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Third Edition
ANALYTICAL
FLUID
DYNAMICS
George Emanuel
Boca Raton London New York
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Dedicated with love to my wife and companion, Lita, whose patience and support are beyond comprehension.

Contents
Preface.........................................................................................................................................................................................xv
Author...................................................................................................................................................................................... xvii
Section I Basic Concepts
1 Background Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Preliminary Remarks............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Euler and Lagrange Formulations.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Stress Tensor.............................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.4 Relation between Stress and Deformation-Rate Tensors.................................................................................. 11
1.5 Constitutive Relations............................................................................................................................................ 13
1.6 Integral Relations.................................................................................................................................................... 15
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 18
2 Conservation Equations.................................................................................................................................................. 19
2.1 Preliminary Remarks............................................................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Mass Equation......................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Transport Theorem................................................................................................................................................. 20
2.4 Linear Momentum Equation................................................................................................................................. 20
2.5 Inertial Frame.......................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Angular Momentum Equation............................................................................................................................. 23
2.7 Energy Equation...................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Viscous Dissipation................................................................................................................................................. 25
2.9 Alternate Forms for the Energy Equation........................................................................................................... 26
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Reference............................................................................................................................................................................. 30
3 Classical Thermodynamics............................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2 Combined First and Second Laws........................................................................................................................ 31
3.3 Potential Functions................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.4 Open System............................................................................................................................................................ 34
3.5 Coupling to Fluid Dynamics................................................................................................................................. 37
3.6 Compressible Liquid or Solid................................................................................................................................ 43
3.7 Second Law.............................................................................................................................................................. 44
3.8 Rarefaction Shock Wave......................................................................................................................................... 49
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 53
4 Kinematics......................................................................................................................................................................... 55
4.2 Definitions................................................................................................................................................................ 55
4.3 Kelvin’s Equation and Vorticity............................................................................................................................ 58
4.4 Helmholtz Vortex Theorems................................................................................................................................. 59
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Reference............................................................................................................................................................................. 62
vii
viii Contents
Section II Advanced Gas Dynamics
5 Euler Equations................................................................................................................................................................. 65
5.2 Equations: Initial and Boundary Conditions...................................................................................................... 65
5.3 Bernoulli’s Equations.............................................................................................................................................. 67
5.4 Vorticity.................................................................................................................................................................... 69
5.5 Steady Flow.............................................................................................................................................................. 71
5.6 Two-Dimensional or Axisymmetric Flow........................................................................................................... 72
5.7 Intrinsic Coordinates.............................................................................................................................................. 76
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................. 79
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 84
6 Shock Wave Dynamics.................................................................................................................................................... 85

6.2 Jump Conditions..................................................................................................................................................... 86
6.3 Steady Two-Dimensional or Axisymmetric Flow.............................................................................................. 92
6.4 Derivatives for a Two-Dimensional or Axisymmetric Shock with a Uniform Freestream......................... 99
6.5 Derivative Applications....................................................................................................................................... 102
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................113
References..........................................................................................................................................................................115
7 Vorticity and Its Substantial Derivative.....................................................................................................................117

7.1 Preliminary Remarks............................................................................................................................................117
7.2 Vorticity...................................................................................................................................................................117
7.3 Substantial Derivative of the Vorticity................................................................................................................119
7.4 Generic Shock Shape............................................................................................................................................ 120
7.5 Slope, Curvature, Arc Length, and Sonic Point................................................................................................ 121
7.6 Results..................................................................................................................................................................... 122
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 126
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 127
8 Shock Wave Triple-Point Morphology....................................................................................................................... 129

8.1 Preliminary Remarks........................................................................................................................................... 129
8.2 Analysis.................................................................................................................................................................. 131
8.3 Solution Method.................................................................................................................................................... 134
8.4 Normal Mach Stem or Reflected Shocks........................................................................................................... 135
8.5 Results and Discussion........................................................................................................................................ 139
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 144
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 144
9 Derivatives When the Upstream Flow Is Nonuniform.......................................................................................... 147

9.2 Jump Conditions................................................................................................................................................... 148
9.3 Tangential Derivatives.......................................................................................................................................... 148
9.4 Normal Derivatives.............................................................................................................................................. 149
9.5 Intrinsic Coordinate Derivatives........................................................................................................................ 151
9.6 Vorticity.................................................................................................................................................................. 151
9.7 Source Flow Model............................................................................................................................................... 152
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Reference........................................................................................................................................................................... 155

Contents ix
10 General Derivative Formulation................................................................................................................................. 157

10.2 Vector Relations..................................................................................................................................................... 157
10.3 Elliptic Paraboloid Shock..................................................................................................................................... 159
10.4 Shock Curvatures.................................................................................................................................................. 160
10.5 Vorticity I.................................................................................................................................................................162
10.6 Jump Conditions and Tangential Derivatives................................................................................................... 164
10.7 Normal Derivatives.............................................................................................................................................. 165
10.8 Applications........................................................................................................................................................... 169
10.9 Unsteady, Normal Derivative Formulation....................................................................................................... 171
10.10 SMR and Ray Scaling........................................................................................................................................... 173
10.11 Unsteady Intrinsic Coordinate Derivatives....................................................................................................... 178
10.12 Vorticity II.............................................................................................................................................................. 181
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 186
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 186
11 Extended Navier–Stokes Equations, Ultrasonic Absorption, and Shock Structure......................................... 187

11.2 Newtonian and Stokesian Fluids........................................................................................................................ 189
11.3 Viscous Dissipation............................................................................................................................................... 192
11.4 Laminar Flow........................................................................................................................................................ 193
11.5 Unsteady One-Dimensional Flow...................................................................................................................... 193
11.6 Shock Wave Structure.......................................................................................................................................... 195
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 199
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 199
12 Hodograph Transformation and Limit Lines........................................................................................................... 201

12.2 Two-Dimensional, Irrotational Flow.................................................................................................................. 202
12.3 Ringleb’s Solution.................................................................................................................................................. 207
12.4 Limit Lines..............................................................................................................................................................214
12.5 General Solution.....................................................................................................................................................214
12.6 Rotational Flow..................................................................................................................................................... 219
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 222
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 223
13 Substitution Principle.................................................................................................................................................... 225

13.2 Transformation Equations................................................................................................................................... 225
13.3 Parallel Flow.......................................................................................................................................................... 229
13.4 Prandtl–Meyer Flow............................................................................................................................................. 231
13.5 Rotational Solutions in the Hodograph Plane.................................................................................................. 234
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 236
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 238
14 Calorically Imperfect Flows......................................................................................................................................... 241

14.2 Thermodynamics.................................................................................................................................................. 242
14.3 Isentropic Streamtube Flow................................................................................................................................. 243
14.4 Planar Shock Flow................................................................................................................................................ 250
14.6 Taylor–Maccoll Flow............................................................................................................................................. 257
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 261
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 262

x Contents
15 Sweep................................................................................................................................................................................ 263
15.2 Oblique Shock Flow.............................................................................................................................................. 263
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 276
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 277
16 Interaction of an Expansion Wave with a Shock Wave and a Shock Wave Curvature..................................... 279
16.2 Flow Topology....................................................................................................................................................... 281
16.3 Solution for Regions I, II, and III......................................................................................................................... 283
16.4 Curvature Singularity.......................................................................................................................................... 284
16.5 Numerical Procedure........................................................................................................................................... 285
16.6 Shock Wave with Longitudinal Curvature Sign Change................................................................................ 288
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 292
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 292
17 Unsteady One-Dimensional Flow............................................................................................................................... 295

17.2 Incident Normal Shock Waves............................................................................................................................ 295
17.3 Reflected Normal Shock Waves.......................................................................................................................... 299
17.4 Characteristic Theory........................................................................................................................................... 301
17.5 Rarefaction Waves................................................................................................................................................. 305
17.6 Compression Waves...............................................................................................................................................316
17.7 Internal Ballistics.................................................................................................................................................. 319
17.8 Nonsimple Wave Region...................................................................................................................................... 324
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 338
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 342
18 Supersonic Diffusers..................................................................................................................................................... 343

18.2 General Discussion............................................................................................................................................... 345
18.3 Prandtl–Meyer Diffuser....................................................................................................................................... 348
18.4 Lens-Analogy Diffuser........................................................................................................................................ 355
18.5 Results and Discussion........................................................................................................................................ 362
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 368
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 369
Section III Viscous/Inviscid Fluid Dynamics
19 Coordinate Systems and Related Topics.................................................................................................................... 373

19.2 Orthogonal Coordinates...................................................................................................................................... 373
19.3 Similarity Parameters........................................................................................................................................... 376
19.4 Bulk Viscosity........................................................................................................................................................ 378
19.5 Viscous Flow in a Heated Duct........................................................................................................................... 380
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 385
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 388
20 Force and Moment Analysis......................................................................................................................................... 389

20.2 Momentum Theorem............................................................................................................................................ 389
20.3 Surface Integral..................................................................................................................................................... 391

Contents xi
20.4 Angular Momentum............................................................................................................................................ 394

20.5 Hydrostatics........................................................................................................................................................... 394
20.6 Flow in a Duct....................................................................................................................................................... 395
20.7 Acyclic Motion....................................................................................................................................................... 396
20.8 Jet–Plate Interaction.............................................................................................................................................. 397
20.9 Syringe with a Hypodermic Needle.................................................................................................................. 399
20.10 Shock-Expansion Theory..................................................................................................................................... 400
20.11 Forces on a Particle............................................................................................................................................... 405
20.12 Entropy Generation.............................................................................................................................................. 408
20.13 Forces and Moments on a Supersonic Vehicle.................................................................................................. 412
20.14 Lift and Thrust of an Asymmetric Nozzle.........................................................................................................416
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 423
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 426
Section IV Exact Solutions for a Viscous Flow
21 Rayleigh Flow.................................................................................................................................................................. 431

21.2 Solution................................................................................................................................................................... 432
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 435
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 435
22 Couette Flow.................................................................................................................................................................... 437

22.2 Solution................................................................................................................................................................... 438
22.3 Adiabatic Wall....................................................................................................................................................... 440
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 441
Reference........................................................................................................................................................................... 442
23 Stagnation Point Flow................................................................................................................................................... 443

23.2 Formulation............................................................................................................................................................ 443
23.3 Velocity Solution................................................................................................................................................... 446
23.4 Temperature Solution........................................................................................................................................... 448
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 450
Reference........................................................................................................................................................................... 450
Section V Laminar Boundary-Layer Theory for Steady

Two-Dimensional or Axisymmetric Flow
24 Incompressible Flow over a Flat Plate........................................................................................................................ 453
24.2 Derivation of the Boundary-Layer Equations................................................................................................... 453
24.3 Similarity Solution................................................................................................................................................ 455
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 457
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 458
25 Large Reynolds Number Flow..................................................................................................................................... 459

25.2 Matched Asymptotic Expansions....................................................................................................................... 465
25.3 Governing Equations in Body-Oriented Coordinates..................................................................................... 466
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 467
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 468

xii Contents
26 Incompressible Boundary-Layer Theory................................................................................................................... 469

26.2 Primitive Variable Formulation.......................................................................................................................... 469
26.3 Solution of the Boundary-Layer Equations....................................................................................................... 470
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................474
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 475
27 Compressible Boundary-Layer Theory...................................................................................................................... 477

