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Jairo E. Serrano C.
Juan Carlos Martínez-Santos (Eds.)

Communications in Computer and Information Science 885

Advances
in Computing
13th Colombian Conference, CCC 2018
Cartagena, Colombia, September 26–28, 2018
Proceedings

123
Communications
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Jairo E. Serrano C.
Juan Carlos Martínez-Santos (Eds.)

Advances
in Computing
13th Colombian Conference, CCC 2018
Cartagena, Colombia, September 26–28, 2018
Proceedings

123
Editors
Jairo E. Serrano C. Juan Carlos Martínez-Santos
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 Preface

The Colombian Conference on Computing (CCC) is an annual gathering organized by

the Colombian Computer Society. It aims to promote and strengthen the Colombian
community in computer science, bringing together researchers, students, and practi-
tioners, both national and international.
The Colombian Computer Society has organized this conference since 2005 in Cali,
which has been held in successive editions in Bogotá (2007), Medellín (2008),
Bucaramanga (2010), Manizales (2011), Medellín (2012), Armenia (2013), Pereira
(2014), Bogotá (2015), Popayán (2016), and Cali (2017). The 13th Colombian Con-
ference on Computing was held in Cartagena de Indias again, its city of birth, during
September 26–28, 2018.
The conference was attended by national and international researchers. This year the
conference was organized by the Colombian Computer Society and the Universidad
Tecnológica de Bolívar. This conference was an opportunity to discuss and exchange
ideas about computing techniques, methodologies, and tools, among others, with a
multidisciplinary approach, strengthening the synergies between researchers, profes-
sionals, and companies related to the topics of interest of the conference.
The conference covers the following areas:
• Information and knowledge management
• Software engineering and IT architectures
• Educational informatics
• Intelligent systems and robotics
• Human–computer interaction
• Distributed systems and large-scale architectures
• Image processing, computer vision, and multimedia
• Security of information
• Formal methods, computational logic, and theory of computation
The conference allowed the presentation of research papers with (a) a significant
contribution to knowledge or (b) innovative experiences in the different areas of
computing. This conference included plenary lectures, discussion forums, tutorials, and
a symposium for master and doctoral students.
All paper submissions were reviewed by two experts. Authors removed personal
details, the acknowledgments section, and any reference that may disclose the authors’
identity. We received 194 submissions, of which 36 were accepted as full papers.
National and international reviewers participated in the review process. The EasyChair
system was used for the management and review of submissions.
Our sincere thanks go to all the Technical Program Committee members and authors
who submitted papers to the 13th CCC and to all speakers and participants.

July 2018 Jairo E. Serrano C.

Juan Carlos Martínez-Santos
 Organization

Conference Chairs
Juan Carlos Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia
Martínez-Santos
Jairo Serrano Castañeda Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia

Program Committee
Mauricio Alba Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia
Luis Fernando Castro Universidad del Quindio, Colombia
César Collazos Universidad del Cauca, Colombia
Toni Granollers Universidad de Lleida, Spain
Leonardo Flórez Pontificia Universidad Javeriana de Bogotá, Colombia
María Patricia Trujillo Universidad del Valle, Colombia
Nestor Duque Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
Iván Cabezas Universidad de San Buenaventura, Colombia
Carlos Hernán Gómez Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Harold Castro Universidad de los Andes, Colombia

Colombian Computer Society (SCO2)

Enrique González
María Clara Gómez
Yenny Alexandra Méndez Alegría
Iván M. Cabezas T.
Juan Carlos Martinez
Andrés Solano
Jorge Iván Ríos Patiño

Technical Program Committee

Gerardo M. Sarria M. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Cali, Colombia
Néstor Darío Duque Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
Méndez
Silvana Aciar Instituto de Informática, Universidad Nacional de San
Juan, Argentina
Maria Villegas Universidad del Quindío, Colombia
Hector Florez Universidad Distrital Francisco Jose de Caldas,
Colombia
VIII Organization

Fabio Martinez Carrillo Bioingenium Research Group, National University

of Colombia, Colombia
Paula Lago Uniandes, Colombia
Francisco Alvarez Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico
Mauricio Alba-Castro Universidad Autonoma de Manizales UAM, Colombia
Sonia Contreras Ortiz Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia
Victor M. Gonzalez Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Mexico
Edwin Puertas Universidad Tecnologica de Bolivar, Colombia
Cristina Manresa-Yee University of the Balearic Islands, Spain
Pablo Ruiz Unicomfacauca, Colombia
Fabio González Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
Luis Fernando Castro Rojas Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Universidad del
Quindío, Colombia
Harold Castro Communications and Information Technology Group
(COMIT), Universidad de Los Andes, Colombia
Helga Duarte Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
Vanessa Agredo Delgado Unicauca, Colombia
Jorge Villalobos University of los Andes, Colombia
Andres Moreno University of los Andes, Colombia
Philippe Palanque ICS-IRIT, University of Toulouse 3, France
Pablo Torres-Carrion UTPL, Ecuador
Patricia Paderewski University of Granada, Spain
Juan Pavón Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
José Antonio Macías Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Iglesias
Ana Isabel Molina Díaz University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Enrique González Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia
Marta Rosecler Bez UFRGS, Brazil
Ricardo Azambuja Silveira Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Ivan Cabezas Universidad de San Buenaventura, Colombia
Alicia Mon Universidad Nacional de La Matanza, Argentina
Carina Gonzalez Universidad de La Laguna, Spain
Andrés Adolfo Navarro Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Cali, Colombia
Newball
Olga Marino Universidad de los Andes, Colombia
Jose Luis Villa Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia
Gabriel Pedraza Universidad Industrial de Santander, Colombia
Angela Carrillo-Ramos Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia
Wilson Javier Sarmiento Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Colombia
Carlos Mario Zapata Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
Jaramillo
Daniela Quiñones Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile
Yannis Dimitriadis University of Valladolid, Spain
Jaime Muñoz-Arteaga Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico
Víctor Bucheli Universidad del Valle, Colombia
Jaime Chavarriaga University of Los Andes, Colombia
 Organization IX

José Antonio Pow-Sang Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, Peru

Fernando De La Rosa R. Universidad de los Andes, Colombia
Cristian Rusu Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso, Chile
Andrea Rueda Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia
Leonardo Flórez-Valencia Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia
Gisela T. de Clunie Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Panama
Mario Alberto Moreno Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca, Mexico
Rocha
Jorge E. Camargo Universidad Antonio Nariño, Colombia
Norha M. Villegas Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia,
Omar S. Gómez Technical School of Chimborazo, Ecuador
Claudia Roncancio Grenoble University, France
Cesar Collazos Colombia
Tiago Primo Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil
Federico Botella UMH, Spain
Maria Patricia Trujillo Universidad del Valle, Colombia
Kyungmin Bae Pohang University of Science and Technology
(POSTECH), South Korea
William Caicedo Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia
Lyda Peña Universidad Autonoma de Occidente, Colombia
Artur Boronat University of Leicester
Fáber Danilo Giraldo Colombia
Velásquez
Mauricio Ayala-Rincon Universidade de Brasilia, Brazil
Andrés Sicard-Ramírez EAFIT University, Colombia
Mayela Coto Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica
Gustavo Isaza University of Caldas, Colombia
Miguel Redondo University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Carlos Hernan Gomez Universidad de Caldas
Mauricio Toro-Bermudez Universidad Eafit, Colombia
Leandro Krug Wives Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS),
Brazil
Hugo Jair Escalante INAOE
Xabiel García Pañeda Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
Alfonso Infante Moro Universidad de Huelva, Spain
Toni Granollers University of Lleida, Spain
Luis Freddy Muñoz Fundacion Universitaria de Popayan, Colombia
Sanabria
Angela Villareal Universidad del Cauca, Colombia
Juan Francisco Diaz Universidad del Valle, Colombia
Leonardo Arturo Bautista Barcelona Supercomputing Center, Spain
Gomez
X Organization
 Contents

Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review . . . . . . . . . . 1

Y. F. Uribe, K. C. Alvarez-Uribe, D. H. Peluffo-Ordoñez,
and M. A. Becerra

Optimized Artificial Neural Network System to Select an Exploration

Algorithm for Robots on Bi-dimensional Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Liesle Caballero, Mario Jojoa, and Winston Percybrooks

Comparative Analysis Between Embedded-Spaces-Based

and Kernel-Based Approaches for Interactive Data Representation. . . . . . . . . 28
C. K. Basante-Villota, C. M. Ortega-Castillo, D. F. Peña-Unigarro,
J. E. Revelo-Fuelagán, J. A. Salazar-Castro, and D. H. Peluffo-Ordóñez

Solving Large Systems of Linear Equations on GPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Tomás Felipe Llano-Ríos, Juan D. Ocampo-García,
Johan Sebastián Yepes-Ríos, Francisco J. Correa-Zabala,
and Christian Trefftz

Learning Analytics as a Tool for Visual Analysis in an Open Data

Environment: A Higher Education Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Johnny Salazar-Cardona, David Angarita-Garcia,
and Jeferson Arango-López

