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Common Mistakes in Teaching

Elementary Math And How to Avoid


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Common Mistakes in Teaching
Elementary Math—And
How to Avoid Them
Learn the most effective ways to teach elementary math, no matter how much
experience you have with the subject.€In this book, Fuchang Liu takes you
through many common mistakes in math instruction and explains the mis-
understandings behind them. He points out practices that should be avoided,
helping you to adjust your lessons so that all students can achieve success.
You’ll discover how to.€.€.

◆◆ Increase your confidence with core math principles and reasoning


◆◆ Set your students on the path toward eventually developing more
complex math skills
◆◆ Improve student achievement by approaching problems in logical
yet creative ways
◆◆ Overcome common challenges faced by students and teachers
◆◆ Teach problem solving for different learning styles

Every chapter reconsiders well-established ways of teaching all areas of ele-


mentary math, from addition and subtraction to statistics and graphs. Help-
ful examples and tips are scattered throughout the book, offering revisions
to the way these topics are often presented in the classroom. Also included
are group study ideas for principals and instructional coaches so your school
or district can work on the book together. With this practical guide, you’ll be
ready to help students truly develop their math understanding.

Fuchang Liu is Associate Professor of Mathematics Education at Wichita State


University. Previously, he taught high school math in Louisiana and Texas.
Other Eye On Education Books
Available from Routledge

Guided Math in Action:


Building Each Student’s Mathematical Proficiency with Small-Group Instruction
Nicki Newton

Math Workshop in Action:


Strategies for Grades K–5
Nicki Newton

Math Running Records in Action:


A Framework for Assessing Basic Fact Fluency in Grades K–5
Nicki Newton

RTI in Math:
Evidence-Based Interventions for Struggling Students
Linda Forbringer and Wendy Fuchs

Creating a Language-Rich Math Class:


Strategies and Activities for Building Conceptual Understanding
Sandra Atkins

The Mathematics Coaching Handbook:


Working with K–8 Teachers to Improve Instruction, 2nd Edition
Pia Hansen

Using Children’s Literature to Teach Problem Solving in Math:


Addressing the Standards for Mathematical Practice in K–5
Jeanne White

Performance Tasks and Rubrics for Early Elementary Mathematics:


Meeting Rigorous Standards and Assessments, 2nd Edition
Charlotte Danielson and Pia Hansen

Performance Tasks and Rubrics for Upper Elementary Mathematics:


Meeting Rigorous Standards and Assessments, 2nd Edition
Charlotte Danielson and Joshua Dragoon

Math Intervention P–2:


Building Number Power with Formative Assessments, Differentiation, and
Games, 2nd Edition
Jennifer Taylor-Cox

Math Intervention 3–5:


Building Number Power with Formative Assessments, Differentiation, and
Games, 2nd Edition
Jennifer Taylor-Cox
Common Mistakes in
Teaching Elementary
Math—And How to
Avoid Them

Fuchang Liu
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Fuchang Liu to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without
intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Liu, Fuchang, 1957–
Title: Common mistakes in teaching elementary math : and how to avoid
â•… them / by Fuchang Liu.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016043892| ISBN 9781138201453 (hardback) |
â•… ISBN 9781138201460 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematics—Study and teaching (Elementary)
Classification: LCC QA135.6 .L58 2017 | DDC 372.7—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016043892
ISBN: 978-1-138-20145-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-20146-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-51177-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Palatino
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To the memories of
Jixuan Liu and Sulan Sun, who instilled in me the love of books,
and to
Zhenglian, my wife, and Isabelle, my daughter.
Contents

Meet the Author����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����������������������������xi


eResources ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������������� xii
Preface ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓��� xiii

1 Counting����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���1
Counting Shouldn’t Start at 0 ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���1
What Are Tally Marks for?����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������3
It May Not Be Fast—the Purpose of Skip-Counting ����������������������������������尓�4
Our Number System is Base-10, Not Base-12����������������������������������尓�������������6

