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Applied
Elasticity
and
Plasticity
Mumtaz Kassir
Applied Elasticity and
Plasticity
Applied Elasticity and
Plasticity
Mumtaz Kassir
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Preface..............................................................................................................................................xi
Author........................................................................................................................................... xiii
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Axial Extension ...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Bending of Symmetric Beams .......................................................................................8
1.3 Torsion of Circular Members ......................................................................................14
Problems ..................................................................................................................................16
List of Elementary Formulas ................................................................................................21
References................................................................................................................................22
3. Analysis of Strain..................................................................................................................67
3.1 Displacement at a Point ...............................................................................................67
3.2 Normal and Shear Strains ...........................................................................................69
3.2.1 2D Strain ............................................................................................................ 70
3.2.2 3D Strain ............................................................................................................ 75
3.3 Compatibility Conditions ............................................................................................77
3.4 Dilatation .......................................................................................................................79
3.5 Transformation of Strain..............................................................................................79
3.5.1 2D Strain ............................................................................................................ 80
3.5.2 3D Strain ............................................................................................................ 81
3.6 Strain Tensor .................................................................................................................85
3.6.1 Mathematical Strain ......................................................................................... 86
3.7 Principal Strains ............................................................................................................88
3.8 Octahedral Strains ........................................................................................................92
3.9 Mohr’s Circle of Strain .................................................................................................92
3.10 Strain Gages...................................................................................................................95
Problems ..................................................................................................................................98
References..............................................................................................................................103
v
vi Contents
4. Stress–Strain Relations.......................................................................................................105
4.1 Elastic Behavior...........................................................................................................105
4.1.1 Hooke’s Law ................................................................................................... 106
4.1.2 Incompressible Material ................................................................................ 110
4.1.3 Equations of Equilibrium in Terms of Displacements .............................. 110
4.2 Strain Energy ...............................................................................................................113
4.2.1 Dilatational and Distortional Strain Energy Densities.............................. 117
4.2.2 Impact Loading............................................................................................... 119
4.3 Plastic Behavior...........................................................................................................120
4.3.1 Static Tension Test.......................................................................................... 120
4.3.2 Basic Stress–Strain Relations......................................................................... 121
4.3.3 Models of Uniaxial Stress–Strain Relations ................................................ 123
4.3.4 True Stress and Strain.................................................................................... 135
4.4 Yield Criterion.............................................................................................................138
4.4.1 Maximum Shearing Stress Criterion............................................................ 139
4.4.2 Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion....................................................... 140
4.4.3 Yield Surfaces in Haigh–Wesregaard Stress Space ................................... 145
4.4.4 Strain Hardening Rules ................................................................................. 146
4.4.4.1 Isotropic Hardening Rule............................................................... 147
4.4.4.2 Kinematic Hardening Rule ............................................................147
4.4.4.3 Independent Hardening Rule........................................................ 148
4.5 Plastic Stress–Strain Relations...................................................................................153
4.5.1 Stress–Strain Relations for
Perfectly Plastic Material ............................................................................... 154
4.5.2 Deformation Theory of Plasticity (J2—Material)........................................ 155
Problems ................................................................................................................................159
References..............................................................................................................................167
9. Three-Dimensional Problems...........................................................................................383
9.1 Elongation of a Prismatic Bar due to Its Own Weight ..........................................383
9.2 3D Axisymmetric Deformations of Solids...............................................................388
9.2.1 Polar Coordinates and Legendre Functions ............................................... 390
9.3 Rotation of a Circular Disk........................................................................................393
9.4 Force at a Point in an Infinite Solid..........................................................................396
9.5 Stress Concentration around a Spherical Cavity....................................................401
9.6 Concentrated Force on Boundary of a Semi-Infinite Solid ...................................404
9.7 Uniform Load Distributed over a Part of the Boundary of a
Semi-Infinite Solid ......................................................................................................408
9.7.1 Uniform Load Distributed over a Circular Area of Radius a .................. 409
9.7.2 Uniform Pressure Distributed over Squares
and Rectangles ................................................................................................ 410
9.8 Contact Problems in Three Dimensions ..................................................................411
9.8.1 Solution Depending on One Harmonic Function...................................... 412
9.8.2 General Solution of 3D Contact Problems .................................................. 415
9.8.3 Contact Problems for Solids Containing Cavities ..................................... 420
9.8.4 Contact between Two Spherical Bodies: Hertz Problem.......................... 428
9.9 A Semi-Infinite Plane Cut or Crack in an Infinite Body........................................433
9.9.1 Plane Crack Problem ..................................................................................... 433
9.9.2 Symmetric Normal Loads ............................................................................. 435
9.9.3 Antisymmetric Shear Loading Normal to Crack Edge............................. 439
9.9.4 Antisymmetric Shear Loading Parallel to Crack-Edge ............................. 443
9.10 Deformation of a Circular Cylinder .........................................................................448
9.10.1 Pressure Band of Finite Length Acting on a
Long Cylinder............................................................................................... 451
Problems ................................................................................................................................452
References..............................................................................................................................454
Index .............................................................................................................................................539
Preface
The purpose of this book is to introduce senior level, graduate students, and practicing
engineers in civil, mechanical, aeronautical, and metallurgical engineering to the theories
of elasticity and plasticity. It is based on lectures given by the author over many years at
City College of New York–City University of New York (CCNY–CUNY).