Mathematical Model for Assigning an Optimal Frequency of Buses

in an Integrated Transport System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Juan Sebastián Mantilla Quintero and Juan Carlos Martínez Santos

Diatom Segmentation in Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Jose Libreros, Gloria Bueno, Maria Trujillo, and Maria Ospina

Implementation of a Wormhole Attack on Wireless Sensor Networks

with XBee S2C Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Julian Ramirez Gómez, Héctor Fernando Vargas Montoya,
and Alvaro Leon Henao

REAL-T: Time Modularization in Reactive Distributed Applications . . . . . . . 113

Luis Daniel Benavides Navarro, Camilo Pimienta, Mateo Sanabria,
Daniel Díaz, Wilmer Garzón, Willson Melo, and Hugo Arboleda
XII Contents

Odor Pleasantness Classification from Electroencephalographic Signals

and Emotional States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
M. A. Becerra, E. Londoño-Delgado, S. M. Pelaez-Becerra,
L. Serna-Guarín, A. E. Castro-Ospina, D. Marin-Castrillón,
and D. H. Peluffo-Ordóñez

Exploration of Characterization and Classification Techniques for

Movement Identification from EMG Signals: Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . 139
A. Viveros-Melo, L. Lasso-Arciniegas, J. A. Salazar-Castro,
D. H. Peluffo-Ordóñez, M. A. Becerra, A. E. Castro-Ospina,
and E. J. Revelo-Fuelagán

An Automatic Approach to Generate Corpus in Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Edwin Puertas, Jorge Andres Alvarado-Valencia,
Luis Gabriel Moreno-Sandoval, and Alexandra Pomares-Quimbaya

Comparing Graph Similarity Measures for Semantic Representations

of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Rubén Manrique, Felipe Cueto-Ramirez, and Olga Mariño

Knowledge Graph-Based Teacher Support for Learning Material Authoring . . . 177

Christian Grévisse, Rubén Manrique, Olga Mariño,
and Steffen Rothkugel

Building Alternative Methods for Aiding Language Skills Learning

for the Hearing Impaired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Paula A. Correa D., Juan P. Mejía P., Andrés M. Lenis L.,
Cristian A. Camargo G., and Andrés A. Navarro-Newball

A Training Algorithm to Reinforce Generic Competences in Higher

Education Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Sara Muñoz, Oscar Bedoya, Edwin Gamboa, and María Trujillo

A Structure-from-Motion Pipeline for Topographic Reconstructions

Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Open Source Software . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Jhacson Meza, Andrés G. Marrugo, Enrique Sierra, Milton Guerrero,
Jaime Meneses, and Lenny A. Romero

CREANDO – Platform for Game Experiences Base on Pervasive

Narrative in Closed Spaces: An Educational Experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Carlos C. Ceron Valdivieso, Jeferson Arango-López, Cesar A. Collazos,
and Francisco Luis Gutiérrez Vela

Towards a Smart Farming Platform: From IoT-Based Crop Sensing

to Data Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Héctor Cadavid, Wilmer Garzón, Alexander Pérez, Germán López,
Cristian Mendivelso, and Carlos Ramírez
 Contents XIII

Instrumented Insole for Plantar Pressure Measurement in Sports . . . . . . . . . . 252

Iván Echeverry-Mancera, William Bautista-Aguiar, Diego
Florez-Quintero, Dayana Narvaez-Martinez,
and Sonia H. Contreras-Ortiz

UP-VSE: A Unified Process - Based Lifecycle Model for Very

Small Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Jhon Alvarez and Julio Hurtado

Frame-Level Covariance Descriptor for Action Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Wilson Moreno, Gustavo Garzón, and Fabio Martínez

Prediction Model of Electricity Energy Demand for FCU in Colombia

Based on Stacking and Text Mining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Javier H. Velasco Castillo and Andrés M. Castillo

Access Control Application Based on the IMS Communication Framework . . . 301

Estefanía Figueroa-Buitrago and Fabio G. Guerrero

Positioning of the Cutting Tool of a CNC Type Milling Machine

by Means of Digital Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Juan Camilo Londoño Lopera, Jhon Edison Goez Mora,
and Edgar Mario Rico Mesa

Support Vector Machines for Semantic Relation Extraction

in Spanish Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Jefferson Peña Torres, Raúl Gutierrez de Piñerez Reyes,
and Víctor A. Bucheli

A Strategy Based on Technological Maps for the Identification

of the State-of-the-Art Techniques in Software Development Projects:
Virtual Judge Projects as a Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Carlos G. Hidalgo Suarez, Vıctor A. Bucheli, Felipe Restrepo-Calle,
and Fabio A. Gonzalez

Making Decisions on the Student Quota Problem: A Case Study

Using a MIP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Robinson Duque, Víctor Bucheli, Jesús Alexander Aranda,
and Juan Francisco Díaz

Towards On-Line Sign Language Recognition Using Cumulative

SD-VLAD Descriptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Jefferson Rodríguez and Fabio Martínez

Applying CRISP-DM in a KDD Process for the Analysis

of Student Attrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Luis Fernando Castro R., Esperanza Espitia P.,
and Andrés Felipe Montilla
XIV Contents

Fuzzy Logic Model for the Evaluation of Cognitive Training

Through Videogames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Holman Bolivar, Sonia Rios, Karol Garcia, Sandra Castillo,
and Cesar Díaz

Creating a Software Product Line of Mini-Games to Support

Language Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Luisa Rincón, Juan-C. Martínez, María C. Pabón, Javier Mogollón,
and Alejandro Caballero

Segmentation and Detection of Vascular Bifurcations and Crossings

in Retinal Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Maria Aguiar, Felipe Castano, and Maria Trujillo

Object-Oriented Mathematical Modeling for Estimating Electric

Vehicle’s Range Using Modelica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
J. A. Dominguez-Jimenez and Javier Campillo

Addressing Motivation Issues in Physical Rehabilitation Treatments

Using Exergames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Ruiz Camilo, Gamboa Edwin, Cortes Andres, and Trujillo Maria

HoloEasy, A Web Application for Computer Generated Holograms. . . . . . . . 471

Alberto Patiño-Vanegas, Lenier Leonis Diaz-Pacheco,
John Jairo Patiño-Vanegas, and Juan Carlos Martínez-Santos

Integrated Model AmI-IoT-DA for Care of Elderly People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Andrés Sánchez, Enrique González, and Luis Barreto

Intelligent Hybrid Approach for Computer-Aided Diagnosis

of Mild Cognitive Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Juan Camilo Flórez, Santiago Murillo Rendón, Francia Restrepo de Mejía,
Belarmino Segura Giraldo, and for The Alzheimer’s Disease
Neuroimaging Initiative

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented
to Diagnosis - A Review

Y. F. Uribe1, K. C. Alvarez-Uribe1, D. H. Peluffo-Ordoñez2,

and M. A. Becerra1(&)
1
Instituto Tecnológico Metropolitano, Medellín, Colombia
migb2b@gmail.com
2
Yachay Tech, San Miguel de Urcuquí Canton, Ecuador

Abstract. The analysis of physiological signals is widely used for the devel-
opment of diagnosis support tools in medicine, and it is currently an open
research field. The use of multiple signals or physiological measures as a whole
has been carried out using data fusion techniques commonly known as multi-
modal fusion, which has demonstrated its ability to improve the accuracy of
diagnostic care systems. This paper presents a review of state of the art, putting
in relief the main techniques, challenges, gaps, advantages, disadvantages, and
practical considerations of data fusion applied to the analysis of physiological
signals oriented to diagnosis decision support. Also, physiological signals data
fusion architecture oriented to diagnosis is proposed.

Keywords: Data fusion
Multimodal fusion
Diagnostic decision support

Signal processing
Physiological signal

1 Introduction

Physiological signals deliver relevant information on the status of the human being,
which helps the doctor to give a diagnosis for specifics pathologies, and therefore
provide appropriate treatment. However, in many cases, these tasks become more
complicated since patients can present several pathologies that must be managed
simultaneously. Additionally, physiological parameters change frequently, requiring a
rapid analysis, and high-risk decisions [1] that result from the interpretation of the
human expert that analyses the available clinical evidence.
Recently, studies the analysis of multimodal signals, for diagnostic support using
multimodal has increased [2, 3] in data fusion. This last covers the analysis of different
sources and types of data. Its aims is to provide information with less uncertainty [4]
and potentially allows ubiquitous and continuous monitoring of physiological param-
eters [5] and reduce adverse effects of the signals due to sensor movements, irregular
sampling, bad connections and signal noise [6–10]. Data fusion can include different
processes such as association, correlation, combine data, and information achieved
from one or multiple sources to identify objects, situations, and threats [11].
This paper presents a literature review of the data fusion oriented to clinical
diagnosis discussing and identifying their most common techniques, properties, and
highlighting advantages, disadvantages, challenges, lacks, and gaps. This review was

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

J. E. Serrano C. and J. C. Martínez-Santos (Eds.): CCC 2018, CCIS 885, pp. 1–15, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98998-3_1
2 Y. F. Uribe et al.

carried out from Scopus and Web of Sciences database, based on these search criteria:
(i) (physiological signals) and (diagnosis decision support); and (ii) ((“data fusion”) or
(“information fusion”) or (“multimodal”) and (diagnosis or diagnostic)) and (“physi-
ological signals”). The selected papers were reported between years 2013 and 2018 in
journals of quartile 1 and quartile 2 principally. Also, a data fusion framework oriented
to clinical diagnostic was proposed for physiological signals processing based on the
Joint Directors of Laboratories (JDL) model. The rest of the document is organized as
follows: in section two, a description of the physiological signals is presented. In
section three, we describe the most common multi-modal fusion models, spotlighting
data processing, and fusion techniques; Section four contains the proposed architecture;
and finally, the conclusions and future work are presented.