2 Number Properties����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������8
A Red Marble Isn’t More Than a Blue One����������������������������������尓�����������������8
Playing Cards and Dice Aren’t Ideal Things to Make
Multidigit Numbers With ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���13
It’s Odd Not to Consider 0 as Even ����������������������������������尓���������������������������15
14 and 37 Don’t Belong in the Same List����������������������������������尓�������������������16

3 Addition����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�18
4 + 4 Isn’t Simply 8 Bars Put Together����������������������������������尓�����������������������18
Make Pictorial Representations More Than a “Literal”
Translation����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������19
Don’t Hop from Square One ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���22
You Can’t Add Apples and Oranges Together����������������������������������尓���������23

4 Subtraction����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������������25
Don’t Make the Kittens Disappear����������������������������������尓�����������������������������25
Don’t Ever Say “Subtract the Smaller Number from
the Larger One”����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������27
“Neither a Borrower nor a Lender Be”—Why We
Shouldn’t Borrow ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������28
Can We Subtract a Larger Number from a Smaller One? �������������������������29
10 + 5 − 7 = 15 − 7: No Way to Make It Easier?����������������������������������尓���������31

5 Multiplication����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������34
The Formidable 169-Cell Multiplication Table����������������������������������尓���������34
“You Must Put a Zero in the Ones Place” ����������������������������������尓�����������������39
viii╇ ◆╇Contents

Can You Move over One Place Value?����������������������������������尓�����������������������41


Line Multiplication: Why It Doesn’t Work ����������������������������������尓���������������42

6 Division ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�45
The Larger Number Doesn’t Always Go Inside����������������������������������尓�������45
What’s 0 ÷ 0? ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������46
Division Isn’t Always Repeated Subtraction����������������������������������尓�������������48
“Dad, Mom, Sister, Brother, Rover”: Where Is Dad?���������������������������������50
Division Doesn’t Always Yield a Smaller Number ����������������������������������尓�51

7 The Order of Operations����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������54


Aunt Sally Is Evil—The Order of Operations����������������������������������尓�����������54
The Order “M/D before A/S” Isn’t Haphazard����������������������������������尓�������57
Are Negative and Subtract Really Different?����������������������������������尓���������������60

8 Algebra����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���62
An Equal Sign Means Equal ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���62
What Does Adding Up Numbers Landed Have to Do with
Finding Factors? ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�������������������65
Timelines Aren’t Good Candidates for Teaching
Negative Numbers����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������68
The Worst Example in Teaching Exponents ����������������������������������尓�������������70

9 Geometry: Bits and Pieces ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����72


Don’t Count the Diagonals on a Grid����������������������������������尓�������������������������72
“All 3-D Shapes Have an Extra Third Dimension of Height” �����������������75
Don’t Use “Vertical” to Find the Horizontal Value ����������������������������������尓�77
The Two Sides of a Symmetrical Figure Aren’t Exactly
the Same����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������������78
Don’t Use Tiles to Figure Out the Perimeter����������������������������������尓�������������80

10 Geometry: Common Geometric Shapes����������������������������������尓�������������������82


Length Doesn’t Necessarily Mean Longer����������������������������������尓�����������������82
A Rectangle’s Orientation Doesn’t Matter Either����������������������������������尓�����84
“A Rectangle Has Two Longer Sides and Two Shorter Sides”�����������������85
What’s Wrong with Saying “Triangles, Rectangles, Squares,
and Hexagons”? ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�������������������86
Base Doesn’t Necessarily Mean “Side at Bottom”����������������������������������尓�����88
Three Sides Don’t Necessarily Make a Triangle����������������������������������尓�������90
How Many Sides Does a Circle Have?����������������������������������尓�����������������������92
Contents╇ ◆╇ix

11 Time-Telling ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������93
“A Quarter in Time Means 15” ����������������������������������尓�����������������������������������93
Does 1 on Analog Clocks Mean 5 Minutes? ����������������������������������尓�������������94
“Why Does the Time on My Analog Clock Look Weird?” �����������������������97
Which Hand Pointing to 12 Makes 12:00?����������������������������������尓�����������������99
Why We Shouldn’t Jump Around Between 8:00 and 9:00�����������������������100