After a brief introduction to elementary mechanics of materials in Chapter 1, Chapter 2
deals with the analysis of stress, including all analytical and graphical properties of con-
ventional, deviatoric, and true stresses in two- and three-dimensional coordinate systems.
Engineering, mathematical, and deviatoric strains are discussed in Chapter 3. Graphical
methods of determining strains as well as strain gauges are covered.
Data obtained from simple static tests of materials are used in Chapter 4 to derive the var-
ious elastic and plastic stress–strain relationships. Basic yield criteria and hardening rules
are also discussed. The Haigh–Westergaard geometrical representation of the state of stress
is used to represent any elastic and plastic states of stress in a body.
Chapter 5 covers torsion of structural members. Elastic, plastic, and work-hardening
materials are used as examples to illustrate the basic principles. Torsion of thin-walled mem-
bers and restrained structural members are included.
Chapter 6 presents two-dimensional problems (plane stress and plane strain) using rect-
angular and polar coordinate systems. Elastic and plastic solutions are provided for beam
loaded by concentrated force, uniform and hydrostatic loads, and moments; wedge loaded
by line loads and moments; semi-infinite solid subjected to vertical and horizontal loads and
moments; rotating rings; and solid and annular disks (thin, variable thickness, and uniform
strength).
Chapter 7 completes the elastic and plastic analyses of two-dimensional problems by dis-
cussing thick-walled cylindrical tubes with various end conditions (closed, open, and plane-
strain condition) subjected to internal and external pressures and combined with external
loads and moments. Compound and multilayered cylinders are discussed. Influence of
strain hardening is included. Thick-walled spherical shell is discussed in the elastic, plastic,
and strain hardening ranges. Influence of change in geometry of the sphere is studied.
Chapter 7 also includes study of stress concentration factors. Analytical elastic, plastic,
and work-hardening solutions of infinite sheet containing circular hole subjected to various
loads are discussed. Methods of determining the stress-intensity factors in structural
members containing cracks are examined.
For problems where analytical solutions do not exist, the need for computer codes such as
SAP, ANSYS, ABACUS, and others is discussed.
Chapter 8 deals with the induced deformation and thermal stresses in structural compo-
nents subjected to nonuniform changes in temperature. Examples include beams, circular
thin disks (solid and annular), and thick-walled cylindrical and spherical vessels. Initiation
of yield, elastic–plastic expansion as well as influences of internal pressure and rotational
stresses are examined for vessels with various wall thickness ratios.
Three-dimensional analytical solutions are developed in Chapter 9 for a number of struc-
tural components, such as rotation of a circular disk, deformation of a circular cylinder
subjected to forces acting on the surface, contact between two spherical bodies, arbitrary
loads acting on the boundary of semi-infinite solid, and loads acting on the surfaces of a
xi
xii Preface
semi-infinite cut or crack in a large body. Wherever possible the results are compared to the
corresponding two-dimensional problem considered in Chapters 6 and 7.
Chapter 10 deals with three-dimensional thermal stresses induced in structures experienc-
ing nonuniform change in temperature. Solutions are obtained for long circular cylinder
(solid and annular), sphere (solid and with central hole), and large bodies containing flaws
or cracks where the crack surface is subjected to temperature, temperature gradient, or it is
insulated and subjected to the path of heat flows.