2 Physiological Signals Description

The physiological signals provide information that can be analyzed by specialists to

determine with more accurate the diagnosis and treatments, besides, may be used for
retrospective studies by research organizations [12]. Physiological signals are obtained
through a large number of biomedical measuring devices, such as multi-parameter vital
signs monitors, electroencephalograms, electrocardiograms, electromyograms, ther-
mometers, motion sensors, oxygen saturation, glucometers, among others. These sig-
nals give a lot of information of the organs, but they have multiple problems of noise
derived from internal and external causes.
Each signal or group of signals have different application for monitoring of vital
signs or diagnostic such as cardiovascular diseases [13], apneic events [14], assesses
the activity of back muscles in patients of (scoliosis, identify locomotion modes and
measure tissue oxygenation) measure the level of anesthesia during surgery [15], eye
tracking [16], non-invasive assessment of blood flow changes in muscle and bone using
photoplethysmography (PPG) [17], pulmonary embolism, acute respiratory distress
syndrome [18], heart valve disease [19], changes in the severity of aortic regurgitation
[20], Arterial aging studies [21], Human motion disorders [22], Epilepsy [23] among
others. Some signals are applied for brain–computer interfaces (BCI), which provide
people suffering partial or complete motor impairments, through a non-muscular
communication channel to transmission of commands to devices that allow managing
an application, e.g., computerized spelling, robotic wheelchairs, robotic arms, teleop-
erated mobile robots, games or virtual environments [24, 25].
Different signals are analyzed for developing diagnostic support systems; an
important group of them capture information synchronously or asynchronously from
different human being organs. Figure 1 shows a classification of these signals as follow:
(i) bioelectric signals: they are variations of biopotential versus time, e.g. Electrocar-
diogram (ECG), electrooculography (EOG), electromyography (EMG), electroen-
cephalography (EEG), and electrocorticography (ECoG); (ii) Bioacoustic signals: These
provide plot of recording of the sounds, e.g. phonocardiography (PCG); (iii) Biooptic
signals: they correspond to measures based on detected light intensity from different
tissues, flows of the body, among others, e.g. photoplethysmography (PPG); (iv)
biomechanical signals: they are pressure measures mainly, e.g. blood pressure (BP),
 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review 3

intracranial pressure (ICP), body move (BM), systolic volume (SV); (v) bioimpedance
signals: correspond to electrodermal activity e.g. skin conductivity (SC) or galvanic skin
response (GSR); (vi) biochemical signals: These are based on chemical components
measures e.g. blood glucose (BG).

Fig. 1. Physiological signals classification

ECG is widely used to understand and investigate cardiac health condition [2, 26,
27]. EOG is related to the eye movement which is derived from Cornea-Retinal
Potential [28, 29]. EMG is acquired using electrodes through a muscle fiber skin to
observe the muscle activity. It is also associated with the neural signals, sent from the
spinal cord to muscles [30, 31]. EEG signals indicate any nervous excitement by
detecting brain activities derived from neurons in the brain that communicate through
electrical impulses [15, 32, 33]. ECoG records are an electrical activity of the brain by
means of invasive electrodes [23, 34]. Obtaining information from bioelectric signals
becomes extremely difficult due to limited data and presence of noise which signifi-
cantly affects the ability to detect weak sources of interest [26, 35].
PCG acquisition is plain, non-invasive, low-cost and precise for assessing a wide
range of heart disease (e.g. cardiac murmurs) [19, 36]. However, they are altered by
external acoustic sources (such as speech, environmental noise, etc.) and physiological
interference (such as lung sounds, cough, etc.) [37]. Respiratory rate (RR) [18], can be
altered by noise and movement artifacts [38]. PPG signal consists of direct current
(DC) and alternating current (AC) components. The AC component represents the
changes in arterial blood volume between the systolic and diastolic phases of a cardiac
cycle. The DC component corresponds to the detected light intensity from tissues,
venous blood, and non-pulsatile components of arterial blood, an example of trans-
mission type is a fingertip pulse oximeter (Spo2), which is clinically accepted and
widely used. Clinical applications of PPG sensors are limited by their low signal to
noise ratio (SNR), which is caused by the large volume of skin, muscle, and fat and
relatively small pulsatile component of arterial blood [17, 39].
BP is defined by systolic and diastolic pressure, and it is measured in millimeters of
mercury (mmHg), but main forms of noninvasive blood pressure measurement are
divided into intermittent and continuous blood pressure measurements [40, 41], con-
secutively affecting the calculated measure of systolic volume (SV), ICP is the pressure
within skull [42]; BM capture body movements [22, 43]; SC is the electrodermal
activity, indicator of sympathetic activation and a useful tool for investigating
4 Y. F. Uribe et al.

psychological and physiological arousal [44, 45]; BG indicates the amount of energy in
the body [43, 46]. Finally, the temperature measurement (Temp) is a measure of the
ability of the body or skin to generate and release heat [3, 43]. These signals can be
easily altered by movement and body mass, environmental noise, intermittent con-
nections, etc. In Table 1 is shown a summarize of some applications of physiological
signals for monomodal clinical support systems.

Table 1. Physiological signals applications

Signal Applications
ECG Cardiovascular diseases [13]
Apneic events [14]
EMG Assesses the activity of back muscles in patients suffering of scoliosis [47]
Identify locomotion modes such as level-ground walking, standing, sitting,
and ascending/descending stairs and ramps [30]
Measure tissue oxygenation [48]
EEG The level of anesthesia during surgery [15]
EOG Eye tracker [16]
Parkinson’s disease [49]
PPG Early detection of pathologies related to the heart [15]
Non-invasive assessment of blood flow changes in muscle and bone using
PPG [17]
RR Rapid breathing (tachypnea) [18]
PCG Heart failure [19]
SV Changes in the severity of aortic regurgitation [20]
Arterial aging studies [21]
GSR Repeatability of measurements of galvanic skin response [45]
Accelerometer Human motion disorders [22]
Blood glucose Diabetes or hypoglycemia [46]
BP Hypotension or hypertension [40]
Temperature Emotion recognition [50]
ICP Hydrocephalus [42]
ECoG Epilepsy [23]

3 Signal Fusion

Multiple information about the same phenomenon can be acquired from different types
of detectors or sensors, under different conditions, in multiple experiments or subjects.
Particularly multimodal fusion refers to the combination of various signals of multiple
modalities to improve the performance of the systems decreasing the uncertain of their
results. Each modality contributes a type of added value that cannot be deduced or
obtained from only type of physiological signals [51, 52].
There are several techniques of multimodal fusion reported in the literature, like the
sum and the product, which have been used for data fusion, and consecutively these
operators have evolved into more advanced ones, particularly through the results of
 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review 5

soft-computing and fuzzy operator research (Fig. 2) [53] which are widely discussed in
[54] as follows: (i) Fusion of imperfect data are approaches capable of representing
specific aspects of imperfect data (Probabilistic fusion, Evidential belief reasoning,
fusion based on Random set theoretic fusion, Fusion and fuzzy reasoning, Possibilistic
fusion, Rough set based fusion, Hybrid fusion approaches (the main idea behind
development of hybrid fusion algorithms is that different fusion methods complement
each other to give a more precise approach); (ii) Fusion of correlated data provide
either independence or prior knowledge of the cross covariance of data to produce
consistent results; (iii) Fusion of inconsistent data is the notion of data inconsistency
(Spurious data, Out of sequence data, Conflicting data), and (iv) fusion of disparate
data is the input data to a fusion system, which is generated by a wide variety of
sensors, humans, or even stored sensory data [54]. However, categorizations most used
are described in [11, 52, 55–57]; which consists of three types of fusion: (i) early: the
characteristics obtained from different modalities are combined into a single repre-
sentation before feeding the learning phase, it is known as feature fusion, and its major
advantage is the detection of correlated features generated by different sensor signals so
to identify a feature subset that improves recognition accuracy; In addition, the main
drawback is to find the most significant feature subset, large training sets are typically
required [11, 50, 58]; (ii) intermediate: it can cope with the imperfect data, along with
the problems of reliability and asynchrony between different modalities, and (iii) late
[59]: it is known as fusion level decision each modality is processed separately by a
first recognizer, and another model is trained on the unimodal predictions to predict the
actual single modal gold standard [33], main decision-level fusion advantages include
communication bandwidth savings and improved decision accuracy. Another important
aspect of decision fusion is the combination of the heterogeneous sensors whose
measurement domains have been processed with different algorithms [11, 50, 58, 60].