12 Fractions����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������������103
A Condition for Using Fractions: Equivalent Parts ���������������������������������103
“Bottom Number” and “Top Number” Aren’t Nearly
Sufficient for Defining Denominators and Numerators���������������������105
What Does 1/2x Mean? ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������106
A Fraction Doesn’t Address “How Many” ����������������������������������尓�������������109
Denominators Should Be Substantially Different for Easy
Comparison����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������� 110
Percentage Shouldn’t Be Juxtaposed with Fractions
and Decimals����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����������������������� 112

13 Decimals����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����������������������������������� 114
Changing the Value Scheme of Base-10 Blocks Is Not
a Good Idea ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������� 114
When Is It Appropriate to Read a Decimal as a Fraction?����������������������� 115
25.0 and 25 Aren’t Exactly the Same����������������������������������尓������������������������� 118
Keep a Few More Decimal Places when Rounding at
Intermediate Steps ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������� 119

14 Simple Statistics and Graphs����������������������������������尓�����������������������������������122


Were the Children in Your Class Born, on Average, on the 12.8th?�������122
“The Mean Is the Average” ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���123
Where in the World Does the Mode Ever Get Used?�������������������������������125
Do All Your Children Have an Equal Chance of Winning? �������������������127
Use Different Types of Data for a Beginning Lesson on Graphs �����������128

15 Measurement����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������131
Why Do We Need Nonstandard Measurement? ����������������������������������尓���131
What Is Standard Measurement? ����������������������������������尓�����������������������������132
What Are Centimeters Used to Measure?����������������������������������尓���������������134
Leave Out Units of Measure at Intermediate Steps���������������������������������135
How Do You Say the Word for “1000 Meters”? ����������������������������������尓�����136
Fractions Don’t Belong with Metric Measurements���������������������������������137
x╇ ◆╇Contents

16 Computational Estimation����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���140
Is Computational Estimation an Educated Guess? ���������������������������������140
Are All Estimates Good Ones? ����������������������������������尓���������������������������������141
How Practical Is an Estimate If It Takes 4 Minutes?���������������������������������142
Be Extremely Careful When Rounding 1-Digit Numbers�����������������������144
There Is Often More Than One Way to Round a Number�����������������������145

17 Odds and Ends ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������147


Circumference ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�������������������������147
Clock Hands����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������148
Commas ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������������148
Diameter����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������������149
Equation����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����������������������������������149
Lines (1)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�150
Lines (2)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�150
More Than ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�������������������������������150
Number����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�151
Object����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����151
Percent����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���151
Sphere����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���152
Times����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓�����152
Units for Area and Volume ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���153

Appendix: Suggestions for Using Common Mistakes in


Teaching Elementary Math with Study Groups ����������������������������������尓�������154
Meet the Author

Dr. Fuchang Liu has been an educator for more than three decades, first as an
English teacher in China and then as a math teacher in the United States—in this
latter role he was named Teacher of the Year in 2002 (he has always been more
of a numbers person!). Currently he is associate professor of math education at
Wichita State University, working with pre- and in-service elementary teachers
on a daily basis.
Dr. Liu’s research interests include computational estimation, math anxi-
ety, and mental representations of fractions. He is the author of more than
20€research articles on these topics and coeditor of Locating Intercultures,
a book on global learning and multicultural understanding. He regularly
makes presentations at national and international conferences on issues cen-
tering around American children’s learning of mathematics.
eResources

The Study Guide found in the Appendix of this book is also available as a free
download on our website, so you can easily print and distribute it for meet-
ings. You can access the download by visiting the book product page on our
website: www.routledge.com/9781138201460. Then click on the tab that says
“eResources,” and select the file. It will begin downloading to your computer.
Preface