27.2 Boundary-Layer Equations.................................................................................................................................. 478
27.3 Solution of the Similarity Equations.................................................................................................................. 481
27.4 Solution of the Energy Equation......................................................................................................................... 483
27.5 The β and g w Parameters...................................................................................................................................... 484
27.6 Local Similarity..................................................................................................................................................... 486
27.7 Boundary-Layer Parameters................................................................................................................................ 487
27.8 Comprehensive Tables.......................................................................................................................................... 492
27.9 Adiabatic Wall....................................................................................................................................................... 499
27.10 Critique of the Prandtl Number and Chapman–Rubesin Parameter Assumptions................................... 500
27.11 Nonsimilar Boundary Layers: I.......................................................................................................................... 506
27.12 Nonsimilar Boundary Layers: II......................................................................................................................... 507
Problems.............................................................................................................................................................................514
References..........................................................................................................................................................................516
28 Supersonic Boundary-Layer Examples...................................................................................................................... 519

28.2 Thin Airfoil Theory.............................................................................................................................................. 519
28.3 Compressive Ramp............................................................................................................................................... 522
28.4 Zero Displacement Thickness Wall Shape........................................................................................................ 525
28.5 Performance of a Scramjet Propulsion Nozzle................................................................................................. 527
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 530
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 532
29 Second-Order Boundary-Layer Theory..................................................................................................................... 533

29.2 Inner Equations..................................................................................................................................................... 536
29.3 Outer Equations.................................................................................................................................................... 540
29.4 Boundary and Matching Conditions................................................................................................................. 543
29.5 Decomposition of the Second-Order Boundary-Layer Equations................................................................. 546
29.6 Example: First-Order Solution............................................................................................................................. 551
29.7 Example: Second-Order Outer Solution............................................................................................................ 553
29.8 Example: Second-Order Inner Equations.......................................................................................................... 555
29.9 Appendix R............................................................................................................................................................ 559
Problems............................................................................................................................................................................ 563
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 564
Appendix A: Summary of Equations from Vector and Tensor Analysis................................................................... 567
Appendix B: Jacobian Theory............................................................................................................................................. 575
Appendix C: Oblique Shock Wave Angle......................................................................................................................... 581
onditions on the Downstream Side of a Steady 2D or Axisymmetric Shock with
Appendix D: C
a Uniform Freestream.................................................................................................................................. 583
Appendix E: Method of Characteristics for a Single, First-Order Partial Differential Equation......................... 585
Appendix F: C
onditions on the Downstream Side of a 2D or Axisymmetric Shock When the
Upstream Flow Is Nonuniform................................................................................................................... 589

Contents xiii
Appendix G: Operator Formulation................................................................................................................................... 591

Appendix H: Steady Shock Derivative Formulation...................................................................................................... 593
Appendix I: Uniform Freestream Formulation............................................................................................................... 595
Appendix J: Elliptic Paraboloid Shock Formulation...................................................................................................... 597
Appendix K: Global, Shock-Based Coordinates............................................................................................................. 601
Appendix L: Unsteady State 2 Parameters........................................................................................................................ 605
Appendix M: Axisymmetric Lens-Analogy Formulation............................................................................................. 607
Appendix N: Mach Number Functions, Their Derivatives, and Gas Dynamic Relations..................................... 609
Appendix O: Conservation and Vector Equations in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates ξi.............................611
Appendix P: Conservation Equations in Body-Oriented Coordinates.......................................................................613
Appendix Q: Summary of Compressible, Similar Boundary-Layer Equations........................................................615
Appendix R: Second-Order Boundary-Layer Equations for Supersonic, Rotational Flow over a Flat Plate.......619
Index......................................................................................................................................................................................... 621

Preface
The objectives of this edition remain the same as in either in a chapter or in an appendix, as is also the case
earlier versions. The analysis and formulation are pro- for vector and tensor analysis.
vided for a variety of topics in inviscid and viscous A small monograph of mine, Shock Wave Dynamics, was
fluid dynamics; it is hoped with analytical and physical published in late 2013 by CRC Press. This book was an
insight. In part, this means formulating the appropriate outgrowth of Chapter 6 of the earlier editions of the cur-
equations and transforming them into a suitable form rent book. After publication, a considerable amount of
for the specific flow under scrutiny. The approach is new material was developed; shock wave material now
applied to viscous boundary layers, shock waves, and encompasses Chapters 6 through 11. This new material
numerous other flows, including asymmetric thrust partly motivated a decision to incorporate the mono-
nozzles and supersonic diffusers. Of special interest are graph into its parent text. Further supporting this deci-
the analytical process and the corresponding physical sion was the inclusion of additional novel, non-shock
interpretation. wave material, such as the thrust and lift analysis of an
An in-depth presentation is favored compared to one asymmetric nozzle and a supersonic diffuser analysis.
that bypasses crucial or difficult details. Whenever per- Earlier editions contained a number of special top-
tinent, assumptions and limitations are addressed for ics, including viscous dissipation, calorically imperfect
the topic under discussion. Frequently, the reason why gas flows, aerodynamic sweep, shock wave interference,
a particular topic deserves study is pointed out. For unsteady one-dimensional flow, internal ballistics, force
instance, a solution may be useful as a first, or initial, and momentum balance, the substitution principle, etc.
estimate for a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) cal- Aside from these topics, new material covers rarefaction
culation. Analytical solutions, such as those provided shock waves; a comprehensive treatment of flow prop-
by the substitution principle, can be used to verify Euler erty derivatives just downstream of an unsteady three-
codes. An analytical approach often yields insight and dimensional shock; shock-generated vorticity, triple
first estimates for parameters of interest. In this regard, points; an extended version of the Navier–Stokes equa-
some of the homework problems are designed to give tions, which is required for an ultrasonic bulk viscosity
the student practice in obtaining relevant solutions. My absorption measurement and for shock wave structure;
personal motivation, however, still remains the beauty shock-free supersonic diffusers; and the lift and thrust
and elegance of analytical fluid dynamics (AFD). from an asymmetric nozzle.
The need for a more flexible mathematical language Topics where future research is warranted are evident.
in fluid dynamics, to cover its increasing complexity, Fluid dynamics, including the AFD specialty, is very
has long been evident. Two of these “languages” are uti- much alive and growing. Consequently, not everything
lized in this book. They are vector and tensor analysis in this book is complete or, despite my best effort, neces-
and what might be called transformation theory. The sarily correct. A variety of important topics are not dis-
use of transformations in fluid dynamics is ubiquitous; cussed. These include turbulent flow, CFD, experimental
matched asymptotic expansions are the mathematical methods, etc., which are major subjects in themselves.
backbone of boundary-layer theory. Transformations I owe a debt of gratitude to the many friends who
also play a major role, especially in inviscid theory. This have contributed to this undertaking, especially past
category includes Jacobian theory, the substitution prin- students and past and current colleagues. I am espe-
ciple, the hodograph transformation, characteristic the- cially in debt to Gloria Madden for her superb typing of
ory, and operator methods. These topics are introduced the manuscript.
xv
Author
George Emanuel earned his PhD in aeronautical sci- Continuous Groups, and Shock Wave Dynamics (CRC Press,
ences from Stanford University, Stanford, California. 2000, 2000, and 2013, respectively). He is also the author
Subsequently, he was employed at the Aerospace of 4 chapters in 3 handbooks and the author or coauthor
Corp., TRW, and Los Alamos National Laboratory as of more than 100 peer-reviewed articles in more than
a research engineer. He spent the next 19 years as a 20 different journals. Currently, he is the president of
professor in the school of Aerospace and Mechanical KSY Corp., which is involved in the research and devel-
Engineering at the University of Oklahoma, Norman, opment of chemical lasers. Through his company, he
Oklahoma, from which he is now emeritus. He is the holds nine U.S. patents relating to the chemical oxygen-
author of Gasdynamics: Theory and Applications and iodine laser and its applications. In 2001, he received the
Advanced Classical Thermodynamics, both with the AIAA AIAA Plasmadynamics and Lasers Award for his con-
Education Series, and Analytical Fluid Dynamics, Second tributions to chemical lasers.
Edition, Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations by
xvii
Section I
Basic Concepts
have a more recent origin. Indeed, since fluid dynam-
ics is still evolving, some of the material is the result
Outline of Section I
of recent research. Even topics of some antiquity, such
An in-depth study of fluid dynamics is provided by as the second law, may appear new to you. One rea-
discussing a variety of topics in a more general manner son well-known topics may appear different is the
than usually encountered at the undergraduate level. systematic use of vector and tensor analysis. Some
Some of the topics are familiar to you, for example, the background in these topics is presumed. A summary of
Euler and Navier–Stokes equations and the first and the pertinent vector and tensor equations is provided
second laws of thermodynamics. One purpose of this in Appendix A.
text is to prepare you for courses in computational fluid Many scientists, mathematicians, and engineers have
dynamics, turbulence, high-speed flow, rarefied gas contributed to fluid dynamics over its long history. The
dynamics, and so on. The second objective is to help you amount of material that could be covered far exceeds
understand the fluid dynamic journal literature. Last, my grasp of it or what can be covered in a single text.
but not least, I hope to convey some of the fascination Self-imposed limitations are therefore essential. The first
that abounds in our subject. of these is that the fluid, gas, or liquid is easily deform-
In this chapter, we often are not concerned with solu- able. We, therefore, deal with that branch of continuum
tions to specific flow problems, although such solutions mechanics that does not include solids. As a rule, we
are used to illustrate the theory. Specific flows also reg- shall assume the fluid is
ularly appear in the homework problems and represent
an essential element of this text. Nevertheless, we are 1. Isotropic in its properties, that is, fluid with
primarily concerned with general features of inviscid polymers, rheological fluids, etc., are excluded
and viscous fluid flows.
2. Not ionized, chemically reacting, diffusionally
This is especially true for Section I, which pro-
mixing, or multiphase
vides many of the basic concepts. The first chapter
is concerned with establishing the Eulerian formu- 3. Not close to its critical point
lation and the constitutive and integral relations.
Conservation equations for mass, momentum, and In Chapter 3, when discussing thermodynamics, we are
energy are derived in the second chapter, while a more general and do not always assume the aforemen-
general formulation for thermodynamics is provided tioned items.
in Chapter 3. The final chapter in Section I discusses Another major restriction is that the fluid behaves
general properties of a fluid flow that are not based as a continuous medium. This implies that the mean
on the c onservation equations or the laws of thermo- free path of the molecules in a gas, or the mean distance
dynamics. Such properties are referred to as kine- between molecules in a liquid, is many orders of mag-
matic and they include Kelvin’s equations and the nitude smaller than the smallest characteristic length
Helmholtz vortex theorems. of physical interest. Under a wide variety of condi-
While some of the topics in Section I date from the tions of practical importance, this assumption is fully
very origin of fluid mechanics, much of the contents warranted.