Fig. 2. Evolution of data fusion operators [53]

The simplest approach to multimodal analysis is to design a classifier per modality

and joint the output of these classifiers combine the visual model and the text model
under the assumption that they are independent, thus the probabilities are simply
6 Y. F. Uribe et al.

multiplied [61]. Nevertheless, accurate synchronization of multimodal data streams is

critical to avoid parameter skews for analysis [62]. Table 2, shows a summarize
advantages and disadvantages of this multimodal fusion.

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages multimodal fusion

Advantages
- Improved signal to noise ratio
- Reduced ambiguity and uncertainty
- Increased confidence
- Enhanced robustness and reliability
- Improved resolution, precision and
hypothesis discrimination
- Interaction of the human with the
machine
- Integration of independent features
and prior knowledge [33, 58]
Disadvantages
- The uncertainties in sensors arise the ambiguities
and inconsistencies present in the environment, and
from the inability to distinguish between them [54]
- They require signal processing techniques
- The data distributed with a similar semantics, cannot
be directly fused and should process separately
- Primary data is only available for a short time, as in
the case of stream data, which is usually processed in
real time and then deleted after storing the analysis
results [63]

In general, the main problem of multimodal data processing is that the data must be
processed separately and must be combined only at the end, the dimensionality of joint
feature space, different feature formats, and time-alignment. The information theory
provides with a set of information measures that not only assess the amount of
information that one single source of data contains, but also the amount of information
that two sources of data have in common [52, 61].
In Table 3 is shown multiple studies of fusion of several physiological signals
alongside the techniques applied for specific clinical diagnostic decision support with
their respective accuracy (Acc). We highlighted the applications in emotion recogni-
tion, monitoring and reduce the false alarms hart diagnosis, and the applicability of
ECG signals for fusing with other signals for several diagnostics.

Table 3. Multimodal fusion systems

Ref Fused signals Techniques Diagnostic
[64] RR and ECG Modified Kalman-Filter Estimating
(KF) framework respiratory rate
[65] ECG, EMG, SC and RR Hilbert-HuangTransform Emotion
Acc: 71% (HHT) recognition
[10] ECG, EMG, EOG, SC, RR, Classifier fusion (Linear and
and finger Temp Quadratic Discriminant
Acc: 67.5% arousal and Analysis with diagonal
73.8% valence covariance matrix estimation)
[66] BP and SC Algorithm sequence pattern
mining and artificial neural
network
[50] BP, EMG, SC, SKT and FR Viola-Jones face detector, Shi
Acc: 78.9% & Thomasi method, Euclidean
distance and feature-level
fusion
(continued)
 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review 7

Table 3. (continued)
Ref Fused signals Techniques Diagnostic
[67] GSR, attitude of the head, Reference model (CSALP),
eyes and facial expressions valence-arousal method,
boosting algorithm, model
(ASM), Haar-like features,
flow-based algorithm, POSIT
algorithms, RANSAC
regression, entropy, SVM-
based method, Support vector
machine (SVM), filters and
multimodal fusion
[52] EEG, GSR, EMG and EOG Discrete wavelet transform Predict emotions
Acc: 85%
[5] ECG and SpO2 Stochastic Petri net (SPN) and Improve
Wearable health monitoring monitoring and
system (WHMS) reduce the false
[8] ECG, PA, SV, PPG and Robust algorithm alarms
EEG
Acc: 89.63%
[2] ECG Beat-by-beat algorithm, Location of the
Function ‘gqrs’ of the WFDB heart beat
toolbox, Open-source
algorithm, ‘wabp’ of the
WFDB Toolbox and candidate
detections ratio (CDR)
[68] EEG and EOG Approximate entropy (ApEn), Drowsiness
Acc: 97.3% Sample entropy (SampEn),
Renyientropy (RenEn),
Recurrence quantification
analysis (RQA), Extreme
learning machine (ELM) and
wavelet-based nonlinear
features
[69] Change eye gaze direction SLD (Standard Lateral
and duration of flicker Deviation), D-S, decision
Acc: 70% fusion
[43] BP, ECG, EEG, EMG, Preprocessing, puts filter, self- Heart rate
Spo2, FC, Temp and BG adaptive, data compression variability [70]
(CR and PRD), Gateway data
fusion, fuzzy logic, artificial
neural networks, support
vector machines and
classification (specificity and
sensitivity)
[71] ECG and PCG Wavelet transform, discrete
Acc: 97% wavelet transform STFT, band
pass filter and decision fusion
(continued)
8 Y. F. Uribe et al.

Table 3. (continued)
Ref Fused signals Techniques Diagnostic
[60] BP, ECG and FC The Processing Elements Hypotension and
Acc: 99.7% (PEs) and decision-level fusion hypertension [40]
[72] ECG and accelerometer Hamilton-Tompkins algorithm, Congestive heart
Acc: 99% bandpass filter, wavelet failure and sleep
transform and data fusion apnea and asthma
algorithm
[73] ECoG Criterion of Neyman-Pearson, Epilepsy
preprocessing, fusion channels
unification and voting, ROC
curve and area under the curve
(AUC)
[7] BP and ECG Kalman Filter (KF), fusion Left ventricular
Acc: 99.4% technique Townsend and hypertrophy [74]
Tarassenko and signal quality
index (SQI)
[1] ECG, BP and PCA (principal component Arrhythmias
PPG analysis), Kalman filter, LSP
(Lomb - Scargleperiodogram)
and data fusion covariance
[6] BP, ECG and RR DWT (Discrete Wavelet
Acc: 94.15% transform) and decision fusion
[75] ECG, GSR, rotation of the FFT, fusion based on Bayesian Fatigue and stress
head, movement of the eyes network data, pre-filter
and yawn Butterworth fission and
Gaussian filter
[76] Essential tremor (ET), EMD (Empirical mode Tremor
Parkinson’s disease (PD), decomposition), DWT
physiological tremor (discrete wavelet transform),
(PT) and EMG D S (Dempster-Shafer), BPNN
Acc: 99.6% (back-propagation neural
network) and decision fusion
[42] ICP The median and the tendency Hydrocephalus
of the waveform, FIR (low
pass filter), evidence fusion
and global fusion
[77] FC Fuzzy logic, Neural networks, Hypovolemia
Bayesian probability and belief
network
[55] BP, ECG and EEG Signal quality index (SQI), Alterations in
Acc: 86.26% Estimation of regular intervals, cardiac
Heartbeats detection, autonomic control
adaptative filter, Multimodal peripheral [78]
fusion and QRS detection
 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review 9

4 Proposed Model

Different architectures and methodologies of data fusion have been reported in [11, 60,
79, 80], based on the Joint Directors of Laboratories (JDL) model which focus on the
abstraction level of the manipulated data by a fusion system. We proposed a general
framework for processing and fusion of multimodal physiological signals oriented to
diagnostic support systems. The architecture consists of four levels (Fig. 3), where the
level 0 has for purpose make the acquisition of different physiological signals and
realize the pre-processing, which consists of the stage of filtration, feature extraction,
and normalization; Level 1, is composed by a spatial-temporal alignment and data
correlation, the latter checks the proportionality of the information, i.e., if the infor-
mation is not consistent will be feedback to the preprocessing stage, otherwise the
process continues. Subsequently, the association of information executes a classifica-
tion with multiple hypothesis tests, which tracks multiple targets in dense environments
with the help of Bayesian networks or similar techniques, providing labels to each
signal obtained from the sensors, but when the objective position is doubtful, data
estimation is performed with the maximum posterior method that is based on Bayesian
theory, and is used when the X parameter to be estimated is the output of a random

Sensor 1 S1

Filter Feature NormalizaƟon

Human Sensor 2 S2
acter extracƟon
Sensor n Sn

Pre - processing

Level 0
AassociaƟon (MHT)
NO
and esƟmaƟon (MAP) S1

Features YES SpaƟo-temporal

S1 Data correlaƟon S2 alignment
fusion S2
Sn Sn

S1 S2 Sn

Algorithm to eliminate
False alarms
false alarms

Level 1
Pathology 1

Training machine Decision fusion

Pathology 2 Clinical diagnosis
learning

Pathology n

Treatment 1
Level 2
ValuaƟon, risk
Treatment 2
and impact

Treatment n

Level 3

Fig. 3. Proposed data fusion oriented to diagnostic.