Every chapter contains a number of solved examples, problems to be solved, and a list of
references. Solutions to selected problems from the chapters are given in Chapter 11.
I wish to thank Professors Michel Ghosn and Feridun Delale of CCNY–CUNY for review-
ing some sections of the manuscript and the many students who took my course. All con-
tributed to various aspects of improving the manuscript.
Author
Mumtaz Kassir earned a BSc (Hons.) degree in building and construction engineering at the
University of Manchester (UK) in 1957. In 1963 and 1966, he earned an MS in structural engi-
neering at Stanford University and a PhD in applied mechanics at Lehigh University,
respectively.
Dr. Kassir has worked in civil engineering and construction works in Baghdad, Iraq, dur-
ing 1957–1958. He also worked as an instructor at the University of Baghdad during
1959–1961 and at CCNY (City College of New York): CUNY (City University of
New York) Department of Civil Engineering as an assistant professor during 1966–1970,
associate professor during 1971–1975, and professor during 1976–1998.
He was associate dean for Graduate Studies and Executive Officer of the PhD Program in
Engineering at the Graduate Center and CCNY of CUNY during 1999–2013 and retired in
2014.
Dr. Kassir and G. C. Sih wrote a book titled Three-Dimensional Crack Problems. It is 452
pages and was published by Noord–Hoff International Publishing, The Netherlands
in 1975.
Dr. Kassir’s research interests have resulted in a total of 52 journals papers and numerous
technical reports and conference presentations in the United States, Greece, Holland, China,
and Japan.
Dr. Kassir has received several grants from the following agencies as principal investiga-
tor and co-principal investigator.
He was principal investigator at National Science Foundation (NSF) and Brookhaven
National Laboratory (Long Island, New York) during 1968–1995. He was co-principal
investigator with Lehigh University faculty–Naval Research, AFOSR (Air Force Office of
Scientific Research), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), during
1970–1980 and also co-principal investigator with Alfano and Ho at CCNY–AFOSR.
xiii
1
Introduction
When external loads are applied to structural components, internal forces and deformations
are induced. The objective of this book is to determine the induced stresses and strains,
instead of focusing on internal forces and deformations (changes in lengths, angles, shapes,
etc.). This is because the measured effect of a load on a specimen of the material depends on
the cross-sectional area. In addition, changes in lengths and angles are measured relative to
their initial or instantaneous values. It is the purpose of this book to determine the response
of structural components to external loads as manifested by the induced stresses and strains.
Elastic and plastic behaviors are considered using continuum mechanics theories. When
loads are removed, the behavior is elastic if the component returns to its original shape.
The behavior is called plastic if permanent deformations remain. Whether the behavior is
elastic or plastic, the response is determined by studying three distinct aspects of the behav-
ior as follows:
1. Equilibrium: This ensures that external and internal forces (or stresses) are in
equilibrium. Basically, this requires the stresses in any structural component to
satisfy six equations of statics in space (three equations of force equilibrium and
three equations of moment equilibrium).
2. Geometry of deformation: Under the action of applied loads, structures deform as
a result of changes in shape and volume. It is essential to consider the nature of
the deformation in determining the response to external loads. This involves
studying the geometry of deformation and determining the governing equations.
In continuum mechanics, the relations between strains and displacements form
the governing equations of deformation.
3. Mechanical behavior of the material: The third aspect of the analysis involves the rela-
tion between stress and strain as determined by standard tests in the laboratory. For
elastic bodies, Hooke’s law governs the mathematical stress–strain relations up to
and including the yield point indicating maximum elastic behavior. Beyond the
yield point, the behavior of the material is plastic, strain hardening occurs during
the deformation until the ultimate stress and material failure. Several mathematical
models are available to predict the plastic behavior.
1
2 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
(a) y
x A B
F F
z x Δx
(b) y
A′ B′ x
A B
x
Δx′
FIGURE 1.1
Elongation of axially loaded prismatic member.
of the cross section in the x-direction. Because of the nature of loading, the member remains
straight after deformation and is expected to stretch or shorten along the x-axis.
Deformation: The features of the deformation are assumed as follows: (i) the axis of the
member remains straight, (ii) plane cross sections remain plane parallel to the y–z plane,
and displace along the x-axis.