2 Basic Concepts
Our final assumptions are that relativistic effects of applications that fluid dynamicists deal with still
and quantum mechanics can be safely ignored. This adhere to the foregoing assumptions.
would not be the case, for instance, with liquid helium, The aforementioned exclusions are usually treated
which is a quantum fluid, or in jets emanating from in more advanced courses, like those dealing with the
astrophysical bodies. dynamics of real gases or rarefied flows. This is cer-
All of the preceding assumptions, at one time or tainly true for turbulence; hence, we will not be con-
another, would require reconsideration. For instance, cerned with turbulent flows. Our discussion, however,
when a meteor is entering the atmosphere, the sur- will not be restricted to incompressible fluid dynamics,
rounding air is chemically reacting and ionized during since compressible flows, including those with shock
part of its downward trajectory. Similarly, an orbiting waves, are of fundamental importance. We shall also
satellite, at a relative low altitude, experiences the drag often focus on vorticity, especially shock-generated
of a free molecular flow. Nevertheless, the vast majority vorticity.

1
Background Discussion
1.1 Preliminary Remarks 1.2 Euler and Lagrange Formulations

As always in engineering, we need to reduce the sub- 1.2.1 Eulerian Formulation
ject to quantifiable terms. This means that solvable
There are two ways to formulate the equations of fluid
equations need to be established. The relevant equa-
dynamics: the Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches.
tions can be subdivided into three categories. In the
In the Eulerian formulation, which we discuss first,
first category, we have the mechanical equations that 
the position vector r and time t are the independent
express conservation of mass and the momentum
variables. Thus, any scalar, such as the pressure, can be
equation, which is based on Newton’s second law. In
written as
the second category, we have the first and second laws

of thermodynamics. The first law expresses conserva- p = p ( r, t ) (1.1)
tion of energy, while the second law is a constraint on
any physically realizable process. 
The foregoing laws are of great power and gen- while a vector, for example, the fluid velocity w, becomes
erality. (Nevertheless, they do not always hold, for   
example, when nuclear reactions occur as in fission w = w ( r, t ) (1.2)
or fusion. In this circumstance, conservation of mass
holds in a modified form.) The final group of rela- The Eulerian  approach provides a field representation,
tions is not nearly as general. They are referred to in terms of r and t, for any variable of interest. For exam-
as constitutive equations. For example, Fourier’s ple, a differential change in the pressure is provided by
heat conduction equation and the perfect gas ther-
mal state equation are in this category. The relation ¶p  ¶p
dp =  × dr + dt (1.3)
between stress and the rate of deformation is simi- ¶r ¶t
larly a constitutive relation. These relations are not
universal but provide the properties for a specific where the first term on the right  side is the directional
class of substances and hold for a specific class of derivative of p in the direction dr . Suppose we introduce
physical processes. At any rate, they are essential; Cartesian coordinates xi and their corresponding ortho-
ˆ  
without them, the more general laws do not consti- normal basis |i. Then r and dr are given by
tute a closed mathematical system. Closure of the

system thus requires a proper number of consistent r = xi |î (1.4)
constitutive relations. Taken as a whole, the complete
set of equations is referred to as the governing equa- 
tions. By way of contrast, the three equations dealing dr = dxi |î (1.5)
with mass, momentum, and energy are referred to as
conservation equations. where the repeated index summation convention is
This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the Euler used. We also adhere to the convenient convention of not
and Lagrange formulations in fluid dynamics. We then writing Cartesian coordinates as xi, which would be the
consider the stress tensor and the relation between this proper contravariant tensor notation. With Equation 1.5,
tensor and the rate-of-deformation tensor. We conclude we can write dp as
by discussing a Newtonian fluid, Fourier’s equation,
the constitutive relations, and certain useful integral ¶p ¶p
dp = dxi + dt
relations. ¶xi ¶t
3
4 Analytical Fluid Dynamics

or as where δij is the Kronecker delta. Thus, Ñr is the unit
dyadic I . We thereby obtain (see Appendix A)
dp ¶p dxi ¶p
= + (1.6)     
dt ¶t dt ¶xi w ×Ñr = w × I = w

The velocity is given by and Dr/Dt becomes
 
 dr dxi ˆ Dr 
w= = |i = wi |î (1.7) =w (1.13)
dt dt Dt
where wi are the Cartesian velocity components, while As a second example, let us determine the acceleration

the gradient of the pressure is provided by the del a, which is given by
operator  
 Dw ¶w  
a= = + w ×Ñw (1.14)
¶p ˆ Dt ¶t
Ñp = |i (1.8)
¶xi
The
 dot  product on the right side can be
 interpreted
 as

w × ( Ñw ) , which involves the dyadic Ñw, or as ( w ×Ñ ) w ,
Hence, Equation 1.6 reduces to which does not involve a dyadic. With tensor analysis,
one can show that both interpretations yield the same
dp ¶p  result; the second one is usually preferred because of its
= + w ×Ñp (1.9)
dt ¶t greater simplicity. In Cartesian coordinates, for exam-
ple, we have
We shall utilize a notation, first introduced by George
  ¶ ö  ˆ æ ¶w j
Stokes, to define the operator
( w ×Ñ ) w = æç wi |î × |ˆk ¶¶x ö ˆ æ
÷ w j |j = ç wi ¶x ÷ w j |j = ç wi ¶x
öˆ
÷ |j
è k ø è i ø è i ø
D ¶  (1.15)
= + w ×Ñ (1.10)
Dt ¶t

An alternate expression for a, of considerable utility, is
which is called the substantial or material derivative. based on the vector identity (see Appendix A, Section A.5)
This definition is independent of any specific coor-
         
dinate system. With tensor analysis, the del operator
can be defined for any general curvilinear coordinate
( ) (
Ñ A × B = A ×ÑB + B ×ÑA + A ´ Ñ ´ B + B ´ Ñ ´ A ) ( )
system; it is not restricted to Cartesian coordinates as (1.16)
in Equation 1.8. The substantial derivative also can be    
applied to vector quantities. For instance, when applied where A and B are the arbitrary vectors. We set B = A to
to the position vector, we have obtain
     
 
Dr ¶r  
( )
Ñ A × A = 2 A ×ÑA + 2 A ´ Ñ ´ A ( )
= + w ×Ñr
Dt ¶t
or
where
  ö  

¶r
æ1
A ×ÑA = Ñ ç A 2 ÷ - A ´ Ñ ´ A
è2 ø
( )
=0 (1.11)
¶t
where

since r and t are independent variables. The gradient of  
 A2 = A × A
r is
 We now utilize
 ˆ ¶r ˆ ˆ ¶xi ˆ ˆ 
Ñr =|j =|j|i =|j|i dij =|î|î = I (1.12)  
¶x j ¶x j A=w

Background Discussion 5
and The two

  formulations can be related by assuming we
know w ( r , t ) in the Eulerian description. We then inte-
 
Ñ´w = w (1.17) grate Equation 1.13 subject to the initial condition
  
where w is the vorticity to obtain r = ro at t = to (1.20)
  æ1 ö  
w ×Ñw = Ñ ç w 2 ÷ + w ´ w The solution is then the Lagrangian description,
è2 ø Equation 1.19.
The Lagrangian approach is widely used in mechan-
The acceleration is therefore given by ics; for example, consider a marble rolling down an
inclined plane under the influence of gravity. The prob-

 ¶w æ1 ö   lem is solved by first establishing a differential equation
a= + Ñ ç w2 ÷ + w ´ w (1.18)
¶t è2 ø for the motion of the marble. The solution of this equa-
tion provides the position of the marble as a function of
time and its initial position.
in any coordinate system.
There are several reasons for not utilizing the
The substantial derivative has an important physical
Lagrangian description. First, we generally are not inter-
interpretation. It provides the time rate of change of any
ested in the actual location of a fluid particle, whereas, as
fluid quantity, scalar or vector, following a fluid particle.
engineers, we are interested in the pressure and velocity,
This viewpoint is apparent in Equation 1.13, where the
since these provide the pressure   and shear stress forces
time rate of change of the position of a fluid particle
on a body. Second, obtaining r ( ro , t ) represents a greater
equals its velocity. Thus, the pressure of a given fluid
effort than is required for obtaining p and w. Finally,
particle changes in accordance with Equation 1.9. The
the Lagrangian approach is cumbersome for a viscous
substantial derivative consists of two terms. The first of
flow. We, therefore, follow a well-established tradition
these, ¶( )/¶t, provides the changes at a fixed position
and hereafter focus on the Eulerian description.
due to any unsteadiness in the flow.  For a steady flow, Before leaving this topic, recall that the substantial
this term is zero. The second term, w ×Ñ, is referred to as
derivative follows a fluid particle. While the concept is
the convective derivative. It represents the changes that 
Lagrangian,
 the derivative itself is Eulerian, since r and
occur with position at a fixed time. This term is gener-
t, not ro and t, are the independent variables.
ally nonzero in a steady or unsteady flow.
1.2.2 Lagrangian Formulation 1.2.3 Pathlines and Streamlines
As mentioned, the Eulerian formulation provides a field The trajectory of a fluid particle is called a pathline or
description of a flow. The Lagrange formulation pro- particle path. This is found by integrating Equation 1.13
vides a particle subject to the initial condition, Equation 1.20. We shall
 description.
 Suppose a fluid particle has
not discuss a different type of curve called a streakline.
the location r = ro at t = to. In the Lagrangian approach,
 This is a particle path that originates at a fixed position.
the independent variables are ro and t. Thus, the position
of a fluid particle at time t is given by More important than either pathlines or streaklines are
the streamlines. Streamlines are curves that, at a given
   instant, are tangent to the velocity field. In an unsteady
r = r ( ro , t ) (1.19)
flow, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines are all dif-
ferent. In
 a steady flow, they all coincide.

where ro is the particle’s position at time to Let dr be tangent to the velocity and therefore tangent

to a streamline. Then dr satisfies
  
ro = r ( ro , to )  
dr ´ w = 0 (1.21)

and ro is a fixed label on the particle as it moves. In this
formulation, the velocity and acceleration are or with Cartesian coordinates
 
 ¶r  ¶ 2r |ˆ1 |ˆ2 |ˆ3
w= , a= 2
¶t ¶t dx1 dx2 dx3 = 0
 w1 w2 w3
where ro is kept fixed in both derivatives.

On expanding this relation, we obtain where X = (x/a) and Y = (y/a). Since the flow is 2D,
we need to integrate only one of the equations in
Equations 1.22, written as
( w3dx2 – w2dx3 )|ˆ1 – ( w3dx1 – w1dx3 )|ˆ2 + ( w2dx1 – w1dx2 )|ˆ3 = 0
dx dy
=
or, in scalar form, u v
dx1 dx2 dx3 to obtain the equation for the streamlines. The
= = (1.22) equations in Equations 1.23 are substituted into
w1 w2 w3
this differential equation, with the result
The solution of these two ordinary differential equa-

( )
2
2 2 2 2
tions provides the streamline curves, subject to a given dX Y - X + X + Y
=
initial condition. Recall that the streamlines are tangent dY 2XY
to the velocity field at a given instant of time. Thus, if the
wi are time dependent, the t variable is treated as a fixed To separate variables, cylindrical coordinates,
parameter during the integration of these equations. shown in Figure 1.1b, are introduced as
Illustrative Example X = R cos q, Y = R sin q
As an example, we first determine the stream- to obtain

line equation for steady, two-dimensional (2D)
cross flow about a circular cylinder of radius a,
R2 + 1
as sketched in Figure 1.1a. (Later, the unsteady dR = - cot q dq
flow pathlines are found.) In addition, we ( R - 1) ( R + 1) R
assume a uniform freestream, with speed U and
an incompressible, inviscid flow without circu- The method of partial fractions is now used for
lation. Hence, the cylinder is not subjected to the left side, with the result
either a lift or drag force. From elementary aero-
dynamic theory, we obtain the x and y velocity R
æ 1 R2 1 1 1 R2 1 1 1ö
components as
ò
Yo
ç + + +
è 2 R-1 2 R-1 2 R+1 2 R+1
- R - ÷ dR
Rø
u Y2 - X2 v 2XY q
= 1+ , =- (1.23)
( ) ( ) ò cot qdq
2 2
U X2 + Y2 U X + Y2
2 =-
p/2
y where a point Yo on the Y axis is used for the lower

Y
limit and, at this point, θ = π/2. As a result of the
R integration, we obtain
U U θ
x X Yo R 2 - 1 1
a 1 2
=
Y -1 R
o sin q
(a) (b)
By returning to X, Y coordinates, the streamline
y΄ Y΄ equation simplifies to
Initial location
yo of fluid particle Y0
Y
X2 + Y2 = (1.24)
a
Y - Y¥
x΄ X΄
1
–u where Y∞ is the streamline ordinate at X → ±∞.
Figure 1.2a shows a typical streamline pattern.
(c) (d) The two special Y values are related by
FIGURE 1.1 1
Coordinate systems associated with flow about a circular cylinder; Y¥ = Yo - (1.25)
Yo
(a) and (b) are for steady flow; (c) and (d) are for unsteady flow.