10 Y. F. Uribe et al.

variable with a known Pr P(X) function, consecutively the system performs an analysis
verifying the status of the labels, if at any moment a different label to those assigned to
the physiological parameters is identified as false alarm, it is eliminated by means of the
algorithm; afterwards, sets of characteristics obtained are fused to form vectors of
significant features. Consequently, level 2 has the function to determine the possible
pathologies presented by the patient through learning machines; finally level 3 includes
the decision level, which will determine the best hypothesis for the pathology, pro-
viding a clinical diagnosis and a possible treatment, besides this determines the
assessment, risk, and impact of the process based on forecast system. All stages allow
including hard and soft data, context information, together medical criteria and a
mapping system based on performance quality metrics that allow optimizing the
processing.
The proposed model was developed to diminish the high rate of false alarms in
services of constant monitoring, supply a timely diagnosis and a possible treatment to
the pathology of the patient, providing support the specialist.

5 Conclusion

In this work were discussed multiple physiological signals alongside multimodal data
fusion systems applied in clinical diagnosis support systems, highlighting advantages,
disadvantages, shortcomings, and challenges. It has highlighted the capability of
multimodal data fusion systems because of allowing obtaining more reliable and robust
psychological or physiological information using multiple sources respect to unimodal
systems, revealing an increase in the accuracy of diagnoses, and demonstrating com-
plementarity of modalities. Additionally, multimodal data fusion yields important
insights processes and structures, spatiotemporal resolution complementarity, including
a comprehensive physiological view, structures, quantification, generalization and
normalization [81]. Nevertheless, accurate synchronization of multimodal data streams
is critical to avoid parameter skews for analysis.
For some diagnosis, the results can be considered low. Therefore, studies in this
field must follow. We consider that other signals can be included in the data fusion
systems and complement it with information quality evaluation systems as the pro-
posed in [82]. In addition, we proposed a physiological signal fusion architecture,
based on the JDL model; in order to provide a more reliable diagnosis and treatment
based on evidence, all of the above to support the specialist in their decisions; The
interface for the model will present continuous monitoring, without alterations with
minimum response times, and easy to use.
Finally, to develop more effective clinical decision support mechanisms, an
architecture was proposed, which covers all levels of development of diagnostic of the
assistance systems in the field health taking into account the gaps found in the literature
such as lack traceability of the systems from acquisition until results, visualizations,
and treatments. Besides, other problems such as signals that cannot be directly merged
and must be done separately, the low availability of data in the time, the high com-
putational cost of complex models, and limitations about the assessment of situation
and risk.
 Physiological Signals Fusion Oriented to Diagnosis - A Review 11

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impression on him then to modify his violent zeal (supposing them
to be right now) it is a sign either of a disinclination, or of an
incapacity, on his part, to give truth a fair hearing—a bad ground to
build his present dogmatical and infallible tone upon! It is certain,
that the common sense of the world condemns these violent changes
of opinion; and if they do not prove that a man prefers his
convenience to his virtue, they at least show that he prefers it to his
reputation; for he loses his character by them. An apostate is a name
that all men abhor, that no man ever willingly acknowledges; and the
tergiversation which it denotes is not likely to come into much
greater request, till it is no longer observed that a man seldom
changes his principles except for his interest! Those who go over
from the winning to the losing side, do not incur this appellation;
and however we may count them fools, they can’t be called knaves
into the bargain.
QUERIES AND ANSWERS; OR THE RULE OF
CONTRARY

The London Weekly Review.]

[November 17, 1827.

1. Why is the word comfort so continually in the mouths of the

English?—Because the English are the most uncomfortable of all
people: for being so liable to receive pain from outward objects, and
being made uneasy by everything that is not as they wish it, they are
obliged to remove, if possible, every source of annoyance, and have
all their comforts about them.
2. Why are the English so fond of clubs, corporate bodies, joint-
stock companies, and large associations of all kinds?—Because they
are the most unsociable set of people in the world: for being mostly
at variance with each other, they are glad to get any one else to join
and be on their side; having no spontaneous attraction, they are
forced to fasten themselves into the machine of society; and each
holds out in his individual shyness and reserve, till he is carried away
by the crowd, and borne with a violent, but welcome shock against
some other mass of aggregate prejudice or self-interest. The English
join together to get rid of their sharp points and sense of
uncomfortable peculiarity. Hence, their clubs, their mobs, their sects,
their parties, their spirit of co-operation, and previous understanding
in every thing. An English mob is a collection of violent and
headstrong humours, acting with double force from each man’s
natural self-will, and the sense of opposition to others; and the same
may be said of the nation at large. The French unite and separate
more easily; and therefore do not collect into such formidable
masses, and act with such unity and tenacity of purpose. It is the
same with their ideas, which easily join together, and easily part
company; but do not form large or striking masses: and hence, the
French are full of wit and fancy, but without imagination and
principle. The French are governed by fashion, the English by cabal.
3. Why are the English a credulous nation, and the eager dupes of
all sorts of quacks and impostors?—Because they are a dry, plodding,
matter-of-fact people, and having, in general, no idea of the
possibility of telling lies, think all they hear or read must be true, and
are left at the mercy of every empiric or knavish pretender, who will
take the trouble to impose on them. From their very gravity and
seriousness, they are the dupes of superficial professions and
appearances, which they think, (judging from themselves,) must
imply all they pretend. Their folly and love of the marvellous takes a
practical and mischievous turn; they despise the fictitious, and
require to be amused by something that they think solid and useful.
Hence, they swallow Dr. Brodum’s pills, Joanna Southcote’s
prophecies, the Literary Gazette, and Blackwood’s Magazine, taking
them all for gospel. They constantly have a succession of idols or
bugbears. There is always some one to be hunted down at the time
for their amusement, like a strange dog in a village; and some name,
some work that is cried up for half-a-dozen years, as containing all
wisdom, and then you hear no more of it. No people judge so much
as the English at second-hand, except in mere matters of pounds,
shillings, and pence; and even then they may be gulled by impudence
and quackery. Every thing is either in collusion or collision. Thimble
was a great man in the O. P. Row, and now regulates the debates in
Parliament. If a man has a monstrous good opinion of himself, and
nothing will drive him out of it, the English will come into his way of
thinking, sooner than be left in a minority, or not appear to be in the
secret! Lest they should seem stupid, they try to be knowing, as they
become forward in aiming to be witty, and vulgar in affecting to be
genteel.
 ON KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD

The London Weekly Review.]

[December 1, 1827.
‘Who shall go about to cozen fortune, or wear the badge of honour without the
stamp of merit?’

A knowledge of the world is generally supposed to be the fruit of

experience and observation, or of a various, practical acquaintance
with men and things. On the contrary, it appears to me to be a kind
of instinct, arising out of a peculiar construction and turn of mind.
Some persons display this knowledge at their first outset in life:
others, with all their opportunities and dear-bought lessons, never
acquire it to the end of their career. In fact, a knowledge of the world
only means a knowledge of our own interest; it is nothing but a
species of selfishness or ramification of the law of self-preservation.
There may be said to be two classes of people in the world, which
remain for ever distinct: those who consider things in the abstract, or
with a reference to the truth, and those who consider them only with
a reference to themselves, or to the main-chance. The first, whatever
may be their acquirements or discoveries, wander through life in a
sort of absence of mind, or comparative state of sleep-walking: the
last, though their attention is riveted to a single point of view, are
always on the alert, know perfectly well what they are about, and
calculate with the greatest nicety the effect which their words or
actions will have on others. They do not trouble themselves about the
arguments on any subject: they know the opinion entertained on it,
and that is enough for them to regulate themselves by; the rest they
regard as quite Utopian, and foreign to the purpose. ‘Subtle as the
fox for prey, like warlike as the wolf for what they eat,’ they leave
mere speculative points to those who, from some unaccountable bias
or caprice take an interest in what does not personally concern them,
and make good the old saying, that ‘the children of the world are
wiser in their generation than the children of the light!’
The man of the world is to the man of science very much what the
chamelion is to the armadillo: the one takes its hue from every
surrounding object, and is undistinguishable from them; the other is
shut up in a formal crust of knowledge, and clad in an armour of
proof, from which the shaft of ridicule or the edge of disappointment
falls equally pointless. It is no uncommon case to see a person come
into a room, which he enters awkwardly enough, and has nothing in
his dress or appearance to recommend him, but after the first
embarrassments are over, sits down, takes his share in the
conversation, in which he acquits himself creditably, shews sense,
reading, and shrewdness, expresses himself with point, articulates
distinctly, when he blunders on some topic which he might see is
disagreeable, but persists in it the more as he finds others shrink
from it; mentions a book of which you have not heard, and perhaps
do not wish to hear, and he therefore thinks himself bound to favour
you with the contents; gets into an argument with one, proses on
with another on a subject in which his hearer has no interest; and
when he goes away, people remark, ‘What a pity that Mr. —— has not
more knowledge of the world, and has so little skill in adapting
himself to the tone and manners of society!’ But will time and habit
cure him of this defect? Never. He wants a certain tact, he has not a
voluntary power over his ideas, but is like a person reading out of a
book, or who can only pour out the budget of knowledge with which
his brain is crammed in all places and companies alike. If you
attempt to divert his attention from the general subject to the
persons he is addressing, you puzzle and stop him quite. He is a mere
conversing automaton. He has not the sense of personality—the
faculty of perceiving the effect (as well as the grounds) of his
opinions; and how then should failure or mortification give it him? It
must be a painful reflection, and he must be glad to turn from it; or
after a few reluctant and unsuccessful efforts to correct his errors, he
will try to forget or harden himself in them. Finding that he makes so
slow and imperceptible a progress in amending his faults, he will
take his swing in the opposite direction, will triumph and revel in his
supposed excellences, will launch out into the wide, untrammelled
field of abstract speculation, and silence envious sneers and petty
cavils by force of argument and dint of importunity. You will find
him the same character at sixty that he was at thirty; or should time
soften down some of his asperities, and tire him of his absurdities as
he has tired others, nothing will transform him into a man of the
world, and he will die in a garret, or a paltry second-floor, from not
having been able to acquire the art ‘to see ourselves as others see us,’
or to dress his opinions, looks, and actions in the smiles and
approbation of the world. On the other hand, take a youth from the
same town (perhaps a school-fellow, and the dunce of the
neighbourhood); he has ‘no figures, nor no fantasies which busy
thought draws in the brains of men,’ no preconceived notions by
which he must square his conduct or his conversation, no dogma to
maintain in the teeth of opposition, no Shibboleth to which he must
force others to subscribe; the progress of science or the good of his
fellow-creatures are things about which he has not the remotest
conception, or the smallest particle of anxiety—
‘His soul proud science never taught to stray
Far as the solar walk, or milky way;’