Consider two plane cross sections with distance Δx apart as shown in Figure 1.1a. In the
deformed state, these planes are displaced and length Δx becomes Δx′ . The conventional
axial strain is defined as
Δx′ − Δx
εx = LimΔx0 (1.1)
Δx
The axial strain is constant on any cross section and may vary with x, but it is independent
of y and z. The deformation of structural members subjected to axial loading does not
depend on the material, it is applicable to all materials.
Equilibrium: The overall equilibrium is satisfied because the external forces are equal
and opposite. Since, on any cross section, the internal force has magnitude F and it is
along the horizontal axis, the normal stress is given by σx = F/A, where A is the area of
the cross section. It can be assumed that the remaining normal stresses, σy and σz, vanish
throughout the member. Consider an element of area ΔA = (Δy)(Δz) at a typical cross sec-
tion of the member (Figure 1.2), then ΔF = σxΔA. Integrating over the cross-sectional area, it
follows that
F= σx dA = σx A (a)
A
and
F
σx = (1.2)
A
Introduction 3
dF
f x
y
FIGURE 1.2
Internal forces of axially loaded member.
The moments of ΔF about the y and z axes are ΔMy = zΔF and ΔMz = yΔF, respectively.
Hence,
My = zσx dA = σx zdA
A A
(b)
Mz = yσx dA = σx ydA
A A
Because
the centroid
of the cross section is the origin of the coordinates, it follows
that A zdA = A ydA = 0. Hence, My = Mz = 0, and the axial force is the only internal
force in the member.
The elongation (or contraction) of the member is given by
L L
′
e = (dx − dx) = εx dx (1.3)
0 0
σx
εx = (1.4)
E
(a) s
True strain
sp
sf B
s0 A
Engineering strain
e
0 e0 C D
ep ee
e
(b) s
sp
1 D
Et
B
s0 A de p de e
de
E
1
e
0 e0
FIGURE 1.3
Stress–strain diagram of a ductile material, (a) engineering and true stress versus strain and (b) plastic stress–strain
incruent.
of y and z but can vary with x. Beyond point A, the material behaves plastically, plastic
deformation is irreversible, that is, permanent. Also, there is no volume change of the mate-
rial during plastic deformation, that is, the material is incompressible and Poisson’s ratio is
equal to 1/2. In the plastic range, the slope of the stress–strain curve decreases progressively
and eventually the material fails at the rupture stress shown in Figure 1.3a. The solid line
in Figure 1.3 represents the engineering stress while the dotted line is obtained by plotting
the “true” stress, which is defined as the load divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional
area of the member. The ultimate or plastic stress is denoted by σp. If the load is removed
from a point in the plastic range, say point B, in Figure 1.3a, a straight line BC parallel to
the initial line 0A is traced indicating that a permanent strain, ɛp = 0C, is developed when
the load is completely removed. If the load is applied again, the stress–strain relation follows
line CB. The total strain at point B consists of elastic and plastic components, ɛ = ɛe + ɛp
(skipping the x-subscript).
In the plastic range, because there is no unique relation between stress and strain, except
in dealing with the “Deformation theory of plasticity,” an incremental approach is used to
determine the response of structural components to applied loads. A small increment BD
in Figure 1.3b is considered, it consists of elastic and plastic parts,
Here, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, Et is the tangent modulus, which is
slope of the tangent to the stress–strain curve at point B in Figure 1.3b, and Ep is the plastic
modulus. The tangent modulus is obtained from experimental stress–strain data obtained
under monotonic loading condition using a given hardening rule. It is typically a fraction
of Young’s modulus, that is, Et = k E, k ≤ 1. The plastic modulus Ep is discussed further
in Chapter 4, Section 4.2.
Note that Equations 1.5a and 1.5b give
1 1 1
= + (1.6)
Et E Ep
σx
εx = , σx , σ0
E
(1.7)
σx
εx = + C, σx = σ0
E
where C is a positive constant. In this model, once the yield stress is reached, the strain
increases without limit.
Linear-Hardening Material: In this model, the material behavior is modeled by two straight
line segments as shown in Figure 1.4. The initial segment represents elastic behavior up to
the yield stress, σ0, and the plastic part is represented by another straight line having a slope
sx
sp
1 Et
s0
E
1
0 ex
ep ee
ex
FIGURE 1.4
Stress–strain diagram of a linear-hardening material.