Jane Smith has been teaching elementary school for a few years now. She
loves her children and has been doing a fantastic job teaching them knowl-
edge and skills they’ll need for years to come. Nevertheless, like most elemen-
tary teachers across the United States, she didn’t undergo formal, specialized
training in any of the basic subject areas taught in elementary schools: math,
language arts, science, and social studies. Rather, her training was elementary
education, a major that mainly focuses on methods, the courses that discuss
instructional strategies, assessment, and management of those subject areas.
Jane has a strong love for the English language and can handle teaching lan-
guage arts with high proficiency. Science and social studies also come natu-
rally to her. Deep down, though, she sometimes feels a bit unsure about the
math topics she teaches. Of course, most of the time she has no difficulty at
all. It’s just a few minute details that sometimes she’s not quite certain about.
For example, she’s always telling her children that a rectangle has two longer
sides and two shorter sides. To her, this feature is what distinguishes a rect-
angle from a square. But just recently she heard a colleague mention that it
wasn’t quite correct to explain it that way; that is, the two pairs of sides of a
rectangle don’t have to be different. Jane knows for certain that a few other
teachers in her building teach the same thing concerning rectangles as she
does, and now she’s not sure if she herself is right or if her colleague is right.
If you are an elementary school teacher like Jane, this book is for you.
Written in plain language without using much mathematical jargon, this book
examines about 100 common mistakes in teaching elementary school math by
analyzing the misunderstanding behind them and then offers advice on how
to correct or how not to make them based on the underlying mathematical
principles and reasoning.
These mistakes are arranged by topic, such as counting, addition, geome-
try, and fractions, to name a few, and they’re all made by our fictitious teacher
Jane Smith. Certainly no one would make this many mistakes, but to make
their analysis and discussion easier, this book has to have someone play this
bad-guy role. For each mistake, first Jane is quoted as saying something prob-
lematic, followed by analysis of what she says, often with the aid of figures
or text examples, and then some advice is offered. To help with the flow of
the narration, the part about how to avoid making the mistake just discussed
is often addressed directly to the reader by using the second person, such as
xiv╇ ◆╇Preface

“You may want to do this or that.” Additionally, as the mistakes discussed in


this book cover all possible elementary grades, the particular grade level of
Jane’s children is not specified.
For easy narration, several other fictitious characters are occasionally used
in this book. Two of them, Tom and Megan, are children from Jane’s class. A
Mr. Williams is Jane’s colleague, teaching in the room right next to hers.
Despite the book’s organization by topic, all chapters—and, in fact, all sec-
tions within each chapter—are independent of each other. This meets nicely
the needs of the busy, overwhelmed elementary teacher. The reader may read
any chapter or section, in any order, without worrying about any other chap-
ter or section. This is particularly useful for the reader at the lesson planning
stage when this book may be used as a reference guide.
1
Counting

Counting Shouldn’t Start at 0


“Boys and girls, let’s have a little practice on counting. Now, count after me.
Zero! One! Two! Three! Four!” This is what Jane, the fictitious elementary
school teacher in this book, directed her children to do in class one day. On a
different occasion, as she found her hundred chart didn’t have a 0, she added
it there herself, right above the number 10.
While 0 is indeed immediately before 1 in terms of the relative positions
for whole numbers, having children count starting at 0 is problematic. Before
we embark on further discussion of this issue, let’s look at two common kinds
of numbers: natural numbers and whole numbers.
Natural numbers are just 1, 2, 3, 4.€.€. . Why do we call them natural numbers?
It’s because such numbers came into being in the most natural manner. Many
things in our lives are considered natural, for example, “natural languages” that
came into existence with early human beings, as opposed to “artificial languages”
created for a specific purpose. Within natural languages, some �phonemes are
more natural than others. For example, babies start to pronounce more natural
sounds, such as /mɑ:/ before less natural sounds such as those containing /r/
or /l/. It’s probably not a coincidence that /mɑ:/, meaning mother, is among the
very first few words babies acquire and is found in many languages around the
world. Similarly, we can imagine that our ancient ancestors, when the need for
numbers started to arise, invented means to represent 1,€2, 3.€.€. . Henceforth they
have become known as natural numbers.
2╇ ◆╇Counting