Y
Y΄
Streamlines
Yo c
Y∞
b d
e a
X
X΄
(b)
(a)
Y΄
Yo = 3.50
2.75
2.00
1.25
X΄
–1 1
(c)
FIGURE 1.2
Streamlines (a) and pathlines (b) and (c) are for flow about a circular cylinder.
where Xo = 0 and Yo ≥ 1 for any streamline outside requires the particle’s position for both positive
the cylinder. (There is a related streamline pattern and negative time. The initial condition phrase
inside the cylinder.) therefore does not refer to the particle’s position
The solution, Equation 1.24, can also be when t′ → −∞.
obtained, with negligible effort, from the stream This flow is essentially the same as the steady
function (defined in Chapter 5) equation flow case; only our viewpoint is different. In
an unsteady flow, we move with the cylinder,
whereas in the steady case, we have a fixed (lab-
æ a2 ö oratory) coordinate system. It is convenient to
y = Uy çç 1 - 2 ÷÷ again introduce nondimensional variables
è x + y2 ø
x¢ y¢ U
X¢ = , Y¢ = , T¢ = t¢
where Y∞ = ψ(±∞, Y∞)/(aU) and from the fact that a a a
a stream function is constant along streamlines in
a steady flow. Only in special cases, however, is a and use a Galilean transformation
stream function available, whereas our purpose
is to illustrate how Equations 1.22 are generally
x¢ = x - Ut , y¢= y , t¢= t , u¢= u –U , v¢= v
utilized.
The determination of the pathlines in an
unsteady flow is more difficult. Moreover, the to convert the steady flow velocity field into the
physical interpretation of a pathline solution is unsteady one. Equations 1.23 thus become
not trivial. As indicated in Figure 1.1c, the same
problem is considered, but now the cylinder is u¢ Y ¢2 - ( X ¢ - T ¢ )
2
v¢ 2 ( X ¢ + T ¢ ) Y¢
moving to the left, with a speed −U, into a fluid = , =-
U é X ¢ + T ¢ 2 + Y ¢2 ù 2 U 2
that is quiescent far from the cylinder. A prime
ë
( ) û
é( X ¢ + T ¢ ) 2 + Y ¢2 ù
ë û
is used to denote unsteady variables, and our
goal is to determine the trajectory of a fluid par-
ticle. It is analytically convenient to fix the initial The center of the cylinder initially is at x = y = 0 or
condition for the particle directly over the center
of the cylinder with t′ = 0 and y′ = yo, as shown
X¢ + T ¢ = 0, Y¢ = 0
in Figure 1.1c. Consequently, a full trajectory

Hence, the initial condition for a fluid particle is for the particle paths. In contrast to the stream-
line situation, we have one additional differential
equation to solve. In terms of nondimensional
X¢ = 0, Y¢ = Yo when T¢ = 0
variables, these equations become
with Yo ≥ 1. The X′, Y′ coordinate system is there-

fore shifted to the left or right until the position dX ¢ Y ¢2 - ( X ¢ + T ¢ )
2
dY¢ 2 ( X ¢ + T ¢ ) Y¢
of the particle of interest is located at X′ = 0 when = , =-
dT ¢ é X ¢ + T ¢ 2 + Y¢2 ù 2 dT ¢ 2
T ¢ = 0. When T′ is sufficiently negative, the par-
ë
( ) û
é( X ¢ + T ¢ ) 2 + Y ¢2 ù
ë û
ticle is upstream of the center of the cylinder,
which is at a positive X′ value. Remember that (1.26)
Figure 1.2a shows X, Y, not X′, Y′ coordinates,
and that when the particle is above the cylin-
After Equation 1.24 is transformed, it still repre-
der’s center, T′ = X′ = 0. Similarly, when T′ is suf-
sents a particle path. In other words,
ficiently positive, X′ is negative. This behavior
is illustrated in Figure 1.2b, where point a is the
location of a particle when T′ → −∞, while point Y¢
( X¢ + T ¢)
2
e is the location when T′ → +∞. In this figure, + Y ¢2 = (1.27)
Y¢ - Y¥
the center of the cylinder moves from X′ → ∞,
T′ → −∞ to X′ → −∞, T′ → ∞, whereas the lateral
motion of a particle is finite. The one exception is a first integral of Equations 1.26. This can be
is a particle with Y∞ = 0; this particle wets the demonstrated by differentiating this equation
cylinder. with respect to T′ and eliminating dX′/dT′ and
At its initial location, when X′ = T′ = 0, Y′ = Yo, dY′/dT′ to obtain an identity. We next utilize this
the velocity components of the particle are equation to eliminate X′ + T′ from the dY′/dT′
equation, with the result
æ u¢ ö 1 æ v¢ ö
ç ÷ = 2, çU ÷ =0
( ) ( Y¢ - Y )
1/2
è U ø o Yo è øo dY¢ 2 1 + Y¥Y¢ - Y¢2 ¥
3/2
=±
dT ¢ Y¢1/2
Thus, the particle, at this time, is moving in the
positive X′ direction, as indicated by point c in where a ± sign is introduced when the square root
Figure 1.2b. For a particle far upstream of the cyl- of (X ¢ + T ¢)2 is taken. The plus sign holds when
inder, we have T′ < 0, while the minus sign holds when T′ > 0.
The aforementioned differential equation is
u¢ v¢ integrated from the initial condition, Y′ = Yo when
X¢ > 0, T ¢  0, Y¢ @ Y¥ , < 0, >0
U U T′ = 0 to obtain
When the particle is far downstream of the cylin- Yo 1/2

æ Y¢ ö dY¢
der, we have T¢ = ± ç
Y¢
ò ¢ ¢
è 1 + Y¥Y - Y ø
2 ÷
( Y¢ - Y¥ )
3/2
u¢ v¢
X¢ < 0, T ¢  0, Y¢ @ Y¥ , < 0, <0
U U
With the aid of Equation 1.25
and the cylinder is to the left of the particle.
Far from the cylinder, in either X′ direction, æ 1 ö
the particle moves in the negative X′ direc- 1 + Y¥Y¢ - Y¢2 = ( Yo - Y¢ ) ç Y¢ + ÷
è Yo ø
tion. The sign change in u′, which occurs when
the particle is near the cylinder, is discussed
shortly. Note that Y∞ and Yo are still related by the integral can be written in a standard form as
Equation 1.25.
We are now ready to utilize Equation 1.13, writ-
ten as Yo 1/2
1 é Y¢ ù
dx¢ dy¢
T¢ = ±
ò
2 ê 3æ
Y¢ ê ( Yo - Y ¢ ) ( Y ¢ - Y¥ ) ç Y ¢ +
1 öú
dY¢
= u¢, = v¢ ÷ú
dt¢ dt¢ êë è Yo ø úû

This quadrature can be evaluated in terms of along a − b, the particle is being pushed by the
elliptic integrals of the first, F, and second, E, cylinder and u¢ £ 0, while along d − e, the particle
kinds, defined as (Abramowitz and Stegun, 1972) is being pulled by the cylinder, and again u′ ≤ 0.
When the particle is close to the cylinder along
f b − c − d, there is a transition region between the
dq
F ( f\a ) =
ò (1 - sin a sin q)
0
2 2
1/2
pushing and pulling where u′ ≤ 0. In this region,
v′ changes sign. As evident in Figure 1.2c, the size
f of the loop depends on Y∞ (or Yo). Particles with a
ò (1 - sin a sin q) small Y¥ value, which initially are close to the X′

1/ 2
E ( f\a ) = 2 2
dq
axis, have a relatively large loop. This is caused
0
by the cylinder imparting a large velocity to the
particle as it is shoved aside.
where θ is a dummy integration variable. With the A particle experiences a horizontal drift
aid of a table of elliptic integrals (Gradshteyn and (Darwin, 1953) as a result of the cylinder’s motion,
Ryzhik, 1980; No. 47, p. 272), one can show that the given by
final form for T′ is then
D = X ¢a - X ¢e = 2X ¢a
ì é YoY¢ ( Yo - Y¢ ) ù üï
1/2
ï
T ¢ = ±Yo í F ( f\a ) - E ( f\a ) + ê ú ý As shown in Problem 1.7, Δ becomes infinite
ïî êë ( Y¢ - Y¥ ) (1 + YoY¢ ) úû ïþ when Y∞ → 0 and goes to zero as Y∞ → ∞. This
displacement, or drift, also occurs in the steady
where ϕ and α are given by flow case, since the particles that pass close to the
cylinder are retarded more than those that pass
at a distance. As shown in Problem 5.22, along a
é æ Y - Y¢ ö ù
1/2
given pathline, the change in kinetic energy bal-
f ( Y¢ ) = sin -1 êYo3/2 ç o ÷ ú
êë è 1 + YoY¢ ø úû ances the work done in moving a fluid particle.
Because viscosity is not present, the work done on
1 adjacent pathlines or streamlines is not related.
a = sin -1
Yo2 Consequently, the change in displacement Δ with
Y∞ does not involve any dissipative work.
As you might imagine, the streamlines and
This relation, in conjunction with Equation 1.27,
pathlines for flow about a sphere are similar to
represents the pathlines in an implicit form. In
that of a cylinder. Both types of patterns are also
other words, given Yo (or Y∞) and Y′, these two
considered in Problems 5.23 and 5.24, where a
equations determine X′ and T′.
Galilean transformation is again convenient for
Figure 1.2c shows, to scale, the expected
the unsteady spherical case.
streamline pattern in (a) and the pathline pat-
tern in (b) and (c), where all patterns are sym-
metric about the Y or Y′ axis. The arrows on the
streamlines and pathlines indicate increasing
time or the direction of the velocity.
Along a − b − c in Figure 1.2b, T′ is negative, and
the center of the cylinder is at the origin when the 1.3 Stress Tensor
fluid particle is at point c, where T′ is zero. At point We now turn our attention to the two types of forces
a, T′ equals −∞, while at point e, T′ is +∞. (The
that can act on an arbitrary infinitesimal fluid element
value of X ¢a is the subject of Problem 1.7.) For any
other point on a − b − c, the center of the cylinder is
or particle. One of these is a body force, for example,
to the right of the fluid particle. In this regard, it is the force due to gravity or an electromagnetic field. By
useful to note that a particle is upstream of the cyl- definition, a body force is one that acts throughout a vol-
inder’s center when X′ + T′ < 0 and downstream ume, as is the case with gravity, where
otherwise. This result stems from the Galilean  
transformation, X = X′ + T′. At points b and d, u′ Fb = g (1.28)
is zero, while at point c, v′ is zero. One exception
to part of this discussion is a particle with Y∞ = 0 
and X′ > 0, which ultimately wets the cylinder’s and g is the acceleration
 due to gravity. This force
surface. Otherwise, all other fluid particles have per unit volume is rg where ρ is the density. Hence,
similar trajectories, including the loop. a per unit volume body force is proportional to the den-
Along c − d − e, T′ ≥ 0 and the particle is down- sity. There are other apparent or effective body forces
stream of the cylinder’s center. Consequently, in a coordinate system that is rotating or accelerating,