all that he sees or attends to is the immediate path before him, or

what can encourage or lend him a helping hand through it; his mind
is a complete blank, on which the world may write its maxims and
customs in what characters it pleases; he has only to study its
humours, flatter its prejudices, and take advantage of its foibles;
while walking the streets he is not taken up with solving an abstruse
problem, but with considering his own and the appearance of others;
instead of contradicting a patron, assents to all he hears; and in every
proposition that comes before him asks himself only what he can get
by it, and whether it will make him friends or enemies: such a one is
said to possess great penetration and knowledge of the world,
understands his place in society, gets on in it, rises from the counter
to the counting-house, from the dependant to be a partner, amasses
a fortune, gains in size and respectability as his affairs prosper, has
his town and country house, and ends with buying up half the estates
in his native county!
The great secret of a knowledge of the world, then, consists in a
subserviency to the will of others, and the primary motive to this
attention is a mechanical and watchful perception of our own
interest. It is not an art that requires a long course of study, the
difficulty is in putting one’s self apprentice to it. It does not surely
imply any very laborious or profound inquiry into the distinctions of
truth or falsehood, to be able to assent to whatever one hears; nor
any great refinement of moral feeling, to approve of whatever has
custom, power, or interest on its side. The only question is, ‘Who is
willing to do so?’—and the answer is, those who have no other
faculties or pretensions, either to stand in the way of or to assist their
progress through life. Those are slow to wear the livery of the world
who have any independent resources of their own. It is not that the
philosopher or the man of genius does not see and know all this, that
he is not constantly and forcibly reminded of it by his own failure or
the success of others, but he cannot stoop to practice it. He has a
different scale of excellence and mould of ambition, which has
nothing in common with current maxims and time-serving
calculations. He is a moral and intellectual egotist, not a mere
worldly-minded one. In youth, he has sanguine hopes and brilliant
dreams, which he cannot sacrifice for sordid realities—as he
advances farther in life, habit and pride forbid his turning back. He
cannot bring himself to give up his best-grounded convictions to a
blockhead, or his conscientious principles to a knave, though he
might make his fortune by so doing. The rule holds good here as well
as in another sense—‘What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole
world and lose his own soul?’ If his convictions and principles had
been less strong, they would have yielded long ago to the suggestions
of his interest, and he would have relapsed into the man of the world,
or rather he would never have had the temptation or capacity to be
any thing else. One thing that keeps men honest, as well as that
confirms them knaves, is their incapacity to do any better for
themselves than nature has done for them. One person can with
difficulty speak the truth, as another lies with a very ill grace. After
repeated awkward attempts to change characters, they each very
properly fall back into their old jog-trot path, as best suited to their
genius and habits.
There are individuals who make themselves and every one else
uncomfortable by trying to be agreeable, and who are only to be
endured in their natural characters of blunt, plain-spoken people.
Many a man would have turned rogue if he had known how. Non ex
quovis ligno fit Mercurius. The modest man cannot be impudent if
he would. The man of sense cannot play the fool to advantage. It is
not the mere resolution to act a part that will enable us to do it,
without a natural genius and fitness for it. Some men are born to be
valets, as others are to be courtiers. There is the climbing genus in
man as well as in plants. It is sometimes made a wonder how men of
‘no mark or likelihood’ frequently rise to court-preferment, and make
their way against all competition. That is the very reason. They
present no tangible point; they offend no feeling of self-importance.
They are a perfect unresisting medium of patronage and favour. They
aspire through servility; they repose in insignificance. A man of
talent or pretension in the same circumstances would be kicked out
in a week. A look that implied a doubt, a hint that suggested a
difference of opinion, would be fatal. It is of no use, in parleying with
absolute power, to dissemble, to suppress: there must be no feelings
or opinions to dissemble or suppress. The artifice of the dependant is
not a match for the jealousy of the patron: ‘The soul must be subdued
to the very quality of its lord.’ Where all is annihilated in the
presence of the sovereign, is it astonishing that nothings should
succeed? Ciphers are as necessary in courts as eunuchs in seraglios.
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED

The London Weekly Review.]

[December 8, 1827,

I do not think Mr. Cobbett would succeed in an interview with the

Prince. Bub Doddington said, ‘he would not justify before his
Sovereign,’ even where his own character was at stake. I am afraid we
could hardly reckon upon the same forbearance in Mr. Cobbett
where his country’s welfare was at stake, and where he had an
opportunity of vindicating it. He might have a great deal of reason on
his side; but he might forget, or seem to forget, that as the king is
above the law, he is also above reason. Reason is but a suppliant at
the foot of thrones, and waits for their approval or rebuke. Salus
populi suprema lex—may be a truism anywhere else. If reason dares
to approach them at all, it must be in the shape of deference and
humility, not of headstrong importunity and self-will. Instead of
breathless awe, of mild entreaty, of humble remonstrance, it is Mr.
Cobbett, who, upon very slight encouragement, would give the law,
and the monarch who must kiss the rod. The upstart, the bully, and
the dogmatist, would break out, and the King would assert himself.
The reformer would be too full of his own opinion to allow an option
even to Majesty, and the affair would have the same ending as that of
the old ballad—
‘Then the Queen overhearing what Betty did say,
Would send Mr. Roper to take her away.’

As I have brought Mr. Cobbett in here by the neck and shoulders, I

may add that I do not think he belongs properly to the class, either of
philosophical speculators, or men of the world. He is a political
humourist. He is too much taken up with himself either to attend to
right reason, or to judge correctly of what passes around him. He
mistakes strength of purpose and passion, not only for truth but for
success. Because he can give fifty good reasons for a thing, he thinks
it not only ought to be, but must be. Because he is swayed so entirely
by his wishes and humours, he believes others will be ready to give
up their prejudices, interests, and resentments to oblige him. He
persuades himself that he is the fittest person to represent
Westminster in parliament, and he considers this point (once
proved) tantamount to his return. He knows no more of the
disposition or sentiments of the people of Westminster than of the
inhabitants of the moon (except from what he himself chooses to say
or write of them), and it is this want of sympathy which, as much as
anything, prevents his being chosen. The exclusive force and bigotry
of his opinions deprives them of half their influence and effect, by
allowing no toleration to others, and consequently setting them
against him.
Mr. Cobbett seemed disappointed, at one time, at not succeeding
in the character of a legacy-hunter. Why, a person to succeed in this
character, ought to be a mere skin or bag to hold money, a place to
deposit it in, a shadow, a deputy, a trustee who keeps it for the
original owner—so that the transfer is barely nominal, and who, if he
were to return from the other world, would modestly yield it up—one
who has no personal identity of his own, no will to encroach upon or
dispose of it otherwise than his patron would wish after his death—
not a hair-brained egotist, a dashing adventurer, to squander, hector
and flourish away with it in wild schemes and ruinous experiments,
every one of them at variance with the opinions of the testator; in
new methods of turnip hoeing; in speculations in madder—this
would be to tear his soul from his body twice over—
‘His patron’s ghost from Limbo lake the while
Sees this which more damnation doth upon him pile!’