6 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
σx
εx = , σx ≤ σ0
E
σx σx − σ0 (1.8)
εx = + , σx . σ0
E Et
EXAMPLE 1.1
A rigid bar AB of negligible weight supports a load, W, at the free end B as shown in
Figure 1.5. The cylindrical wire, CD, is made of a linear-hardening material with yield
stress σ0 ¼ 36 103 psi, modulus of elasticity E ¼ 29 106 psi, and Et ¼ 0.1 E. Find the
relation between W and the angle of rotation, θ, of the bar.
Solution
Denote the tension in wire CD by F. The moments of forces, W and F, about point A
give F ¼ 4 W. Denote the angle of rotation of the bar by θ and the elongation of the
wire by e. Because the angle of rotation is small, it follows that
e ¼ 6 sin θ 6θ (a)
The elongation in the elastic range is computed by inserting the first equation in
relations (1.8) into Equation 1.4 to yield
FL 4Wð12Þ
e ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:107 106 W
EA 29 106 ðπÞð1=2Þ2
12″ Diameter = 1″
A C B
δ θ
W
6″ 18″
FIGURE 1.5
Example 1.1.
Introduction 7
Thus,
When W is greater than (σ0A=4), the second equation in Equation 1.8 is inserted into
Equation 1.4 giving e ¼ (FL=EA) þ (L=EtA)(F F0), F . F0, where F0 is the yield value
of F. Carrying out the calculation, it is found that e ¼ 23.181 106 W 0.149.
Thus,
EXAMPLE 1.2
A fixed ended member consisting of length L is subjected to an axial load at section AA
at distance L=3 from the left support as shown in Figure 1.6. The material’s behavior is
modeled as elastic–perfectly plastic with yield stress σ0 ¼ 250 MPa and modulus of elastic-
ity E ¼ 200 GPa. If the cross-sectional area is rectangular (2 cm 4 cm) and L ¼ 0.9 m,
determine:
a. The load that initiates yield, Fe, the ultimate load, Fu, and the corresponding
displacement, u, of section AA.
b. The residual stresses if the ultimate load is removed.
Solution
The free body diagram of the member consists of two segments as shown in Figure 1.6b. Ra
and Rb denote the reactions at the ends. Equilibrium of the axial forces gives Ra þ Rb ¼ F.
In terms of stresses (σa ¼ Ra=A, σb ¼ Rb=A), equilibrium is satisfied by
F
σa σ b ¼ (a)
A
Since the ends are restrained, the deformation of the member implies that total exten-
sion of the two segments is zero, that is, ea þ eb ¼ 0. In term of strains, the equation of
compatibility of deformation is
aεa þ bεb ¼ 0 (b)
(a) (b)
A
F
Rb
F Ra Rb
a b
A
a b
(c)
F(KN)
F
400 u
F
300 e
u(mm)
0 0.375 0.75
FIGURE 1.6
Example 1.2. (a), (b) FBD and (c) F versus u (mm).
8 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
Solving for the stresses from Equations (a) and (c) gives σa ¼ bF=LA and
σb ¼ aF=LA. Since b ¼ 0.6 and a ¼ 0.3 m, the magnitude of σa is greater than
that of σb. Hence, segment a will yield first while segment b remains elastic.
The magnitude of the force that initiates yield is
L
Fe ¼ σ0 A ¼ 300 KN (d)
b
2b
σRa ¼ σ0 σ0
L
(f)
2a
σRb ¼ σ0 þ σ0
L
σx ydA = −M (1.10)
A
εx = −y/ρ (1.11)
1.5
4
0.
d
A B
( – y) d
y
d
A B
FIGURE 1.7
Deformations of a straight beam in pure bending, (a) beam section, (b) cross section, and (c) stress distribution.
10 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
which shows that the longitudinal strain varies linearly with the distance y from the neutral
surface. The accompanying transverse strains in the y and z directions are
y
εy = εz = −υ (a)
ρ
y
σx = Eεx = −E (1.12)
ρ
Equation 1.13 implies that the first moment of the cross-sectional area with respect to
the z-axis is zero. Hence for elastic beams subjected to pure bending, the neutral axis of
the beam passes through the centroid of the cross section. The neutral axis experiences
no deformation.