like the centripetal and Coriolis forces that also are pro- For the subsequent discussion, it will be convenient to
portional to the density. (These forces are discussed introduce orthogonal curvilinear coordinates ξi and the
in Section 2.5.) The electromagnetic force depends on corresponding orthonormal basis êi. Consider an infini-
the net charges, not on the bulk density; however, it is tesimal tetrahedron as shown in Figure 1.4. The out-
treated as a body force when the charges are distributed ward unit normal vectors to the  surfaces coplanar with
throughout the fluid medium. We will not be concerned the ξi coordinates are -eî . Let si be the outward facing
with this type of force. stress vector on these surfaces; that is,
By definition, a surface force is one that is propor-
  
tional to the amount of surface area it acts upon. The si = -s ( r , -eˆ i ) (1.31)
surface of interest need not be a real surface, such
as the surface of a droplet, but a conceptual one, such   
as that surrounding an infinitesimal fluid particle. The Note that si is a vector, not a component of s ( r , nˆ ) .
simplest example of a surface force is the one due to Shortly, we will relate these two vectors. By virtue of
hydrostatic pressure. There are also surface forces that Equation 1.30, we have
act at real surfaces, such as an interfacial force at a phase
   
boundary. We will not deal with this type of force. s ( r , -eˆ i ) = -s ( r , eˆ i ) (1.32)
An analytical description of a surface force is not
nearly as simple as Equation 1.28. For this description,
we utilize a differential surface area ds, whose spatial For the tetrahedron, let Δs be the slant face surface
orientation is provided by a unit normal vector n̂, as area, Δsi the surface area normal to ξi, and Δv the vol-
indicated in Figure 1.3. The surface force per unit area, ume of the tetrahedron. This volume is given by

s, that acts on ds is generally not in the plane of the sur-

face. As indicated in the figure, s will have a component Dv = (1/3)DhDs
along n̂ and a tangential component in the plane of the
surface.
 Since s is per unit area, the actual force on ds is where Δh is the normal distance from the origin to the
sds. We call s the stress vector; the component along n̂ slant face. With the aid of vector analysis, the various
results in the normal stress, while the component in the surface areas can be related by
plane of the surface
 results in the shear stress.
In general, s is a function of both position and surface Dsi eî = ( Ds ) nˆ (1.33)
orientation; that is,
   Since the basis is orthonormal, we have
s = s ( r , nˆ ) (1.29)
eî × eˆ j = dij (1.34)
The stress vector can
 be related to a second-order tensor
that depends on r but not on n̂. To show this, we need As a consequence, when we multiply Equation 1.33 with
Newton’s third law, which states that for every action ê j, we obtain
(force) there is an equal but opposite reaction. Hence, we
have
Dsidij = ( Ds ) eˆ j × nˆ
   
s ( r , n ) = -s(r , -nˆ ) (1.30)
ξ3
Normal σ
component
σ
n n
ds Tangential ξ1
component ξ2
r σ (–ê3) –ê3
FIGURE 1.3 FIGURE 1.4

Schematic of a surface force. Effect of a stress vector on an infinitesimal tetrahedron.

or of nine terms in contrast to Equation 1.37, which con-

tains only three. By comparing these two equations, we
Dsi = ( nˆ × eî ) Ds (1.35) obtain
sij = sij (1.41)

Newton’s second law for the mass, ρΔv, within the tetra-
hedron can be written as
while Equation 1.39 yields the contravariant result
     
( rDv ) a = s ( r , nˆ ) Ds - s ( r , eˆ i ) Dsi + ( rDv ) Fb 
si = sij eˆ j (1.42)

where a is the mass acceleration, ρ is the density, and
the right side represents the four surface forces and the These last equations express the fact that σij represents
body force that act on the tetrahedron. We now replace the stress on an area perpendicular to the ξi coordinate
 
Δsi, with Equation 1.35, Δv with ΔhΔs/3, and s ( r , eˆ i ) and in the jth direction.
 
with Equations 1.31 and 1.32 to obtain The stress vector s at r is determined by the nine com-
ponents of s and the normal n̂ to the surface ds. Not all
    of the components are independent of each other. We
(1/3 ) Dh ( Ds ) ra = sDs - si ( nˆ × eˆ i ) Ds + (1/3 ) Dh ( Ds ) rFb have already utilized two conditions, namely, the action
  equals reaction principle and Newton’s second law. The

We assume a - Fb remains finite as the tetrahedron components of s, however, are subject to a third condi-
shrinks to a point. In this limit, Δh → 0, and we obtain tion that requires the resultant moment of these forces,
about any point, to vanish. This condition  will be exam-
 
s = ( nˆ × eî ) si (1.36) ined in Section 2.6, where it results in s being a sym-
metric tensor,
where the right side contains three terms since i is
summed over. sij = s ji or sij = s ji (1.43)
As previously
 indicated, the stress depends on the

force vector s and the vector n̂ that prescribes
 the ori- in which case s has only six independent components.
entation of the surface area on which s acts. For a given In this circumstance, Equation 1.38 can be written as
coordinate system, this dependence can be reduced to
   
two sets of vectors, si and eî . The stress is therefore a s = nˆ × s = s × nˆ (1.44)
second-order tensor, which can be written in dyadic
form as   
If s is not symmetric, then nˆ × s ¹ s × nˆ .
 
s = êisi (1.37)
where a dyadic is just the juxtaposition of two vectors.

As a consequence, Equation 1.36 becomes
1.4 Relation between Stress
    and Deformation-Rate Tensors
s ( r , nˆ ) = nˆ × s ( r ) (1.38)
Let us assume a uniform velocity
 field and ignore
 grav-
  ity. In this circumstance, s, and therefore s, has no
The stress tensor s is thus related to the force vector s 
and provides the explicit dependence of s on nˆ . In other dependence on r. Furthermore, the fluid possesses no
 shearing motion and no shear stresses. In a Cartesian
words, s is independent of the orientation
 of the surface.
We now define the component form of si and s as coordinate system, σij can be written as
 sij = (constant )dij (1.45)

si = sij eˆ j (1.39)
 (As mentioned earlier, we use the covariant component

s = sij eî eˆ j (1.40) form for vectors and tensors when the coordinates are
Cartesian.) Equation 1.45 guarantees no shear stress;
In a Cartesian coordinate system, σij is written as σij. that is, a nonzero shear stress requires σij ≠ 0 for some
Also note that the right side of Equation 1.40 consists i ≠ j.

Our frequent use of a Cartesian coordinate system w

requires a word of explanation. One can show, using the r
Gram–Schmidt procedure of vector analysis, that any δr
vector basis can be replaced by an orthonormal basis.
This new basis, in turn, can be replaced with a Cartesian r + δr
one. These replacements are performed when conve- w + δw
nient and result in no loss of generality, since the laws
of physics are independent of the choice of a coordinate FIGURE 1.5
Strain rate schematic.
system. It will prove convenient for us to use Cartesian
coordinates for some of the subsequent derivations. As to obtain
noted, there is no loss in generality in doing this.
Equation 1.45 means that the normal stress is inde-        
dw = w ( r + dr ) - w ( r ) = dr × ( Ñw ) (1.48)
pendent of the orientation of the surface ds as given
by nˆ . This is the case
 for the stress due to the pressure p,
which varies with r but not with nˆ . We therefore write The
 rightmost
 term is just the directional derivative of
this equation as w in the dr direction, and Ñw is the velocity gradient
tensor. 
sij = - pdij (1.46)  
The evaluation of dw requires decomposing dr ×Ñw in
accordance with the earlier discussion. It is evident that
where, by convention, a compressive stress is negative, this quantity does notdepend on any uniform transla-
hence the minus sign.  tional motion, since w appears only in the gradient.
We now subtract the pressure term from s to obtain However, we must still subtract any solid-body rotation
the viscous stress tensor from dw. To accomplish this, we observe that any sec-
ond-order tensor can be uniquely written as the sum of
tij = sij - (- pdij ) = sij + pdij symmetric and antisymmetric tensors. Hence, we write
  
or more generally Ñw = e + w (1.49)
  
t = s + pI (1.47) 
The symmetric tensor e, called the rate-of-deformation
 tensor, is given by
The viscous stress tensor t is nonzero only if the fluid

possesses a nonzero relative motion. It is t that we relate    t
 e = ( 1/2 ) éêÑw + ( Ñw ) ùú (1.50)
to the rate of deformation. (In a solid, t depends on the ë û
deformation itself and not the rate of deformation. This
trivial-sounding difference represents the demarcation where ( )t denotes the transposition operation. For
between solid and fluid mechanics.) We further require
 example, we write Ñw in Cartesian coordinates as
that the dependence of t on the rate of deformation be
independent of the choice of the coordinate system.  ¶wi ˆˆ
Ñw = ||
ji
To help fix ideas, we observe that the motion of a fluid ¶x j
can be decomposed into four types of motion: uniform
translation, solid-body rotation, extensional strain or then
dilatation, and a shear strain. The first two types of

motion produce no relative motion; hence, t should  ¶w j ˆ ˆ
(Ñw)t = ||
j i
depend only on  the dilatation and shearing motions. ¶xi
Consequently, t cannot depend on w or its components,
 
that is, on the translational motion; however, t can and e becomes
depend on derivatives of the velocity components.
We now consider the relative motion of two adjacent   1 æ ¶w ¶w j ö ˆˆ
fluid particles that are separated by a small distance dr , e = çç i + ÷÷ |j|i (1.51)
2 è ¶x j ¶xi ø
as shown in Figure 1.5.
 At some instant,
 the particles

have
 velocities
 w and w
 + dw , where dw becomes dw as 
dr ® dr . We evaluate dw by writing the Taylor series The antisymmetric part of Ñw is the rotation tensor
 1   t
      
w ( r + dr ) = w ( r ) + dr × ( Ñw ) +  w = éêÑw - ( Ñw ) ùú (1.52)
2ë û

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929. Orelli, Inscpt. Latinar. selectar. Turin, 1828, vol. I. pp. 406-412.
930. See Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 95, inscr. 15, p. 98, inscr. 23; p. 100
inscr. 40; p. 101, inscr. 41. The tomb of Vincentius in the
Catacomb of Praetextatus at Rome would show an instance
of the joint worship of Sabazius, the consort of the Great
Mother, and of Mithras, if we could trust Garrucci’s restoration,
for which see his Les Mystères du Syncrétisme Phrygien,
Paris, 1854. It has been quoted in this sense by Hatch, H.L. p.
290; but Cumont, T. et M. II. pp. 173 and 413, argues against
this construction. For the pictures themselves, see Maass,
Orpheus, München, 1895, pp. 221, 222.
931. Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 261, Fig. 99.
932. Kenyon, Gk. Papyri, p. 65.
933. This is the more likely because his second initiator bears the
name of Asinius, which, as he himself says (Apuleius,
Metamorph. Bk XI. c. 27), was not unconnected with his own
transformation into the shape of an ass. The Emperor
Commodus was initiated into both religions (Lampricius,
Commodus, c. IΧ.).
934. See n. 1, p. 259, supra.
935. Dill, Nero to Marcus Aurelius, p. 625, n. 3, quoting Gasquet,

Mithras, p. 137. See also Gibbon, vol. III. p. 498, Bury
(Appendix 15).
936. Justin Martyr, First Apology, c. LXVI.
937. Porphyry, de antro nymph. c. 15. Tertullian, de Praescpt. c.