The number 0, in contrast, came into the picture very late. Its concept as
used in modern times originated in the 7th century, and this number was
introduced into the decimal system as late as in the 13th century (the Roman
numeration system, the numerals often used on the face of analog clocks
and opening pages of books, still doesn’t have a means for expressing 0).
This indicates that the representation of 0 is for its “nothingness” instead of
counting.
If we add this 0 to the set of natural numbers, then we have whole num-
bers. That is, natural numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4.€.€. and whole numbers are 0, 1,
2, 3, 4.€.€. . Unfortunately, the distinction between natural numbers and whole
numbers is not unanimously agreed on. Sometimes 0 is included in the set of
natural numbers. To avoid this confusion, numbers 1, 2, 3, 4.€.€. have come to
acquire a new name: counting numbers.
It may become clear now. Counting numbers, as the term indicates, are
numbers used for counting, and they start at 1. If you ask a child who has just
learned the first 10 or 20 numbers to count, regardless of the language back-
ground that child is from, you will most likely hear “one, two, three, four .€.€.”,
not “zero, one, two, three, four .€.€.”.
You may ask, “Are there detrimental consequences for counting starting
at zero?”
There are two major problems with counting from 0. First, 0, with its
meaning of “nothingness,” is very difficult for a young child just learning
how to count (believe it or not, even for older children and adults retrieving
multiplication facts, the reaction times are longer when a fact contains a 0,
such as 3 × 0, than when a fact doesn’t, such as 3 × 4). Most young children
learn their first numbers through a one-to-one correspondence between a
number and the quantity of actual objects that number represents, as the
number 1 and one toy soldier, the number 2 and two toy soldiers, and so on.
Imagine, however, how you would teach a young child to call out 0 with no
toy soldiers in sight.
Second, to determine the number of objects by counting, such as deter-
mining how many apples there are on the table, many children would touch
or point to the first apple and say “one,” then move on to the second apple
and say “two,” and continue in this manner until all the apples are counted
(many adults do this too). If we start at 0, we would have to touch nothing
and say “zero,” but then we would have to start touching apples and calling
out “one, two, three,” and so on. This can be very confusing because there
would be a need to stress when to touch (with a one-to-one correspondence)
and when not to touch (without a one-to-one correspondence). If a child
accidentally touches an apple while saying “zero,” then the total number of
apples would be off by 1.
14╇ ◆╇ Number Properties