Inserting Equation 1.12 into Equation 1.10, and noting that A y2 dA = I, where I is the
moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam, it follows that the moment–curvature
relation in the elastic range is
1 M
= (1.14)
ρ EI
Substituting the expression for the radius of curvature from Equation 1.12 gives
My
σx = − (1.15)
I
If the beam is bent by transverse loads acting in the plane of symmetry, the bending
moment varies along the length of the beam and the corresponding variation in the curva-
ture causes deflection of the bent axis commonly known as the deflection curve. The deflec-
tions due to axial forces and transverse shears are small compared to that due to bending
and may be neglected.
If Me denotes the moment that initiates yield then, 1/ρe = Me/EI, ρe is the radius of curva-
ture at yield initiation. And
M ρ
= e , M ≤ Me (1.16)
Me ρ
Introduction 11
For a beam with rectangular cross section, width b and height 2 h, the moment that
initiates yield at the top and bottom fibers, Me, has magnitude
σ0 I bh2
Me = = σ0 (1.17)
(h/2) 6
where σ0 denotes the yield stress of the material.
The strain at any point is given as
σx My
εx = =− (b)
E EI
Other Materials: For nonelastic behavior, it is assumed that there is a neutral axis normal
to the axis of symmetry of the cross section but not necessarily coinciding with the centroi-
dal axis. During bending of straight beams, cross sections remain plane and normal to
the neutral axis. The equations of equilibrium, Equations 1.9, 1.10, and 1.11, which describe
the geometry of deformation of the beam, are used to locate the neutral axis and the bend-
ing moment. The procedure is illustrated by considering commonly used cross sections.
Consider a beam with rectangular cross section, width b and height h, whose material is
elastic–perfectly plastic with yield stress σ0. The beam is subjected to bending moments M
at the ends. As the bending moment increases beyond the moment that initiates yield, Me,
the strains at the top and bottom fibers of the beam exceed the yield strain ɛ0 and plastic
zones are formed as shown in the shaded regions of Figure 1.8. If c denotes the distance
of the plastic zone above and below the neutral axis, the bending stress σx across the cross
section is given by
h
σx = +σ0 , − ≤ y ≤ −c
2 (c)
y
σ x = σ 0 , y ≤ c
c
The bending moment is obtained from Equation 1.10. Because of symmetry of the cross
section, the integration can be carried out using an element dA = bdy. Hence,
h/2
(a) y (b)
s0
F1
C F2
z h
0 F2
C
F1
s0
b
FIGURE 1.8
Elastic–plastic stresses in a beam of rectangular cross section subjected to pure bending (a) plastic zones (shaded)
and (b) stress–strain diagram.
12 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
Substituting the values of the normal stress from Equation (d), the moment M acting
on the cross section is evaluated as follows:
c
h/2
bσ0 2 h2 c 2
M=2 y dy + 2bσ0 ydy = σ0 b − (1.18)
c 4 3
0 c
It should be noted that formula (1.18) may be obtained by taking moments of the stress
resultants F1 and F2 shown in Figure 1.8b about the neutral axis. The magnitude of F1 is equal
to b(h/2−c)σ0 and its line of action is located at distance 1/2(c + h/2) from the neutral axis.
Similarly, F2 = 1/2σ0bc acting at distance = (2/3)c. Hence,
h2 2 h2 c2
M = 2 σ0 b − c + σ0 b
2
−
4 3 4 3
as in Equation 1.18. The equilibrium of axial forces acting on the beam can be easily con-
firmed by substituting the stress distribution, Equation (c), into Equation 1.9 and performing
the integration. This fact implies that for this beam the neutral axis passes through the cen-
troid of the cross section at all stages of the loading, elastic, elastic–plastic, and completely
plastic.
When c = h/2, Equation 1.18 gives the value of the moment that initiates yield, Me = (bh2/6)
σ0, as in Equation 1.17. When c = 0, the cross section becomes completely plastic, and the
maximum moment carried by the beam is
bh2
Mp = σ0 (1.19)
4
Mp = σ0 Z (1.20)
A table containing the values of the plastic section moduli of common structural shapes
is available in Reference 1.3.
The ratio of the plastic to the maximum elastic moments is commonly referred to as the
shape factor of the cross section
Mp
Shape Factor = (1.21)
Me
Solving for c from Equation 1.18 and using the value of Mp, it is found that
1/2
h M
c= 3 1− , Me ≤ M ≤ Mp (1.22)
2 Mp
Since ɛ0 = c/ρ = σ0/E, it follows from Equations 1.14 and 1.15 that the moment–curvature
relation in the plastic range is
1 2σ0
= , Me ≤ M ≤ Mp (1.23)
ρ Eh[3(1 − M/Mp )]1/2
When M approaches Mp, the radius of curvature increases without limit and a plastic hinge
is formed.