40.
938. Porphyry, op. et loc. cit.
939. See Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 339, for authorities.

940. Augustine, In Johann. evang. tractatus, VII. or Cumont, T. et
M. II. p. 59. This last thinks it more probable that the passage
refers to Attis, as there is an allusion in it to redemption by
blood. But this would hardly apply to the self-mutilation of the
Galli, while it would to the blood-bath of the Taurobolium and
Criobolium which so many high initiates of Mithras boast of
undergoing.
941. J. Maurice, “La Dynastie Solaire des Seconds Flaviens,” Rev.

Archeol. t. XVII. (1911), p. 397 and n. 1.
942. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 339, quoting Minucius Felix.
943. Op. cit. I. p. 65.
944. The remains of five Mithraea were found in Ostia alone.
945. Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 204, Fig. 30, and p. 493, Fig. 430; or
P.S.B.A. 1912, Pl. XIII. Figs. 1 and 2.
946. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 62.
947. The story quoted from Pseudo-Augustine (Cumont, op. cit. I.

p. 322) about the hands of the initiates being bound with
chickens’-guts which were afterwards severed by a sword
might account for the number of birds’ bones.
948. Cumont, op. cit. II. p. 21, gives the passage from Lampridius
mentioned in n. 1, p. 260, supra.
949. Op. cit. I. p. 322, quoting Zacharius rhetor.
950. See Chapter II, Vol. I. p. 62, supra.
951. Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 18, for the passage in St Jerome in

which these degrees are enumerated. They all appear in the
inscriptions given by Cumont, except that of Miles or Soldier.
An inscription by two “soldiers” of Mithras has, however, lately
been found at Patras and published by its discoverers, M.
Charles Avezou and M. Charles Picard. See R.H.R. t. LXIV.
(1911), pp. 179-183.
952. Cumont, T. et M. I. pp. 315 sqq.
953. Tertullian, de Corona, c. 15.
954. Porphyry, de antro nymph. c. 15.
955. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 322. Gregory of Nazianza (A.D. 320-390)

is the first authority for these tortures (κολάσεις) in point of
time. Nonnus the Mythographer gives more details, but is
three centuries later.
956. Renan, Marc-Aurèle, p. 577.
957. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 73.

958. Op. cit. II. p. 294, Fig. 149; p. 298, Fig. 154; p. 300, Fig. 156;
p. 304, Fig. 161; p. 488, Fig. 421.
959. Op. cit. I. p. 175, Fig. 10.
960. Op. cit. I. p. 39, n. 6, quoting the Arda Viraf namak. A

quotation from Arnobius, adv. gentes, which follows, merely
says that the Magi boast of their ability to smooth the
believers’ passage to heaven.
961. See Chap. VIII, p. 74, n. 3, supra.
962. That those who had taken the degree of Pater were called
ἀετοί or eagles appears from Porphyry, de Abstinentia, Bk IV.
c. 16. Cumont doubts this; see T. et M. I. p. 314, n. 8. The idea
probably had its origin in the belief common to classical
antiquity that the eagle alone could fly to the sun, from which
the Mithraist thought that the souls of men came, and to which
those of perfect initiates would return. Cf. op. cit. I. p. 291.
963. Lafaye, L’Initiation Mithriaque, p. 106.
964. Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 56.
965. Porphyry, de Abstinentia, Bk IV. c. 16 says this was so.
966. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 318, n. 1, points out that an initiate might

become Pater Patrum immediately after being made Pater or
Pater sacrorum simply. This appears from the two monuments
both dated the same year of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, op.
cit. II. p. 95.
967. See Ammianus Marcellinus Bk XXII. c. 7, for his life under

Julian. His career is well described by Dill, Roman Society in
the Last Century of the Western Empire, 1899, pp. 17, 18, 30,
154, 155.
968. Cumont, T. et M. II. p. 100, inscr. 35; p. 98, inscr. 24.

969. Op. cit. II. p. 130, inscr. 225; p. 132, inscr. 239; p. 134, inscr.
257. The two decurions may of course have been decurions
of the rite only, as to which see op. cit. I. p. 326.
970. Op. cit. I. p. 324: Tertullian, Praescpt. c. 40.
971. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 65. Thirty-five seems to be the greatest

number belonging to any one chapel.
972. Op. cit. I. p. 327.
973. Amm. Marcell. passim.
974. Neander, Ch. Hist. III. p. 136.
975. Marinus, vita Procli, pp. 67, 68; Neander, op. cit. III. p. 136.
976. Witness the reduction of Mitra, who plays such an important

part in the religion of the Vedas, to the far lower position of
chief of the Izeds or Yazatas in the Sassanian reform.
977. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 250, for authorities.
978. Gibbon, Decline and Fall (Bury’s ed.), I. p. 260 n. 106.
979. Reville, Religion sous les Sevères, p. 102.
980. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 347.
981. Dill, Last Century, etc. p. 29, n. 2.
982. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 347.
983. Op. cit. I. pp. 329, 330; Dill, Nero to Marcus Aurelius, p. 624.
984. Cumont, “L’aigle funéraire des Syriens et l’apothéose des

empereurs.” R.H.R., 1910, pt ii. pp. 159 sqq.
985. Cf. the “solitary eagle” of the Magic Papyrus quoted on p. 265
supra.
986. Maury, La Magie et L’Astrologie, passim. The Zend Avesta

also denounces magic as did the later Manichaeism. See p.
342 infra.
987. As in Shakespeare’s Macbeth.
988. So Cumont, T. et M. I. pp. 45, 349, 350. He seems to rely,

however, entirely on the passage in the Acta Archelai (as to
which see n. 1, p. 280 infra), wherein the supposed bishop
Archelaus addresses the equally imaginary Manes as
“Savage priest and accomplice of Mithras!”—possibly a mere
term of abuse. See Hegemonius, Acta Archelai, ed. Beeson,
Leipzig, 1906, c. XL. p. 59.
989. Cumont, T. et M. I. p. 41. He sees in the scenes which border

the Tauroctony references or parallels to the fig-leaves of
Genesis, the striking of the rock by Moses, and the ascension
of Elijah. In the so-called Mithraic Ritual of the Magic Papyrus
of Paris, there are certain Hebrew words introduced, such as
πιπι (a well-known perversion of the Tetragrammaton),
σανχερωβ and σεμες ιλαμ (The “Eternal Sun”).
990. See the story which Josephus, Antiq. XX. cc. 2, 3, 4, tells
about Izates, king of Adiabene, who wanted to turn Jew and
thereby so offended his people that they called in against him
Vologeses or Valkash, the first reforming Zoroastrian king and
collector of the books of the Zend Avesta. Cf. Darmesteter,
The Zend Avesta (Sacred Books of the East), Oxford, 1895,
p. xl. Cf. Ém. de Stoop La Diffusion du Manichéisme dans
l’Empire romain, Gand, 1909, p. 10.
991. Circa 296, A.D. See Neander, Ch. Hist. II. p. 195, where the
authenticity of the decree is defended. For the provocation
given to the Empire by the anti-militarism of Manes see de
Stoop, op. cit. pp. 36, 37.
992. Al-Bîrûnî, Chronology of Ancient Nations, p. 190. The date he
gives is twelve years before the accession of Ardeshîr. E.
Rochat, Essai sur Mani et sa Doctrine, Genève, 1897, p. 81,
examines all the different accounts and makes the date from
214 to 218 A.D.
993. Epiphanius, Haer. LXVI. c. 1, p. 399, Oehler; Socrates, Hist.

Eccl. Bk I. c. 22; Hegemonius, Acta Archelai, c. LXIV.
994. Muhammed ben Ishak, commonly called En-Nadîm, in the

book known as the Fihrist, translated by Flügel, Mani, seine
Lehre und seine Schriften, Leipzig, 1862, pp. 83, 116, 118,
119. Cf. Rochat, op. cit. p. 75.
995. Al-Bîrûnî, Chronology, p. 190.
996. Flügel, op. cit. p. 84; Rochat, op. cit. p. 83.
997. Hegemonius, Acta Arch. c. XL., p. 59, Beeson. Rochat, op. cit.
pp. 9-49, discusses the authenticity of the Acta chapter by
chapter. He thinks the pretended discussion between
Archelaus and Manes unhistorical, and the account of it
possibly modelled on that between St Augustine and Faustus
the Manichaean. The remainder of the Acta he considers
fairly trustworthy as an account of Manes’ own tenets. This
may well be, as Epiphanius, Haer. LXVI. cc. 6-7, 25-31,
transcribes the epistle to Marcellus, its answer, and the
exposition of Turbo, and could scarcely have heard, as early
as 375 A.D., about which time he wrote, of St Augustine’s
discussion. The Acta owe much to the care of the American
scholar, Mr Beeson of Chicago, who has given us the careful
edition of them mentioned in n. 1, p. 277 supra. It is a pity that
he did not see his way to keep the old numeration of the
chapters.
998. Beausobre, Hist. du Manichéisme, Paris, 1734, Pt I. Bk II. cc.