Mr. Cobbett complained, that in his last interview with Baron

Mazeres, that gentleman was in his dotage, and that the reverend
legatee sat at the bottom of the table, cutting a poor figure, and not
contradicting a word the Baron said. No doubt, as he has put this in
print in the exuberance of his dissatisfaction, he let both gentlemen
see pretty plainly what he thought of them, and fancied that this
expression of his contempt, as it gratified him, was the way to ensure
the good will of the one to make over his whole estate, or the good
word of the other to let him go snacks. This is a new way of being
quits with one’s benefactors, and an egregious quid pro quo. If Baron
Mazeres had left Mr. Cobbett 200,000l. it must have been not to
write his epitaph, or visit him in his last moments!
A gossiping chambermaid who only smiles and assents when her
mistress wishes her to talk, or an ignorant country clown who stands
with his hat off when he has a favour to ask of the squire, (and if he is
wise, at all other times,) knows more of the matter. A knowledge of
mankind is little more than the Scotch instinct of bowing, or of
‘never standing upright in the presence of a great man,’ or of that
great blockhead, the world. It is not a perception of truth, but a sense
of power, and an instant determination of the will to submit to it. It
is therefore less an intellectual acquirement than a natural
disposition. It is on this account that I think both cunning and
wisdom are a sort of original endowments, or attain maturity much
earlier than is supposed, from their being moral qualities, and having
their seat in the heart rather than the head. The difference depends
on the manner of seeing things. The one is a selfish, the other is a
disinterested view of nature. The one is the clear open look of
integrity, the other is a contracted and blear-eyed obliquity of mental
vision. If any one has but the courage and honesty to look at an
object as it is in itself, or divested of prejudice, fear, and favour, he
will be sure to see it pretty right; as he who regards it through the
refractions of opinion and fashion, will be sure to see it distorted and
falsified, however the error may rebound to his own advantage.
Certainly, he who makes the universe tributary to his convenience,
and subjects all his impressions of what is right or wrong, true or
false, black or white, round or square, to the standard and maxims of
the world, who never utters a proposition but he fancies a patron
close at his elbow who overhears him, who is even afraid, in private,
to suffer an honest conviction to rise in his mind, lest it should
mount to his lips, get wind, and ruin his prospects in life, ought to
gain something in exchange for the restraint and force put upon his
thoughts and faculties: on the contrary, he who is confined by no
such petty and debasing trammels, whose comprehension of mind is
‘in large heart enclosed,’ finds his inquiries and his views expand in a
degree commensurate with the universe around him; makes truth
welcome wherever he meets her, and receives her cordial embrace in
return. To see things divested of passion and interest, is to see them
with the eye of history and philosophy. It is easy to judge right, or at
least to come to a mutual understanding in matters of history and
abstract morality. Why then is it so difficult to arrive at the same
calm certainty in actual life? Because the passions and interests are
concerned, and it requires so much more candour, love of truth, and
independence of spirit to encounter ‘the world and its dread laugh,’
to throw aside every sinister consideration, and grapple with the
plain merits of the case. To be wiser than other men is to be honester
than they; and strength of mind is only courage to see and speak the
truth. Perhaps the courage may be also owing to the strength; but
both go together, and are natural, and not acquired. Do we not see in
fables the force of the moral principle in detecting the truth? The
only effect of fables is, by making inanimate or irrational things
actors in the scene, to remove the case completely from our own
sphere, to take our self-love off its guard, to simplify the question;
and yet the result of this obvious appeal is allowed to be universal
and irresistible. Is not this another example that ‘the heart of man is
deceitful above all things;’ or, that it is less our incapacity to
distinguish what is right, than our secret determination to adhere to
what is wrong, that prevents our discriminating one from the other?
It is not that great and useful truths are not manifest and discernible
in themselves; but little, dirty objects get between them and us, and
from being near and gross, hide the lofty and distant! The first
business of the patriot and the philanthropist is to overleap this
barrier, to rise out of this material dross. Indignation, contempt of
the base and grovelling, makes the philosopher no less than the poet;
and it is the power of looking beyond self that enables each to
inculcate moral truth and nobleness of sentiment, the one by general
precepts, the other by individual example.
I have no quarrel with men of the world, mere muck-worms: every
one after his fashion, ‘as the flesh and fortune shall serve;’ but I
confess I have a little distaste to those, who, having set out as loud
and vaunting enthusiasts, have turned aside to ‘tread the primrose
path of dalliance,’ and to revile those who did not choose to follow so
edifying an example. The candid brow and elastic spring of youth
may be exchanged for the wrinkles and crookedness of age; but at
least we should retain something of the erectness and openness of
our first unbiassed thoughts. I cannot understand how any degree of
egotism can dispense with the consciousness of personal identity. As
we advance farther in life, we are naturally inclined to revert in
imagination to its commencement; but what can those dwell upon
there who find only feelings that they despise, and opinions that they
have abjured? ‘If thine eye offend thee, pull it out and cast it from
thee:’ but the operation is a painful one, and the body remains after
it only a mutilated fragment. Generally, those who are cut off from
this resource in former recollections, make up for it (as well as they
can) by an exaggerated and uxorious fondness for their late-espoused
convictions—a thing unsightly and indecent! Why does he, who, at
one time, despises ‘the little chapel-bell,’ afterwards write ‘the Book
of the Church?’ The one is not an atonement for the other: each
shows only a juvenile or a superannuated precocity of judgment. It is
uniting Camille-Desmoulins and Camille-Jourdan, (Jourdan of the
Chimes) in one character. I should like (not out of malice, but from
curiosity) to see Mr. Southey re-write the beautiful poem on ‘his own
miniature-picture, when he was two years old,’ and see what he
would substitute for the lines—
‘And it was thought,
That thou shouldst tread preferment’s flowery path,
Young Robert!’

There must here, I think, be hiatus in manuscriptis: the verse

must halt a little! The laureate and his friends say that they are still
labouring on the same design as ever, correcting the outlines and
filling up the unfinished sketch of their early opinions. They seem
rather to have blotted them quite out, and to have taken a fresh
canvas to begin another and no less extravagant caricature. Or their
new and old theories remind one of those heads in picturedealers’
shops, where one half of the face is thoroughly cleaned and repaired,
and the other left covered with stains and dirt, to show the necessity
of the picture-scourer’s art: the transition offends the sight. It may be
made a question whether men grow wiser as they grow older, any
more than they grow stronger or healthier or honester. They may, in
one sense, imbibe a greater portion of worldly wisdom, and have
their romantic flights tamed to the level of every day’s practice and
experience; but perhaps it would be better if some of the
extravagance and enthusiasm of youth could be infused into the
latter, instead of being absorbed (perforce) in that sink of pride,
envy, selfishness, ignorance, conceit, prejudice, and hypocrisy. One
thing is certain, that this is the present course of events, and that if
the individual grows wiser as he gains experience, the world does
not, and that the tardy penitent who is treading back his steps, may
meet the world advancing as he is retreating, and adopting more and
more of the genuine impulses and disinterested views of youth into
its creed. It is, indeed, only by conforming to some such original and
unsophisticated standard, that it can acquire either soundness or
consistency. The appeal is a fair one, from the bad habits of society to
the unprejudiced aspirations and impressions of human nature.
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED

The London Weekly Review.]

[December 15, 1827.

