learning,

invitational theory, positive psychology, the humanistic and phenomenological traditions, etc.).

In Why we do what we do: Understanding self-motivation, Edward Deci (1995) provides

a helpful distinction that I believe creates new space for perceptual theory in contemporary

dialogue:

Many theorists now focus on individuals’ thoughts, rather than just observable

behaviors and environmental reinforcements. Behaviors are thus explained in terms of

people’s thoughts about reinforcements—their expectations and interpretations—

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rather than just the objective description of reinforcements themselves. Thus many

modern empirical psychologists—referred to as cognitive theorists—have moved “inside

the person” to search for the causes of behavior, but they have stayed largely at the

level of people’s thoughts rather than going deeper to their motivations (p. 78).

Perceptual theory provides a lens that allows us to go beyond cognition in seeking to

understand the causes of behavior.

Shortly before his death, Combs also articulated a powerful vision for the rediscovery of

his theory. In Being and becoming: A field approach to psychology, Combs (1999) detailed a

number of key paradigm shifts that have occurred in physical and biological sciences. He notes

that a similarly significant shift in psychological thought had also occurred:

Like the physicists’ pursuit of matter, psychologists have studied behavior in excruciating

detail for 60 years or more only to discover that it could not provide the understanding

of personality and behavior they hoped for. As we have seen, many psychologists then

sought better understanding in such human qualities as attitudes, beliefs, fears, hopes,

needs, and the like. Such human dynamics, of course, are perceptual organizations. So

psychologists have arrived at a conclusion similar to that of physical and biological

scientists: understanding the nature of persons and behavior must be sought in

people’s perceptions, field organizations, or systems. Snygg and Combs’s proposal for a

field approach for psychology in 1949 actually predates acceptance of the new paradigm

by many physical and biological scientists (p. 238—emphasis mine).

He then makes a compelling case for his own theory:

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The perceptual field view of persons and behavior was presented in book form in 1949

and revised in 1957 and again in 1975. It represents but a first step in the exploration of

a new paradigm for psychology. It proposes a viable place from which to begin the

exploration of personality and behavior in terms of relationships, organizations, and

systems…With the current paradigm shift currently underway in most of the sciences

toward the study of ecology, systems, and self-regulating organizations, I am

emboldened once again to offer this field approach to psychology (p. 239).

It is my contention that Combs was correct, and that the time is ripe for a rediscovery of

perceptual theory. I have also noted that a number of contemporary theories and

conversations in psychology and education resonate with the perceptual tradition. I will speak

to this in more detail later in this document.

A. Perceptual Theory Basics

Before moving on to some of the educational implications of perceptual theory, a

number of essential aspects of perceptual theory need to be identified.

1. Perceptual theory allows us to better understand human behavior. Behavior is a

symptom of perception. Focusing solely on a person’s behavior is not sufficient. We need to

ask: “What thoughts are shaping their behavior (Cognition)?” More importantly, “What

perceptions are shaping their thoughts and actions?” Perceptual theory provides a way of

exploring human behavior by focusing attention on the underlying perceptions. By seeking to

understand the influence of perception, one may better understand human behavior.

2. Perceptual theory allows us to support behavioral change. Perceptual theory also

provides resources for “coming alongside” of another to support them in taking steps to change
 Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 8

their (mis)behaviors by addressing their perceptions. This is where perceptual theory directly

connects with education…because teachers (and parents) are uniquely positioned to work with

developing human beings whose identity and perceptions are “becoming.”

3. All perceptions are shaped by the “perceptual field.” Combs (1976) defines the

perceptual field as “the entire universe, including [self], as it is experienced by an individual at

the instant of action. It is each person’s personal field of awareness, the field of meanings

responsible for [their] behavior” (p. 22). Every behavior is rooted in the behaver’s perceptions,

which are directed by the data available in their “perceptual field.” A person with a healthy

perceptual field is able to “see” widely, drawing in more accurate perceptions. A person who is

experiencing threat will have a narrower perceptual field, and will not be able to perceive as

accurately. However, in both cases, the individual perceiver is likely to believe that they are

perceiving reality accurately (see figure 1).