1-4. Cf. Stokes in Dict. Christian Biog. s.v. Manes; Rochat, op.
cit. p. 83.
999. Rochat, op. cit. p. 89.
1000.
Abulfarag in Kessler, Forschungen über die Manichäische
Religion, Berlin, 1889, Bd I. p. 335; Rochat, op. cit. p. 84;
Neander, Ch. Hist. II. p. 168.
1001.
Flügel, op. cit. p. 85. Cf. Al-Bîrûnî, India (ed. Sachau), p. 55,
where Manes quotes the opinion of Bardesanes’ “partizans.”
There are many words put into the mouth of Manes in the
work quoted which argue acquaintance with the Pistis Sophia.
1002.
Abulmaali in Kessler, op. cit. p. 371; Firdaûsi, ibid. p. 375;
Mirkhônd, ibid. p. 379. Cf. Rochat, op. cit. p. 81. He is said to
have painted his pictures in a cave in Turkestan (Stokes in
Dict. Christian Biog. s.v. Manes), which would agree well
enough with the late German discoveries at Turfan, for which
see A. von Le Coq in J.R.A.S. 1909, pp. 299 sqq.
1003.
Flügel, op. cit. p. 85.
1004.
Al-Jakûbi in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 328, 329; cf. Rochat, op. cit.
p. 88.
1005.
Al-Bîrûnî, Chronology, pp. 191, 192.
1006.
Rochat, op. cit. p. 89. Al-Bîrûnî, whom he quotes, however,
says merely that the Manichaeans increased under Ormuz,
and also that Ormuz “killed a number of them.” See last note.
1007.
Al-Jakûbi in Kessler, op. cit. p. 330. But Darmesteter (see
passage quoted in n. 2, p. 284 infra) puts this event as
happening after Ormuz’ death and under Shapur II.
1008.
Al-Bîrûnî, Chronology, p. 191. The town is called Djundi-sâbur
or Gundisabur.
1009.
Al-Jakûbi, ubi cit. supra; Eutychius quoted by Stokes, Dict.
Christian Biog. s.v. Manes.
1010.
Rochat, op. cit. p. 93, examines all the evidence for this and
comes to the conclusion given in the text.
1011. Malcolm, History of Persia, London, 1821, Vol. I. pp. 95, 96.
1012.
G. Rawlinson, The 6th Oriental Monarchy, 1873, p. 222;
Rochat, op. cit. p. 53.
1013.
See Chap. XII supra, p. 232.
1014.
See n. 1, p. 278 supra.
1015.
Al-Bîrûnî, Chron. p. 187, makes Manes the successor or
continuator of Bardesanes and Marcion. This was certainly
not so; but it was probably only from their followers that he
derived any acquaintance with Christianity. See n. 7, p. 280
supra. So Muhammad or Mahommed, four centuries later,
drew his ideas of the same faith from the heretics of his day.
1016.
Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, 1903, p. 318, says that after 300
A.D. Buddhism was everywhere in decay in India.
1017.
Rochat, op. cit. p. 58.
1018.
Darmesteter, Zend Avesta, pp. xl, xli.
1019.
Op. cit. pp. xlvii sqq.
1020.
Al-Bîrûnî, Chron. p. 192.
1021.
Elisaeus Vartabed in Langlois’ Collection des Hist. de
l’Arménie, Paris, 1868, t. II. p. 190. The story is repeated
almost word for word by Eznig of Goghp, ibid. p. 875. Cf.
Neander, Ch. Hist. II. p. 171.
1022.
Rochat, op. cit., following Kessler, shows, it seems,
conclusively, that this is another name for Manes’ father,
Fatak or Patecius.
1023.
She was a courtezan at Hypselis in the Thebaid according to
Epiphanius, Haer. LXVI. c. 11, p. 400, Oehler. As Baur, Die
Manichäische Religionssystem, Tübingen, 1831, p. 468 sqq.
has pointed out, this is probably an imitation of the story told
about Simon Magus and his Helena (see Chap. VI supra). It
seems to have arisen as an embroidery, quite in Epiphanius’
manner, upon the story in the Acta, that Scythianus married a
captive from the Upper Thebaid (Hegemonius, op. cit. c. LXII.
p. 90, Beeson).
1024.
Many guesses have been made as to the allusions concealed
under these names, as to which see Rochat, op. cit. pp. 64-
73. Neander (Ch. Hist. II. p. 16) quotes from Ritter the
suggestion that Terebinthus may come from an epithet of
Buddha, Tere-hintu “Lord of the Hindus.” One wonders
whether it might not have been as fitly given to a Jewish slave
sold at the Fair of the Terebinth with which Hadrian closed his
war of extermination.
1025.
These four books may have been intended for the
Shapurakhan, the Treasure, the Gospel and the Capitularies,
which Al-Bîrûnî, Chron. p. 171, attributes to Mani. Cf.
Epiphanius, Haer. LXVI. c. 2, p. 402, Oehler, and the Scholia of
Théodore bar Khôni in Pognon, Inscriptions Mandaïtes des
Coupes de Khouabir, pp. 182, 183.
1026.
Epiphanius, op. cit. c. 1, p. 398, Oehler.
1027.
Colditz in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 15, 16. Cf. Rochat, op. cit. pp.
65, 66.
1028.
Morrison, Jews under Romans, p. 325 for authorities. Philo,
de Vit. Contempl. etc. c. III. says that similar communities
existed in his time near the Mareotic lake in Egypt. But the
date of the treatise and its attribution to Philo are alike
uncertain. The first mention of Buddha in Greek literature is
said to be that by Clem. Alex. Strom. Bk I. c. 15.
1029.
Harnack in Encyc. Britann. 9th edition, s.v. Manichaeans, p.
48, says “There is not a single point in Manichaeism which
demands for its explanation an appeal to Buddhism.” This
may be, but the discoveries at Turfan and Tun-huang have
made a connection between the two more probable than
appeared at the time he wrote. See also Kessler as quoted by
Rochat, op. cit. pp. 192, 193.
1030.
This appears from the Chinese Treatise at Pekin mentioned
later. See p. 293, n. 2.
1031.
Rochat, op. cit. p. 194. So Socrates, Eccl. Hist. Bk I. c. 22,
calls Manichaeism “a sort of heathen (Ἑλληνίζων)
Christianity.”
1032.
Hegemonius, Acta, c. VII. p. 91, Beeson; Flügel, op. cit. p. 86.
1033.
Certainly none is recorded in the Christian accounts, where
Darkness is called Hyle or Matter. En Nadîm (Flügel, op. cit.
p. 86) makes Manes call the good God “the King of the
Paradise of Light” and (p. 90) the Spirit of Darkness,
Hummâma. Schahrastâni, as quoted in Flügel’s note (p. 240),
makes this word mean “mirk” or “smoke” (Qualm). It would be
curious if Hummâma had any connection with the Elamite
Khumbaba, the opponent of the Babylonian hero Gilgamesh,
because this personage already figures in Ctesias’ story
about Nannaros, which has been recognized as a myth
relating to the Moon-god.
1034.
τὸ τῆς ὕλης δημιούργημα Hegemonius, Acta, c. VIII. p. 9,
Beeson. Cf. Alexander of Lycopolis, adv. Manichaeos, c. II.
1035.
Epiph. Haer. LXVI. c. 6, p. 408, Oehler; Hegemonius, Acta, c. V.
pp. 5-7, Beeson. The authenticity of the letter is defended by
Kessler, op. cit. p. 166. Cf. Rochat, op. cit. p. 94 contra.
1036.
τῶν κακῶν ἐπὶ τὸν θεὸν ἀναφέρουσιν, ὧν τὸ τέλος κατάρας
ἐγγύς. It is evidently intended for a quotation from Heb. vi. 8,
which however puts it rather differently as ἐκφέρουσα δὲ
ἀκάνθας καὶ τριβόλους ἀδόκιμος καὶ κατάρας ἐγγύς, ἧς τὸ
τέλος εἰς καῦσιν. “But that which beareth thorns and briers is
to be rejected and is nigh unto cursing; whose end is to be
burned.” The Khuastuanîft or Manichaean confession
mentioned later repeats this phrase about God not being the
creator of evil as well as of good. See p. 335 infra.
1037.
Hegemonius, Acta, c. VII. p. 9, Beeson.
1038.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 386, sqq. Kessler’s
translation of En Nadîm, which is given in the first Appendix to
the work quoted, differs slightly from that of Flügel and
depends on a somewhat better text than the last-named. It is
therefore used when possible in the remaining notes to this
chapter. Flügel’s book, however, has the advantage of a
commentary of some 300 pages marked with great erudition,
and must still be consulted by anyone wishing to be
acquainted with its subject.
1039.
Plutarch, de Is. et Os. c. XLV., says, however, that “evil must
have a principle of its own,” so that it cannot be the work of a
benevolent being. As he is generally supposed to have taken
his account of the Persian teaching from Theopompos of
Chios, who was at the Court of Ptolemy about 305 B.C., his
evidence is against those who, like M. Cumont, would make
the “Zervanist” opinion, which assumes a common principle
for good and evil, pre-Christian. Yet the point does not yet
seem capable of decision, as Plutarch may here be only
giving us his own opinion.
1040.
Casartelli, op. cit. p. 44.
1041.
This is really the crux of the whole question. If the idea could
be traced back to the philosophers of Ionia (e.g. Heraclitus of
Ephesus) and their theory of eternal strife and discord being
the cause of all mundane phenomena, it is difficult to say
whence the Ionians themselves derived it, save from Persia.
We can, of course, suppose, if we please, that the Persians
did not invent it de novo, but took it over from some of their
subjects. Among these, the Babylonians, for instance, from
the earliest times portrayed their demons as not only
attempting to invade the heaven of the gods, but as being in
perpetual warfare with one another. But the very little we know
of Babylonian philosophy would lead us to think that it inclined
towards pantheism of a materialistic kind rather than to
dualism.
1042.
En Nadîm, in Kessler, op. cit. p. 387; Flügel, op. cit. p. 86.
1043.
The likeness of this to the cosmogony of the Ophites and their
successor Valentinus is of course marked (cf. Chaps. VIII and
IX supra). Manes may have borrowed it directly from
Valentinus’ follower Bardesanes, whose doctrines were
powerful in Edessa and Mesopotamia in his time, or he may
have taken it at first-hand from Persian or Babylonian
tradition. That Manes was acquainted with Bardesanes’
doctrines, see n. 7, p. 280 supra.
1044.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. p. 387; Flügel, op. cit. p. 86.
Flügel’s text adds to these members other “souls” which he
names Love, Belief, Faith, Generosity, and Wisdom. Kessler
substitutes Courage for Generosity and seems to make these
“souls” the members’ derivatives.
1045.
See last note.
1046.
See Chapter XII, p. 251 supra. Here, again, the traditional and
monstrous figure of Satan may have been copied from the
sculptured representations of the composite demons of
Babylonia (e.g. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria,
Frontispiece and Figs. 1 and 13). Yet if we take the Mithraic
lion, as M. Cumont would have us do, as the symbol of fire
and the serpent as that of the earth, we have in the five sorts
of animals the five στοιχεῖα or elements of Aristotle. Cf.
Aetius, de Placitis Philosophorum, ed. Didot, Bk I. c. iii. § 38
(Plutarch, Moralia, II.), p. 1069. Yet the nearest source from
which Manes could have borrowed the idea is certainly
Bardesanes, who, according to Bar Khôni and another Syriac
author, taught that the world was made from five substances,
i.e. fire, air, water, light and darkness. See Pognon, op. cit. p.
178; Cumont, La Cosmogonie Manichéenne d’après
Théodore bar Khôni, Bruxelles, 1908, p. 13, n. 2.
1047.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. p. 388; Flügel, op. cit. p. 87. As
the ancients were unacquainted with the properties of gases,
it is singular that they should have formed such a conception
as that of the compressibility and expansibility of spirits. Yet
the idea is a very old one, and the Arabian Nights story of the
Genius imprisoned in a brass bottle has its parallel in the
bowls with magical inscriptions left by the Jews on the site of
Babylon (Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, 1853, pp. 509 sqq.),
between pairs of which demons were thought to be
imprisoned. Cf. Pognon, op. cit. p. 3. Something of the kind
seems indicated in the “Little Point,” from which all material
powers spring, referred to by Hippolytus and the Bruce
Papyrus.
1048.
So in the Pistis Sophia, it is the “last Parastates” or assistant
world who breathes light into the Kerasmos, and thus sets on
foot the scheme of redemption. Cf. Chapter X, p. 146 supra.
1049.
Yet the Fundamental Epistle speaks of the twelve “members”
of God, which seem to convey the same idea See Aug. c. Ep.
Fund. c. 13.
1050.
Thus En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 388, 389; Flügel, op.
cit. p. 87. But here the Christian tradition gives more details
than the Mahommedan. Hegemonius, Acta, c. VII., p. 10,
Beeson, and Bar Khôni (Pognon, p. 185), are in accord that
the God of Light produced from himself a new Power called
the Μήτηρ τῆς Ζωῆς or Mother of Life, that this Mother of Life
projected the First Man, and that the First Man produced the
five elements called also his “sons,” to wit, wind, light, water,
fire and air, with which he clothed himself as with armour. See
Cumont, Cosmog. Manich. p. 16, n. 4, for the harmonizing of
the texts [N.B. the omission of πῦρ from his quotation from
the Acta is doubtless a clerical error]. The identification of the
Mother of Life with the “Spirit of the Right [Hand]” is accepted
by Bousset, Hauptprobleme, pp. 177, 178, and may be
accounted for by the crude figure by which the Egyptians
explained the coming-forth of the universe from a single male
power. See Budge, Hieratic Papyri in the Brit. Mus. p. 17.
1051.
These were also the “sons” of Darkness or Satan. See Bar
Khôni (Pognon, p. 186). The reason that led the God of Light
to send a champion into the lists was, according to Bar Khôni
(Pognon, p. 185), that the five worlds of his creation were
made for peace and tranquillity and could therefore not help
him directly in the matter. Cf. St Augustine, de Natura Boni, c.
XLII. But Manes doubtless found it necessary to work into his
system the figure of the First Man which we have already
seen prominent in the Ophite system. Cumont, Cosmog.
Manich. p. 16, says few conceptions were more widely spread
throughout the East. It is fully examined by Bousset,
Hauptprobleme, in his IVth chapter, “Der Urmensch.” The First
Man is, in the Chinese treatise lately found at Tun-huang in
circumstances to be presently mentioned, identified with the
Persian Ormuzd and the five elements are there declared to
be his sons. See Chavannes and Pelliot, Un Traité Manichéen
retrouvé en Chine, pt 1, Journal Asiatique, série X., t. XVIII.
(1911), pp. 512, 513. The 12 elements which helped in his
formation seem to be mentioned by no other author than En
Nadîm. St Augustine, however, Contra Epistulam Fundamenti,
c. 13, speaks of the “12 members of light.” The Tun-huang
treatise also mentions “the 12 great kings of victorious form”
whom it seems to liken to the 12 hours of the day. As the
Pistis Sophia does the same with the “12 Aeons” who are
apparently the signs of the Zodiac, it is possible that we here
have a sort of super-celestial Zodiac belonging to the
Paradise of Light, of which that in our sky is a copy. It should
be remembered that in the Asiatic cosmogonies the fixed
stars belong to the realm of good as the representatives of
order, while the planets or “wanderers” are generally evil.
1052.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. p. 389; Flügel, op. cit. pp. 87, 88.
According to the Christian tradition, the Powers of Darkness
devoured only the soul of the First Man which was left below
when his body, as will presently be seen, returned to the
upper world. See Hegemonius, Acta, c. VII., p. 10, Beeson.
1053.
Both the Christian and the Mahommedan traditions agree as
to this result of the fight, which is paralleled not only by the
more or leas successful attempt of Jaldabaoth and his powers
to eat the light of Pistis Sophia, but also by a similar case in
orthodox Zoroastrianism. For all these see Cumont, Cosmog.
Manich. p. 18, n. 4. Bar Khôni (Pognon, p. 186), goes further
and describes the surrender of the First Man as a tactical
effort on his part, “as a man who having an enemy puts
poison in a cake and gives it to him.” Alexander of Lycopolis
(adv. Manich. c. III.), on the other hand declares that God
could not avenge himself upon matter (as he calls Darkness)
as he wished, because he had no evil at hand to help him,
“since evil does not exist in the house and abode of God”; that
he therefore sent the soul into matter which will eventually
permeate it and be the death of it; but that in the meantime
the soul is changed for the worse and participates in the evil
of matter, “as in a dirty vessel the contents suffer change.”
These, however, are more likely to be the ideas of the
Christian accusers than the defences of the Manichaean
teachers.
1054.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 389, 390; Flügel, op. cit. p.
87. As Kessler points out, En Nadîm gives two accounts
doubtless taken from different Manichaean sources. In one,
he says simply that the King of the Paradise of Light followed
with other gods and delivered the First Man, the actual victor
over Darkness being called “the Friend” of the Lights (like
Mithras). He then goes on to say that Joy (i.e. the Mother of
Life) and the Spirit of Life went to the frontier, looked into the
abyss of hell and saw the First Man and his powers were held
enlaced by Satan, “the Presumptuous Oppressor and the Life
of Darkness”; then she called him in a loud and clear voice,
and he became a god, after which he returned and “cut the
roots of the Dark Powers.” For Bar Khôni’s amplification of
this story see p. 302, n. 1, and p. 324 infra. The whole of this,
together with the cutting of the roots, is strongly reminiscent of
the Pistis Sophia.
1055.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. pp. 391, 392; Flügel, op. cit. p.
98. The Acta (Hegemonius, op. cit. c. VIII., p. 11, Beeson) say
that the “Living Spirit” before mentioned “created the Cosmos,
descended clothed with three other powers, drew forth the
rulers (οἱ ἄρχοντες) and crucified them in the firmament which
is their body the Sphere.” “Then he created the lights
(φωστῆρες) which are the remnants of the soul, caused the
firmament to encompass them, and again created the earth
[not the Cosmos] with its eight aspects.” The Latin version
after “earth” adds “they (sic!) are eight.” which if it refers to the
aspects would agree with En Nadîm. Alexander of Lycopolis
(adv. Manich. c. III.), who had been a follower of Manes and
was a Christian bishop some 25 years after Manes’ death,
says that “God sent forth another power which we call the
Demiurge or creator of all things; that this Demiurge in
creating the Cosmos separated from matter as much power
as was unstained, and from it made the Sun and Moon; and
that the slightly stained matter became the stars and the
expanse of heaven.” “The matter from which the Sun and
Moon were taken,” he goes on to say, “was cast out of the
Cosmos and resembles night” [Qy the Outer Darkness?],
while the rest of the “elements” consists of light and matter
unequally mingled. Bar Khôni (Pognon, op. cit. p. 188), as will
presently be seen, says that the Living Spirit with the Mother
of Life and two other powers called the Appellant and
Respondent [evidently the “three other powers” of the Acta]
descended to earth, caused the Rulers or Princes to be killed
and flayed, and that out of their skins the Mother of Life made
11 heavens, while their bodies were cast on to the earth of
darkness and made 8 earths. The Living Spirit then made the
Sun, the Moon, and “thousands of Lights” (i.e. Stars) out of
the light he took from the Rulers. That this last story is an
elaboration of the earlier ones seems likely, and the flaying of
the Rulers seems to be reminiscent of the Babylonian legend
of Bel and Tiamat, an echo of which is also to be found in the
later Avestic literature. See West, Pahlavi Texts (S.B.E.), pt iii.
p. 243. Cf. Cumont, Cosmog. Manich. p. 27, n. 2.
1056.
En Nadîm in Kessler, op. cit. p. 392; Flügel, op. cit. pp. 89-90.
This would agree perfectly with the system of the Pistis
Sophia, where it is said that the “receivers of the Sun and
Moon” give the particles of the light as it is won from matter to
Melchizedek, the purifier, who purifies it before taking it into
the Treasure-house (pp. 36, 37, Copt.). The idea that the
Sun’s rays had a purifying effect shows shrewd observation of
nature before his bactericidal power was discovered by
science. So does the association of the Moon with water,
which doubtless came from the phenomenon of the tides. Is
the Column of Glory the Milky Way?
1057.
The Ecpyrosis or final conflagration is always present in
orthodox Mazdeism, where it inspires its Apocalypses, and is
in effect the necessary conclusion to the drama which begins
with the assault on the world of light by Ahriman. For
references, see Söderblom, op. cit. chap. IV. From the
Persians it probably passed to the Stoics and thus reached
the Western world slightly in advance of Christianity. “The day
when the Great Dragon shall be judged” is continually on the
lips of the authors of the Pistis Sophia and the Μέρος τευχῶν
Σωτῆρος, and the conception may therefore have reached
Manes from two sources at once. The angels maintaining the
world as mentioned in the text are of course the
Splenditenens and Omophorus about to be described.
1058.
Hegemonius, Acta, c. VIII. p. 12, Beeson. St Augustine (contra
Faustum, Bk XX. c. 10) mentions the Wheel briefly and rather
obscurely. It seems to have fallen out of the account of Bar
Khôni. But see the Tun-huang treatise (Chavannes et Pelliot,
op. cit. 1ère partie, pp. 515, n. 2, 516, 517, n. 3). There can be
little doubt that it is to be referred to the Zodiac. The Aeons of
the Light seem to be the five worlds who here play the part of
the Parastatae in the Pistis Sophia.