Figure 2.8╇ Two Dice Rolled to Make a Supposed 2-Digit Number, 52

hurdles children face in their learning of elementary math: place value. At


the beginning stage, many children have a single-digit concept of multidigit
numbers. They often view 2 in 283 just as a 2 instead of 200. Some cultural and
linguistic barriers contribute to this difficulty, troubling many children. For
example, English number words expressing 2-digit numbers don’t explicitly
convey the composition of tens and ones (e.g., “twelve” in English as opposed
to “ten-two” in some East Asian languages).
Now let’s return to the issue of making 2-digit numbers with playing
cards. Let’s say that Jane handed out a deck of cards to each of her children
one day and told them to make a 2-digit number by drawing two cards out
of it. Suppose Tom first drew a 5 and then a 2. He might hold one card in his
left hand and the other in his right hand. Or he might lay the two cards on his
desk with a large space between them. Or he might lay down one card in an
up-and-down manner and the other in a left-and-right manner. Or one of the
two cards might be red while the other one was black. In all such scenarios,
what lies in front of the child doesn’t quite look like a 2-digit number.
Using dice may be even worse. Sometimes the two dice rolled may be too
far from each other to resemble a 2-digit number, and they may be pointing
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Sakota, 9, 61
Schools, vide Colleges
Scrolls, honorific, &c., 372-3, 451, 506
Seal, Imperial, 33, 35, 40, 42
Seng-Ko-Lin Ch’in, Prince, 15, 20, 21, 25, 28
Seymour, Admiral, 332
Shansi, Court in, 346
Yu Hsien, Governor of, 373
Shao Yu-lien, 173
Shen Chin, Reformer, 490
Sheng Hsüan-huai, 407
Sheng Pao, General, 20, 391, 484
Shensi, famine in, 105, 416
Rebellion in, 117
Shih Hsü, 458
Shimonoseki Treaty, 391
Shun-Chih, Emperor, 37, 83, 133, 146
Siege of Nanking, 68-9, 71
Su-Chou fu, 507
Silkworms, God of, 206
Small-pox, 120
Southern provinces and Reform, 169, 185, 219, 229, 253, 418,
490
Southern Viceroys, 277, 329, 359, 394-5, 506
“Spring and Autumn” Classic, 288, 318, 514
Squeezing by officials, 495, 510
Students, 178, 430, 457
Succession, Imperial, 5, 115, 119, 122, 128, 129, 132, 134, 141,
304, 381, 444, 462, 487
Sugiyama, 262
Suicide, patriotic, 134
Summer Palace, burnt by Allies, 20, 42, 389
rebuilding of, 99, 128, 168, 356, 493
Tzŭ Hsi’s life at, 198, 301, 451
Sun Chia-nai, 253, 358, 510-12
Sung Ch’ing, General, 350
Sung dynasty, 133, 143, 190, 236, 391
Sung, Eunuch, 300
Sung Po-lu, Censor, 190, 195, 208
Sung Yu-lien, 204
Sun Yat-sen, Dr., 227
Sun Yu-wen, 157
Su Shun, usurping Regent, 30 et seq., 48, 156, 496