A healthy, wide perceptual field An unhealthy, narrow perceptual field

Figure 1 – The Perceptual Field

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The conceptualization of the phenomenal field is one of the most significant contributions of

perceptual theory. Each individual’s perceptual field is completely invisible, yet it is potent in

its immediate and marked impact on perceptions and behaviors. Combs (1976) writes

…to each individual [their] phenomenal field is reality; it is the only reality [they] can

know. No matter what we are told, our own perceptual field will always seem real,

substantial and solid to us. It is the only field and the only reality we can experience

directly. So strong, in fact, is our feeling of the reality of our perceptual field that we

seldom question it. We accept how it seems to us must truly be so. When others do

not see things as we do, we may jump to the conclusion that they must be either stupid

or perverse, for what is right and proper seems to us so clear with respect to our own

observation that no other conclusion seems warranted (p. 24).

4. Each person can find their own, best way. An important vision for the helping

professions is a reminder that when obstacles and impediments are removed, each person has

the potential to discover their “own best ways” (Combs, 1976) for handling issues and making

decisions. This is an important, optimistic perspective because it reminds us that each person

has the potential to perceive accurately and to flourish and develop their capacities as a result.

It is also a healthy reminder that there are many obstacles and impediments that prevent

people from perceiving effectively, and that one of the primary obligations of the helping

professions is to support autonomy and agency.

5. There is a reality we all share. There is a danger in perceptual theory that we over-

focus on perceptions, in an appropriate attempt to recognize that these perceptions play such a

formative role in shaping human behavior. However, it is also essential that we do not forget
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 10

that as important as an individual’s perceptions may be, there is a reality we all share. Each

individual’s perceptions are important, but if their perceptions do not match reality (as

perceived by others with a healthier, wider perceptual field), it is important that someone

ensures that reality has an opportunity to challenge their perceptions! The analogy of “holding

up a mirror” is a helpful one in this regard. Someone working in a helping profession has the

responsibility to serve as a mirror to reality, seeking to “show” reality in such a way that the

individual becomes capable of perceiving more effectively on their own as a result.

B. Perceptual theory and education

In their work with the helping professions, Combs and his colleagues sought to identify

the essential perceptions of effective helpers (Combs et al, 1969). In a study of effective

teachers as helpers (Goodling, 1969), five key perceptions were identified: (1) perceptions

about their subject matter, (2) perceptions about self (their self-concept), (3) perceptions about

other people (i.e., students, colleagues, etc.), (4) perceptions about the teaching task, and (5)

their general perceptual frame of reference. Combs expanded on the implications of this

research in A Personal Approach to Teaching: Beliefs that Make a Difference (Combs, 1982),

where he challenged educators to refine and improve their personal theories of teaching, which

were rooted in their perceptions and beliefs.

Mark Wasicsko, a dean and a professor of education at Northern Kentucky University,

has drawn on the perceptual tradition in his work with teacher dispositions (Wasicsko, 2002,

2007; Wasicsko, Wirtz, & Resor, 2009). In their research, Wasicsko and his colleagues have

developed a theoretical basis for describing teachers’ educational dispositions, as well as a

number of tools for assessing these dispositions. Wasicsko is clear that his use of the word
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 11

“dispositions” is simply another word for “perceptions” (as used by Combs and his colleagues).

Wasicsko’s research has shown that effective educators have perceptions about (1) themselves,

(2) their students, and (3) the task of teaching that distinguish them from ineffective teachers.

Wasicsko and his colleagues (2002) have developed an instrument that is used to identify

potential teacher candidates.

1. The Messiness of Education

Earlier I described what I called “the messiness factor,” suggesting that any human

enterprise or interaction should be recognized as “messy” by definition. Any time we interact

with human behavior we should assume that things will not be as easy and straight-forward as

we might wish, simply because of the nature and impact of human perceptions and behavior.