EXAMPLE 1.3
A beam with rectangular cross section, width b ¼ 6 in. and depth d ¼ 12 in., is bent so that
the axial strain at the top is 0.003 (Figure 1.9). The material is assumed to be ideally plastic
with yield stress 30 103 psi and E ¼ 30 106 psi. Find the depth of the yield zones in the
beam and the bending moment causing the deformation.
Solution
The axial strain at y ¼ 6 in. (top fiber) is related to the radius of curvature, R, by the relation
in Equation 1.11, that is,
0:003 ¼ 6=R, R ¼ 2000 in:
The strain that initiates yield is obtained by dividing the yield stress by Young’s
modulus, that is, 30 103=30 106 ¼ 0.001. It follows that the top and bottom fibers of
the beam yield first and then the yield zone spreads from the outside boundaries to a
distance c above and below the neutral axis. The distance c is found from relation (1.11)
as c ¼ (0.001) (2000) ¼ 2 in.
Hence, the depth of the plastic zones is 4 in. from the top and bottom fibers.
The moment causing the deformation is computed from Equation 1.10 as follows:
ð6 ð2 ð6
E 2
M ¼ 2b σx y dy ¼ 2b y dy 2bð30 103 Þ y dy
R
0 0 2
(a) (b)
y
R y
M M 6″
Et = 0.003
4″
c
12″
y z c 0
x 4″
0
FIGURE 1.9
Example 1.3.
14 Applied Elasticity and Plasticity
For small angles, tan γ = γ = BB′ /L = a ϕ, it follows that by using relation (a), for pure
torsion the shear strain at the surface of the bar is γ = aθ.
In general, the shear strain at any point of the bar, distance r from the central axis, is
given by the relation
γ = rθ (b)
τ = Gγ = Grθ (1.24)
(a)
B¢
D C
F a z
T A B
T
(b) t
r
a
FIGURE 1.10
Circular bar subject to torque T, (a) variations of surface strains and (b) variation of shear stress.
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Title: Vastarannalla
Language: Finnish
Kirj.
SISÄLLYS:
Niinkuin lapsi.
Mieroon.
Anna Martikainen.
Uusi oluttehdas.
Sysäys.
"Vellamonneidon paasi."
Sydänmaan rakkautta.
Miina.
Pettymyksiä.
Niinkuin lapsi.
I.
"No niin. Nyt on lehmät lypsetty, herran kiitos, ja kun saan maidon
siilatuksi, menen kirkkoon."
"Joudu sitten! Kellot jo soivat…" vanhin napautteli sukkapuikolla
ruostunutta läkkituoppia, jossa kasvoi kukkiva verenpisara ikkunalla.
"Ai Aliina! Tule tänne", huudahti Milja kuroittuen niin lähelle ruutua
kuin vaan saattoi päästämättä kehtoa seisahtumaan. Äiti oli pellolle
lähtiessään käskenyt ahkerasti soudattamaan.
"Jo tulee Hilma ja Liisa portissa — menkää nyt!" kehoitti Milja, eikä
siinä kahta kehoitusta tarvittu. Pankolle unohtuivat Selman
lehmätkin, unohtui kirkko ja virren veisuu. — Ulkona oli toki
tuhatkertaa hauskempaa, lämpöisten päivän säteiden syleilyssä,
vaikkei aina yksinään, kun Milja Hemmiä tuuditteli, halunnut
sielläkään leikitellä. Ja olihan se tupakin niin tuttu ja rakas…
"Lyödään arpaa!"
"No!" —
"Kukas lukee?"
"Minä! Minä!"
"Sanon, sanon…"
"Elä —"
"Niin, niin."
"Takkavalkeaa ja päreitä."
"Rajalan Juho sanoo että puut ovat niin kalliita nykyisin… Eikös ne
silloin olleet?"
"Jumalako —?"
"Mitä sitten?"
"Että Jumala on tehnyt toiset ihmiset köyhiksi. — Hyi kuinka paha
hän silloin olisi!"
"Saatpa tietenkin."
"Mitenkä ne…?"