Ta-A-Ko, vide Heir Apparent


Ta Chi, Concubine, 225
Taiping rebellion, 11, 37, 48, 64-80, 276, 321, 467, 485, 492,
513
Tai-Tsung, Empress, 37
T’ai-Yüan fu, Court at, 348, 496
Taku Forts, 264, 323, 327, 333
T’an Chung-lin, Viceroy, 245
T’ang dynasty, 141, 216, 347
Tang Shao-yi, 82, 496
T’an Su-t’ung, Reformer, 202, 245
T’an Ting-hsiang, Viceroy, 24
Tao-Kuang, Emperor, 8, 122, 184, 251, 291, 458
his widow, 11
T’ao Mo, Viceroy, 107-8
Taxation, system of, 441
Temple of Heaven, 445
“The Chinese Crisis from Within,” 2, 477
Tientsin, fighting at, 282, 289, 290, 325
Tientsin massacre, 76-7
Tien Ts’ung, Emperor, 1
Times correspondent, Peking, 82, 446, 488
Times, The, quoted, 216, 219, 389, 404-11, 471-75, 495, 501
Ting, Admiral, 99
Ting Pao-chen, 91-3
T’ing Yung, 247
Tombs, Imperial, 150, 471, 473, 487
Hsien-Feng’s, 61, 149
T’ung-Chih’s, 136
Tzŭ Hsi’s, 456
Tongking, 154, 166
Train-bands, 242-3, 248, 253
Transvaal war, 289
Treasure in Palace, 301, 347, 403
Treaties, Commercial, 111, 383
Treaty of Livadia, 502-3
of Portsmouth, 506
of Shimonoseki, 391
of Tientsin, 23, 114
Trial of Reformers, 220
Tribute, provincial, 97, 104, 359, 361, 398, 402, 452, 496
Troops, Chihli, 75, 78, 182, 197
Tsai Ch’u, Prince, 213
Tsai Feng, vide Prince Ch’un
Tsai Lan, Duke, 100, 251-2, 261-3, 270, 272, 292, 294, 360, 364
Tsai Lien, “Beileh,” 252, 282
Tsai Tsê, Duke, 431
Tsai Tun, Duke, 49
Tsai Ying, “Beileh,” 252, 282
Tsai Yüan, Prince, 21, 27, 30
Chief Regent, 36
conspiracy of, 3, 30 et seq., 212, 492
death of, 47
Ts’en Ch’un-hsüan, 101, 347-8, 355, 359, 360, 370
Tseng Kuo-ch’uan, 68
Tseng Kuo-fan, Viceroy, 11, 28, 37, 64, 80, 223, 483, 492, 502,
507
Tseng, Marquis, 64, 79, 99
Tseng Tzu, 146
Tso Tsung-t’ang, 64, 138, 140, 483, 503, 507-510
Tsungli Yamên, 42, 60, 190, 278, 334
Tuan Fang, 4, 119, 287, 454, 465, 512, 515
Tuan Hua, Prince, 21, 30 et seq., 49, 439
Tuan, Prince (Boxer), 100, 224, 251-303, 364
his wife, 343
in banishment, 365
relations with Tzŭ Hsi, 273, 283, 291, 343
son of, Heir Apparent, 253, 303-4
Tu Mu, 146
T’ung-Chih, Emperor, 35, 52, 54, 84, 115, 119, 467, 487
death of, 121, 439
funeral and burial of, 135, 138
marries A-Lu-Te, 118, 494
succession to, 130, 303, 382, 458, 461-2, 487
unborn heir of, 122
Tung Fu-hsiang, General, 261-2, 272, 281, 284-5, 288, 316,
323, 350, 362, 366, 509
T’ung Wen College, 493
T’ung Yŭan-ch’un, Censor, 38, 43
Tun, Prince, 2, 131, 251
Turkestan, 221, 229, 365, 502
Tzŭ An (Empress Dowager, of the East), 35, 55, 75, 92, 94, 118,
121, 148-9
and A-Lu-Te, 121
and Prince Kung, 93
Co-Regent with Tzŭ Hsi, 44, 475
death of, 152
tomb of, 472, 487
valedictory decree, 152
Tzŭ Hsi, Empress Dowager, (see also Yehonala)
appoints Kuang Hsü’s successor, 252, 257, 382
burial and tomb of, 150, 470-5, 515
charm of manner, 215, 478, 497
compared with Napoleon, 486
compared with Queen Elizabeth, 160, 166, 481, 498
contemplates suicide, 297
courage, 285, 487, 488
death of, 464-7, 498
despotic nature, 57, 184
diet and habits, 356, 411, 496
Empress Dowager and Co-Regent, 35, 44, 51 et seq.
extravagance, 189, 198, 228, 494
feminine vanity, 496
fits of rage, 94, 259, 265, 281, 289, 294, 300, 480, 489, 497
flies from Peking, 296-7, 340 et seq.
fond of painting, 259, 285
gentleness, 53, 239, 259, 480
her eunuchs, 81 et seq., 90, 95-6, 198, 267, 289, 300
her favourites, 91, 96, 102, 293, 364, 483
her private fortune, 81, 301, 495
her Privy Purse, 40, 45, 98, 162, 301, 398, 434
her sisters, 11, 123, 126, 179
impartiality, 231, 484
inconsistency, 257
indecision, 260, 328, 387
in retirement, 161
kindness of heart, 282, 286, 358, 478, 481, 489
last words, 466
life at summer palace, 157, 161-2, 198, 288
love of literature, 492-3
love of theatre, 88, 91, 256, 259, 356, 400, 454-5, 492
names and titles of, 13, 55, 469, 490
opium smoking, 411, 496
parentage, childhood and education, 2, 7, 8-9
penitent, 337, 383, 389, 392, 416-7, 445
personal appearance, 359
policy towards Manchus, 231
political activity, 239, 244
prestige of 469, 488
profligacy of Court, 84, 189, 203, 225, 244, 481
quarrels with Co-Regent, 94, 148-9
rebukes the Censors, 166
receives wives of foreign Ministers, 214, 290, 401, 412,
434, 495
reform policy, 375, 389, 394, 416, 420, 425
relations with Boxers, 250-300, 358, 364, 419
relations with Jung Lu, vide Jung Lu
relations with Kuang Hsü, 176, 438, 449
relations with Legations, 291, 328, 401
relations with Prince Kung, 57 et seq., 91 et seq.
relations with Prince Tuan, 278, 283, 291, 328, 343
seventieth birthday, 227
sickness of, 443, 455-6
sixtieth birthday, 167, 510
statecraft, 52, 237, 327
superstitious nature, 65, 279, 387, 409, 456, 481, 485, 487
thrifty instincts, 45, 105, 405, 434, 481, 495
Tsai Yuan conspiracy, 30 et seq.
vindictiveness, 44, 243, 305, 490
violates succession laws, 43, 126, 132, 445, 487
woman of moods, 62, 259