This is also a part of the joy and adventure of working with people! In many ways, working in

education can be understood as “messiness on steroids”—there are so many potential

relationships (students, parents, colleagues, administrators, etc.), and so many of these

stakeholders are emotionally invested in the educational process, that the situation is rife with

the potential for misperceptions, misunderstandings, and misbehaviors. The students

themselves are in the process of becoming—their identity is emerging, and their own behavior

is often inconsistent. Parents and guardians are heavily invested in and committed to their

children’s growth and learning, and they may not be on the same page as their children’s

teachers. Professional colleagues and educational leaders are also shaped by potent visions

and experiences that influence their perceptions and behaviors. Education is an extremely

messy and perceptual enterprise.

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However, it is also an extremely significant opportunity for potential impact, and

teachers who perceive themselves as “helpers” are well-positioned to play a significant role in

the growth and development of their students. They are also well-positioned to influence

student perceptions and behaviors. Teachers can make a big difference.

2. Teaching as a Helping Profession

Combs and Gonzalez (1994) note that the helping professions are focused on applying

the insights of the social sciences to the practical problems and challenges of human welfare.

The helping professions include a significant range of occupations and tasks, including

teachers, therapists, nurses, social workers, family counselors, pastoral counselors, mental

health workers, supervisors, administrators, etc. These professions are more alike than they

are different because they are all “designed to facilitate learning about self and the world, and

all are based on the same fundamental principles that govern learning and growth of persons,

whether they are students, clients, or patients” (p. 49).

It is important to recognize that there is no arrogance or inappropriate perceptions of

power in this “helping” concept. The focus throughout is on supporting the natural growth and

“becoming” of the individual. The helper’s goal throughout is to support each individual in the

process of becoming who they were meant to be, fully themselves. In other words, the

purpose of helping is to enable the self-actualization and flourishing of the other. In their work

with self-determination theory, Edward Deci and Richard Ryan introduce two concepts that

clarify the helping nature of teachers. They describe these as “one-up/one-down” relationships.

“In these relationships, one party—the parent, manager, teacher, or doctor—can be

understood as a socializing agent. As such, that person has the job of facilitating motivation
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 13

and responsibility in the other” (Deci, 1995, p. 8). Deci and Ryan provide even greater clarity

with their introduction of the concept of autonomy support (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Reeve, Deci,

and Ryan, 2004), emphasizing that each “helper” has the responsibility to do all they can to

support the development of autonomy in the people they interact with. Autonomy support is

often contrasted with control and coercion. Helpers are clearly focused on the authentic

agency of the people they work with.

C. Educational Implications

While this is still a topic that requires further research and refining, the relationship

between perceptual theory and education has generated a number of specific implications,

which I will unpack below. It is also appropriate to remind readers of the work of Art Combs

(Combs et al, 1969; Combs, 1982), and the specific teacher perceptions he identified that can

help to differentiate effective from ineffective teachers, as well as the work of Mark Wasicsko

and his colleagues (Wasicsko, 2002; Wasicsko, Wirtz, & Resor, 2009), who have developed an

instrument for prospective teacher identification using the perceptual tradition in their work

with teacher dispositions.

Implication 1: Teachers must be aware of their own perceptions. Every behavior is a

symptom of perception. The behaviors and actions and choices teachers make are shaped by

their perceptions. As obvious as this is, it is often overlooked. Teacher perceptions impact

every aspect of their work with students, which has incredibly significant implications. It

influences how they perceive and treat each student, particularly those who struggle

academically or behaviorally. It shapes their vision for classroom culture and tone. It impacts

their approach to classroom management. It influences the relationships they establish with
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both students and colleagues. Based on the work of Art Combs and Mark Wasicsko, teachers

need to consider their own perceptions and dispositions, asking questions such as What is your

general frame of reference for looking at the world? In other words, What is your worldview?