It seems, in truth, a hard case to have all the world against us, and
to require uncommon fortitude (not to say presumption) to stand out
single against such a host. The bare suggestion must ‘give us pause,’
and has no doubt overturned many an honest conviction. The
opinion of the world, (as it pompously entitles itself,) if it means
anything more than a set of local and party prejudices, with which
only our interest, not truth, is concerned, is a shadow, a bugbear, and
a contradiction in terms. Having all the world against us, is a phrase
without a meaning; for in those points in which all the world agree,
no one differs from the world. If all the world were of the same way
of thinking, and always kept in the same mind, it would certainly be a
little staggering to have them against you. But however widely and
angrily they may differ from you, they differ as much so from one
another, and even from themselves. What is gospel at one moment,
is heresy the next:—different countries and climates have different
notions of things. When you are put on your trial, therefore, for
impugning the public opinion, you may always subpœna this great
body against itself. For example, I have been twitted for somewhere
calling Tom Paine a great writer, and no doubt his reputation at
present ‘does somewhat smack:’ yet in 1792 he was so great, or so
popular an author, and so much read and admired by numbers who
would not now mention his name, that the Government was obliged
to suspend the Constitution, and to go to war to counteract the
effects of his popularity. His extreme popularity was then the cause
(by a common and vulgar reaction) of his extreme obnoxiousness. If
the opinion of the world, then, contradicts itself, why may not I
contradict it, or choose at what time, and to what extent I will agree
with it? I have been accused of abusing dissenters, and saying that
sectaries, in general, are dry and suspicious; and I believe that all the
world will say the same thing except themselves. I have said that the
church people are proud and overbearing, which has given them
umbrage, though in this I have all the sectaries on my side. I have
laughed at the Methodists, and for this I have been accused of
glancing at religion: yet who does not laugh at the Methodists as well
as myself? But I also laugh at those who laugh at them. I have
pointed out by turns the weak sides and foibles of different sects and
parties, and they themselves maintain that they are perfect and
infallible: and this is what is called having all the world against me. I
have inveighed all my life against the insolence of the Tories, and for
this I have the authority both of Whigs and Reformers; but then I
have occasionally spoken against the imbecility of the Whigs, and the
extravagance of the Reformers, and thus have brought all three on
my back, though two out of the three regularly agree with all I say of
the third party. Poets do not approve of what I have said of their
turning prose-writers; nor do the politicians approve of my tolerating
the fooleries of the fanciful tribe at all: so they make common cause
to damn me between them. People never excuse the drawbacks from
themselves, nor the concessions to an adversary: such is the justice
and candour of mankind! Mr. Wordsworth is not satisfied with the
praise I have heaped upon himself, and still less, that I have allowed
Mr. Moore to be a poet at all. I do not think I have ever set my face
against the popular idols of the day; I have been among the foremost
in crying up Mrs. Siddons, Kean, Sir Walter Scott, Madame Pasta,
and others; and as to the great names of former times, my
admiration has been lavish, and sometimes almost mawkish. I have
dissented, it is true, in one or two instances; but that only shows that
I judge for myself, not that I make a point of contradicting the
general taste. I have been more to blame in trying to push certain
Illustrious Obscure into notice:—they have not forgiven the
obligation, nor the world the tacit reproach. As to my personalities,
they might quite as well be termed impersonalities. I am so intent on
the abstract proposition and its elucidation, that I regard everything
else as of very subordinate consequence: my friends, I conceive, will
not refuse to contribute to so laudable an undertaking, and my
enemies must! I have found fault with the French, I have found fault
with the English; and pray, do they not find great, mutual, and just
fault with one another? It may seem a great piece of arrogance in any
one, to set up his individual and private judgment against that of ten
millions of people; but cross the channel, and you will have thirty
millions on your side. Even should the thirty millions come over to
the opinions of the ten, (a thing that may happen to-morrow,) still
one need not despair. I remember my old friend Peter Finnerty,
laughing very heartily at something I had written about the Scotch,
but it was followed up by a sketch of the Irish, on which he closed the
book, looked grave, and said he disapproved entirely of all national
reflections. Thus you have all the world on your side, except when it
is the party concerned. What any set of people think or say of
themselves is hardly a rule for others: yet, if you do not attach
yourself to some one set of people and principles, and stick to them
through thick and thin, instead of giving your opinion fairly and fully
all round, you must expect to have all the world against you, for no
other reason than because you express sincerely, and for their good,
not only what they say of others, but what is said of themselves,
which they would fain keep a profound secret, and prevent the
divulging of it under the severest pains and penalties. When I told J
—— that I had composed a work in which I had ‘in some sort
handled’ about a score of leading characters, he said, ‘Then you will
have one man against you, and the remaining nineteen for you!’ I
have not found it so. In fact, these persons would agree pretty nearly
to all that I say, and allow that, in nineteen points out of twenty, I am
right; but the twentieth, that relates to some imperfection of their
own, weighs down all the rest, and produces an unanimous verdict
against the author. There is but one thing in which the world agree, a
certain bigoted blindness, and conventional hypocrisy, without
which, according to Mandeville, (that is, if they really spoke what
they thought and knew of one another,) they would fall to cutting
each other’s throats immediately.
We find the same contrariety and fluctuation of opinion in
different ages, as well as countries and classes. For about a thousand
years, during ‘the high and palmy state’ of the Romish hierarchy, it
was agreed (nemine contradicente) that two and two made five:
afterwards, for above a century, there was great battling and
controversy to prove that they made four and a half; then, for a
century more, it was thought a great stride taken to come down to
four and a quarter; and, perhaps, in another century or two, it will be
discovered for a wonder that two and two actually make four! It is
said, that this slow advance and perpetual interposition of
impediments is a salutary check to the rashness of innovation, and to
hazardous experiments. At least, it is a very effectual one, amounting
almost to a prohibition. One age is employed in building up an
absurdity, and the next exhausts all its wit and learning, zeal and
fury, in battering it down, so that at the end of two generations you
come to the point where you set out, and have to begin again. These
heats and disputes about external points of faith may be things of no
consequence, since under all the variations of form or doctrine the
essentials of practice remain the same. It does not seem so; at any
rate, the non-essentials appear to excite all the interest, and ‘keep
this dreadful pudder o’er our heads;’ and when the dogma is once
stripped of mystery and intolerance, and reduced to common sense,
no one appears to take any further notice of it.
The appeal, then, to the authority of the world, chiefly resolves
itself into the old proverb, that ‘when you are at Rome you must do
as those at Rome do;’ that is, it is a shifting circle of local prejudices
and gratuitous assumptions, a successful conformity to which is best
insured by a negation of all other qualities that might interfere with
it: solid reason and virtue are out of the question. But it may be
insisted, that there are qualities of a more practical order that may
greatly contribute to and facilitate our advancement in life, such as
presence of mind, convivial talents, insight into character, thorough
acquaintance with the profounder principles and secret springs of
society, and so forth. I do not deny that all this may be of advantage
in extraordinary cases, and often abridge difficulties; but I do not
think that it is either necessary or generally useful. For instance,
habitual caution and reserve is a surer resource than that presence of
mind, or quick-witted readiness of expedient, which, though it gets
men out of scrapes, as often leads them into them by begetting a false
confidence. Persons of agreeable and lively talents often find to their
cost that one indiscretion procures them more enemies then ten
agreeable sallies do friends. A too great penetration into character is
less desirable than a certain power of hoodwinking ourselves to their
defects, unless the former is accompanied with a profound hypocrisy,
which is also liable to detection and discomfiture: and as to general
maxims and principles of worldly knowledge, I conceive that an
instinctive sympathy with them is much more profitable than their
incautious discovery and formal announcement. Thus, the politic
rule, ‘When a great wheel goes up a hill, cling fast to it; when a great
wheel runs down a hill, let go your hold of it,’ may be useful as a hint
or warning to the shyness or fidelity of an Englishman; a North
Briton feels its truth instinctively, and acts upon it unconsciously.
When it is observed in the History of a Foundling, that ‘Mr.
Alworthy had done so many charitable actions that he had made
enemies of the whole parish,’ the sarcasm is the dictate of a generous
indignation at ingratitude rather than a covert apology for selfish
niggardliness. Misanthropic reflections have their source in
philanthropic sentiments; the real despiser of the world keeps up
appearances with it, and is at pains to varnish over its vices and
follies, even to himself, lest his secret should be betrayed, and do him
an injury. Those who see completely into the world begin to play
tricks with it, and overreach themselves by being too knowing: it is
even possible to out-cant it, and get laughed at that way. Fielding
knew something of the world, yet he did not make a fortune. Sir
Walter Scott has twice made a fortune by descriptions of nature and
character, and has twice lost it by the same fondness for speculative
gains. Wherever there is a strong faculty for anything, the exercise of
that faculty becomes its own end and reward, and produces an
indifference or inattention to other things; so that the best security
for success in the world is an incapacity for success in any other way.
A bookseller to succeed in his business should have no knowledge of
books, except as marketable commodities: the instant he has a taste,
an opinion of his own on the subject, he may consider himself as a
ruined man. In like manner, a picture-dealer should know nothing of
pictures but the catalogue price, the cant of the day. The moment he
has a feeling for the art, he will be tenacious of it: a Guido, a Salvator
‘will be the fatal Cleopatra for which he will lose all he is worth, and
be content to lose it.’ Should a general then know nothing of war, a
physician of medicine? No: because this is an art and not a trick, and
the one has to contend with nature, and the other with an enemy,
and not to pamper or cajole the follies of the world. It requires also
great talents to overturn the world; not, to push one’s fortune in it: to
rule the state like Cromwell or Buonaparte; not, to rise in it like
Castlereagh or Croker. Yet, even in times of crisis and convulsion, he
who outrages the feeling of the moment and echoes the wildest
extravagance, succeeds; as, in times of peace and tranquillity, he
does so who acquiesces most tamely in the ordinary routine of
things. This may serve to point out another error, common to men of
the world, who sometimes, giving themselves credit for more virtue
than they possess, declare very candidly that if they had to begin life
over again, they would have been great rogues. The answer to this is,
that then they would have been hanged! No: the way to get on in the
world is to be neither more nor less wise, neither better nor worse
than your neighbours, neither to be a ‘reformer nor a house-breaker,’
neither to advance before the age nor lag behind it, but to be as like it
as possible, to reflect its image and superscription at every turn, and
then you will be its darling and its delight, and it will dandle you and
fondle you, and make much of you, as a monkey doats upon its
young! The knowledge of vice—that is, of statutable vice—is not the
knowledge of the world: otherwise a Bow-street runner and the
keeper of a house of ill fame, would be the most knowing characters,
and would soon rise above their professions.