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Section I Basic Concepts

Section II Advanced Gas Dynamics

6 Shock Wave Dynamics.................................................................................................................................................... 85

7 Vorticity and Its Substantial Derivative.....................................................................................................................117

8 Shock Wave Triple-Point Morphology....................................................................................................................... 129

9 Derivatives When the Upstream Flow Is Nonuniform.......................................................................................... 147

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10 General Derivative Formulation................................................................................................................................. 157

11 Extended Navier–Stokes Equations, Ultrasonic Absorption, and Shock Structure......................................... 187

12 Hodograph Transformation and Limit Lines........................................................................................................... 201

13 Substitution Principle.................................................................................................................................................... 225

14 Calorically Imperfect Flows......................................................................................................................................... 241

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17 Unsteady One-Dimensional Flow............................................................................................................................... 295

18 Supersonic Diffusers..................................................................................................................................................... 343

Section III Viscous/Inviscid Fluid Dynamics

19 Coordinate Systems and Related Topics.................................................................................................................... 373

20 Force and Moment Analysis......................................................................................................................................... 389

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20.4 Angular Momentum............................................................................................................................................ 394

Section IV Exact Solutions for a Viscous Flow

21 Rayleigh Flow.................................................................................................................................................................. 431

22 Couette Flow.................................................................................................................................................................... 437

23 Stagnation Point Flow................................................................................................................................................... 443

Section V Laminar Boundary-Layer Theory for Steady

25 Large Reynolds Number Flow..................................................................................................................................... 459

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26 Incompressible Boundary-Layer Theory................................................................................................................... 469

27 Compressible Boundary-Layer Theory...................................................................................................................... 477

28 Supersonic Boundary-Layer Examples...................................................................................................................... 519

29 Second-Order Boundary-Layer Theory..................................................................................................................... 533

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Appendix G: Operator Formulation................................................................................................................................... 591

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1.1 Preliminary Remarks 1.2 Euler and Lagrange Formulations

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and The two

1.2.2 Lagrangian Formulation 1.2.3 Pathlines and Streamlines

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The solution of these two ordinary differential equa-

Illustrative Example X = R cos q, Y = R sin q

As an example, we first determine the stream- to obtain

y where a point Yo on the Y axis is used for the lower

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Section V Laminar Boundary-Layer Theory for Steady