How does this influence your teaching practices and behaviors? What is your perception of the

task and call of teaching? What is your perception of students? Are they individual agents with

the capacity to find their own, best ways? Or do they need you to control and manage their

behavior? What is your perception of your “self” as a teacher and your potential impact on

students?

Implication 2: Student perceptions must be considered in educational decision-

making. Students are people who are developing their identity, personality, gifts, and abilities

throughout their school years. Their behaviors are significantly impacted by their perceptions,

which are in turn being constantly shaped and impacted by their experiences and emotions.

These are complex times for individuals who are in the process of “becoming,” particularly

given the ongoing developmental challenges they are experiencing. Every behavior makes

sense to the behaver in the moment of behaving. All behavior is rooted in the self-concept,

which is itself rooted in perceptions. Regardless of teacher perceptions or intentions, it is the

student’s perceptions that are foundational for their own growth and learning. For example, if

they think something is “hard” or “impossible,” this perception will shape their actions.

Similarly, if they think their classmates are “mean” and feel vulnerable or threatened as a

result, teachers and other supporters need to be aware of this perception.

I believe it is also appropriate for educators to consider teaching students about

perceptual theory, and to take time to explore and challenge individual student perceptions.
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 15

Students should be encouraged to consider the nature and impact of their own perceptions.

They should also be encouraged to be aware of and sensitive to the perceptions of others. I

suspect this has the potential to create much healthier classroom and school communities, as

well as healthier peer relationships.

Implication 3: Learning is a behavior. Behaviour is a symptom of perceptions. If

learning is behavior, according to perceptual theory, it is rooted in perceptions. This has

important implications. Teaching must, therefore, be based on perceptions, and must be

characterized by addressing perceptions as a means of shaping and influencing behaviour.

Teachers have always been aware that they have a responsibility to address student behavior.

Perceptual theory directly addresses this. The next implication spells this out further.

Implication 4: Learning = differentiation of the perceptual field. Perceptual theory

posits the existence of a perceptual field, which describes all of the sense-detail available to the

perceiver. The perceiver then differentiates the available detail, focusing on some aspects

while overlooking or disregarding others. All learning is a result of differentiation.

Differentiation is a matter of being able to extract and develop meaningful data and insights

from the overwhelming barrage of sensory detail that exists in the perceptual field. Teaching,

therefore, must provide learners with the opportunity to distinguish figure (what they are

intended to focus on) from ground (the background smorgasbord of potential perceptions and

alternative figures present in the perceptual field).

Implication 5: Learning is the discovery of personal meaning. One of the confounding

aspects of education is that school tends to have much less of an impact on learners than we

would hope and expect it to. One of the emerging solutions to this challenge is a focus on the
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 16

individuals learner and on personal meaning. Perceptual theory speaks directly to this issue.

Learning (which is a behavior) must be directly linked to personal meaning (and the underlying

perceptions). If learning opportunities are not at least indirectly connected to the individual

learner and their potential motivations, why would they participate in the process of

differentiation? A teacher must seek opportunities to connect potential learning moments with

the individual learner. Learning is the discovery of personal meaning. A learner must perceive

that what they are being taught has personal meaning, or they will not perceive it as having any

value to them. If this is not the case, differentiation (e.g., separation of figure from ground, or

attending to relevant information) will not take place, and learning will not occur. Each student

needs to be challenged to “own” their own learning. Perceptual theory reminds us that, with

the proper scaffolding and support, and the removal of barriers and obstacles, each person is

capable of finding their own best way.

Feelings and emotions are important indicators of the relevance or significance of

meaning to an individual. Things that matter to us stir up feelings and emotions. Student

interest can be raised by drawing on feelings and emotions. Course, units, and lessons can be

built around themes or issues, with relevant skills and content emerging from there. It is

important exercise wisdom and caution, however. Stirring up emotions and feelings can have

unexpected results and could put students (and teachers) at risk.