Vernacular Press, vide Press


Victoria, Queen, 333, 337, 448, 492

Wang Chao, Reformer, 197, 232, 449


Wang Wen-shao, 194, 247, 278, 298, 340, 342, 354, 402
Wan Li, Emperor, 1
War, with England and France (1860), 14 et seq.
of Boxers, 266
Russo-Japanese, 506
with France, 154, 166, 505
with Japan, 98, 157, 167-8, 170, 180, 249, 510
Wei Chung, Eunuch, 83
Weihaiwei, 99, 390
“Wen Ching,” 2, 477, 479
Weng T’ung-ho, 151, 156-7, 178 et seq., 233-5, 505, 510
Wen Hsi, 120
Wen Lien, 282, 289, 298, 301
Wen T’i, Censor, 194, 400
Western learning, 187, 191, 199
White Lily sect, 247, 311, 321
Winter Palace, 198, 260
Women, in the Palace, 232
not allowed with army, 485
not allowed with Imperial cortège, 45
rulers, 52, 466
Wu, Empress, 52, 189, 270, 472
Wu K’o-tu, 110 et seq., 132 et seq., 445, 461, 506
suicide of, 135, 137
Wu San-kuei, 74
Wu Ta-ch’eng, 163, 165
Wu-T’ai shan, 350

Yakoub Beg, 509


Yang Ju, 330
Yang Jui, 202, 220, 225
Yangkunu, Prince, 1
Yang Shen-hsiu, 190, 195
Yangtsze provinces, 78, 328
under Taipings, 67
Viceroys, vide Southern
Yehonala Clan, 2-4, 122, 158, 163, 166, 213, 465, 515
Yehonala, Concubine Imperial, 1 to 13 et seq., 26-7 (vide Tzŭ
Hsi)
her sisters, 11, 123, 126
Yeh, Viceroy, 12, 24
Yellow Emperor, 145
Yellow Girdles, vide Aisin Gioros
Yellow River, 163, 238, 397, 400, 509
Yellow Sedan-chair, 164
paper decrees, 243
Turban sect, 314
“Yi” Concubine, (vide Yehonala), 17, 31
Yin Chang, 384-5
Ying Nien, 366-7, 372
Ying Tsung, Emperor, 125
Yi, Prince, vide Tsai Yuan, 27, 48
“Young China,” 178, 418, 433, 476, 491
Yüan Ch’ang, 269, 270, 273, 281, 292, 294, 307-26, 377
Yüan Dynasty, 314
Yüan Shih-k’ai, 82, 171, 201, 203 et seq., 311, 334, 400, 402,
410, 429, 451, 459, 460
Yu-Ch’uan pu (Ministry of Communications), 430
Yü Hsien, 252, 254, 260, 273, 287, 291, 311, 323, 348-9, 365,
372
Yü Lu, Viceroy, 195, 257, 264, 282, 292, 297, 312, 323, 343
Yünnan, Rebellion in, 117
Transcriber’s Note: An entry for “Waiwupu” was omitted from the Index, but if it had
been included, it might have referred you to pages 339 and 482.

Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,


BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND
BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.
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