Implication 6: Teachers and educational leaders need to know more about perceptions

and perceptual theory. By now, the nature and impact of teacher perceptions should be very

clear. This is true regardless of the teachers’ awareness of perceptual theory. However, I

believe that if teachers knew more about perception and perceptual theory, they would be
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 17

more intentional and effective. Educational leaders, therefore, have a responsibility to ensure

the teachers they lead and serve are familiar with the topic. Unfortunately, despite its potential

significance, this is not a familiar topic to most educators and educational leaders. This needs

to change. Because of the nature of the profession, educational leaders have a significant role

to play here.

D. Theoretical Resonances

Perceptual theory is not new. The theory was introduced in 1949, and gained some

attention in the late 1970s. The originator attempted to recast his vision in 1999. It has had a

marked impact on the helping professions, despite the fact that it has not garnered significant

interest and attention from mainline psychology. The primary concepts are quite simple, and

the implications of the theory have the potential to be quite significant, particularly for

teachers. The quotes from Edward Deci and Art Combs remind us that the recent dialogue in

mainline psychology has progressed in such a way that there is a new opportunity for

perceptual theory to be recognized and explored. The current paradigm is much more

sympathetic to the nature and potential impacts of perceptual theory. I believe that

psychology and education have overlooked and bypassed perceptual theory, and that this

was a mistake that needs to be addressed.

I have been particularly stuck by the significant resonances between perceptual theory

and a number of important topics emerging in the contemporary dialogues in both psychology

and education. While this paper is not the forum for exploring this in greater detail, it is

important that I conclude by at least referencing these topics. The insights and resources from

these topics are very compatible with the heart of the perceptual tradition. As significantly, I
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 18

also believe that knowledge of perceptual theory could actually enhance the application of

contemporary theories and systems. This “fits” Combs’s suggestion in his final publication

(1999) that the emerging paradigm shifts in psychology opened the door for a renewed interest

in perceptual theory and its principles. Combs’s theory anticipated some of the most important

current insights and practices, particularly those of an affective nature. Learning more about

perceptual theory may provide further clarity and insights. Specific examples include

invitational theory (also known as invitational education), social and emotional learning, self-

determination theory, student engagement, and implicit social cognition.

1. Invitational theory. Invitational theory is rooted in the work of William Purkey and

John Novak (1996, 2008). This theory encourages schools (and other organizations) to be much

more intentional about being an “inviting” culture for all community members. This theory is

listed first in this context because the perceptual tradition is directly identified as one of the

primary foundational theories that informs invitational theory. According to the International

Alliance for Invitational education, the basic assumptions of invitational theory are as follows:

1. People are able, valuable, and responsible, and should be treated accordingly.

2. Helping is a cooperative, collaborative alliance in which process is as important as

product.

3. People possess relatively untapped potential in all areas of human development.

4. Human potential can best be realized by places, policies, programs, and processes

that are intentionally designed to invite development, and by people who

consistently seek to realize this potential in themselves and others, personally and

professionally. (http://www.invitationaleducation.net/)
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 19

2. Social and emotional learning (SEL). Social and emotional learning, building on the

revolutionary Emotional Intelligence work of Daniel Goleman (1995), has emerged as a “hot”

topic in a number of educational contexts across the world. According to the Collaborative for

Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL),

“Social and emotional learning (SEL) involves the processes through which children and

adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to

understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show

empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible

decisions. (www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/)

SEL’s emphasis on social and emotional dynamics, as well as its focus on relationships,

knowledge, attitudes, and skills is a particularly good match with perceptual theory.

Recognizing and exploring the nature and impact of perceptions can and should play a

significant role.

3. Self-determination theory. Edward Deci and Richard Ryan were initially recognized

for their important and groundbreaking work with intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985).

However, the introduction and articulation of self-determination theory (Reeve, Deci, and Ryan,

2004) has had an even more profound impact. According to their website,

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) represents a broad framework for the study of human

motivation and personality...Perhaps more importantly SDT propositions also focus on

how social and cultural factors facilitate or undermine people’s sense of volition and

initiative, in addition to their well-being and the quality of their performance.

(www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory)
Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 20

Once again, there appears to be a clear link between perceptual theory and SDT’s focus on

social and cultural factors that influence volition, initiative, motivation, well-being and

performance quality.

4. Student Engagement. The topic of engagement in education is an emerging idea that

remains somewhat vague and undefined. The concept itself appears to be quite significant

(Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004), but further empirical research needs to be done,

particularly in terms of concept formation and the identification of criteria and related

behaviors. That being said, Dunleavy and Milton (2010) capture the potential value and impact

engagement could have on student learning for all demographic groups:

Today, all young people need to learn to use their minds well through deep engagement

in learning that reflects skills, knowledge, and dispositions fit for their present lives as

well as the ones they aspire to in the future. More than ever, their health and well-

being, success in the workplace, ability to construct identities and thrive in a pluralistic

society, as well as their sense of agency as active citizens, depend on it. What was once

reserved for the academically endowed student is now required for all students.

Advances in the learning sciences, insights into human development, and powerful

examples in some schools provide the evidence we need to confirm that the vast

majority of students are capable of becoming powerful learners. And yet, our school

systems struggle in their attempts to meet the needs of all adolescent learners,

especially those from the most vulnerable groups in society (p.5).

Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 21

Perceptual theory’s insights into learning as behavior, learning as differentiation, and the links

between learning, meaning, and identity dovetail very well with a focus on student

engagement.

5. Implicit social cognition. While perceptual theory provides some clarity concerning

factors that shape cognition and behavior, we are still left with an important question: What

shapes perception? Perceptual theory suggests a number of factors, including worldview,

culture, and experience. However, current research into implicit social cognition provides some

important food for thought. Implicit social cognition (ISC) has emerged as a significant factor in

issues of racism, bigotry, and marginalization. Bar-Anan and Nosek (2009) define ISC as

“Mental operations, related to the self or other people, that happen automatically and can

occur without awareness” (p. 383). These operations clearly have potential for a greater

understanding of perceptions. Based on what we know about perceptual theory, however, it is

also quite likely that an understanding of the perceptual tradition can also inform the emerging

ISC field as well. An additional quote from Bar-Anan and Nosek (2009) clarifies this link:

While it is easy to understand that people do not have perfect self-knowledge about

their physical state, it is less obvious that people do not have perfect self-knowledge

about their thoughts and feelings toward themselves and others. People often believe

that they know their own feelings and thoughts quite well. However, some thoughts and

feelings are explicit in that they are reportable by the person, but others are implicit in

that they are not reported. They are not reported either because people are unaware of

having them, or because people are aware of them but do not consider them to be their

“true” thoughts or feelings” (p. 383).

Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 22

E. For Future Research

It is important to remind the readers that this study is a conceptual study, being explored by a

neophyte researcher. That being said, there is significant potential value in an understanding

and exploration of perceptual theory. A number of potential questions have emerged as

possibilities for future research.

 What is the nature of the impact of perception? (e.g., empirical evidence of impact of

perception)

 What is the nature of the impact of perception on education and student learning?

 What influences perception?

 What would happen if students were taught about perceptual theory, and were challenged

to explore and identify their own perceptions as well as the perceptions of their peers?

What impact might this have on classroom culture and school relationships?

It is also appropriate for me to share the reasons for my interest in this topic. As a

former teacher and educational leader, I am particularly intrigued by the potential impact of

perceptions on education. It has provided a lens that provides some clarity and understanding

for some of my own experiences and struggles in the field. More importantly, perceptual

theory serves as the theoretical foundation for my current research study into educational care.

The focus on student perceptions is at the heart of my own current research on “Educational

Care.” All teachers intend to be caring, at least “in general.” But not all students receive (or

perceive) this care as the teacher intends. It is the student’s perception of a teacher’s care that

determines whether care exists or not, regardless of teacher intentions…

Rediscovering Perceptual Theory 23

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