"Jos niiltä nyt esimerkiksi isä kuolisi, eikä äiti pienine lapsineen
jaksaisi suorittaa veropäiviä."
"Kelle suorittaa?"
"Hm… Jos nyt Rajalan Juho kuolisi ja Kolun isäntä ajaisi Eevan ja
lapset pois Rajalasta, niin mihinkäs ne sitten menisivät?" —
"Herra ties… Ehkä ottaisi joku hyvä ihminen kattonsa alle, taikka
voisivat joutua mieroonkin."
"Mieroonkin!"
"Niin, kukapa sen nyt niin tarkoin tietää…" arveli isä ja tähysteli
huvitetun näköisenä tyttöänsä.
Kun hän oli vähän aikaa miettinyt asiata, hypähti hän iloisena ylös.
Nyt, nyt hän sen tiesikin! Nyt hän uskalsi jälleen olla varma siitä, että
Jumala ei ollut luonut köyhiä. Ei ollut! Ei ollut! —
Se oli varma se —
Ja Aliina tunsi että jos hän ei olisi päässyt tästä asiasta selville, ei
hän olisi voinut hyvällä mielellä kuunnella äidin saarnan-lukua
sunnuntaina, kun siinä kuitenkin taas puhutaan Jumalan
hyvyydestä…
*****
"Herra siunaa tuota lasta, kuinka hyviä ajatuksia sillä on!" päivitteli
Eeva kuultuaan tyttösten tarinoita. Hän oli hetkiseksi seisattanut
rukkinsakin paremmin kuullakseen.
Kun Aliina sinä iltana juoksi Rajalasta kotiinsa, oli hän kumman
kauhun vallassa. Monta kertaa ennenkin oli hän hipaissut tämän
lyhyen tien, päivällä jos pimeälläkin, mitään milloinkaan pelkäämättä.
Mutta nyt oli tuo Juhon salainen, selittämättä jäänyt sana nostanut
hänen mieleensä outoja kuvitteluja, jotka väikähtelivät niinkuin
yölepakot pimeässä ja olivat erottuvinaan äärimmäisellä
mustuudellaan yönkin pimeydestä.
Sen toisen "hyvien ajatusten nyhtäjän" Aliina kyllä tiesi, olihan siitä
niin monta kertaa kuullut puhuttavan, mutta mikä mahtoi tuo toinen
olla — tuo kapi — kapi — mitenkä se nyt olikaan. — Sellaista
nimitystä ei hän muistanut ennen kuulleensa.
Aliina oli aivan varma siitä ettei tuo uusi hirviö uskaltanut isoisiin
paikkoihin tulla — — ei ainakaan heille, kunnallislautakunnan
esimiehen taloon…
"Mitä sinä, Oijalan pikku Aliina, niin kovasti huudat? Kuka uskaltaa
tehdä pahaa Jumalan pienelle metsätähdelle?" kysyy enkeli. Ja
Aliina painuu turvallisen lähelle loistavata valkoviittaa, kuiskaten
kauhuissaan:
"Jos ne väkisin…"
*****
Olisi se ollut.
Ei, haikea huoli, joka nousi hänen sielustansa kuin usva yöstä,
koitui toisesta suhteesta, äskettäin alkaneesta, kauvas vastaisiin
elinpäiviin kantavasta — ja uhkaavasta.
Kun hän kerran otti asian puheeksi, sai hän leveän, ihmettelevän
naurunhohotuksen vastaansa.
"Viikko sitten."
"Ja tuo oli sulhanen… ei siitä sitten ikinä hyvää tule", viimeiset
sanat lausui vaimo tuskin kuultavasti, mutta Aliina arvasi niiden
sisällön. —
"Sittenpähän nähdään."
"Oltiin."
"Vaan mikäpä sillä! Hyvin kai se toimeen tulee, jos vaan malttaa
pysyä erillään kapakoista." —
"Voi voi sitä tyttöä! Kun saisi sanan että tulisi täällä käymään."
Kun Aliina samana iltana otti asian puheeksi, teki Kalle Kustaa heti
puolittaisen tenän.
"Sitä."
"Ei tule sitten mitään, hyvä mies. Sellaista vetelystä, joka kulkee
aina naama noessa ei talo kaipaa!" —
Aliina oikein tulistui. Hän otti oikein loukkaukseksi miehensä
salaiset, tarpeettomat puuhat.
"Et sinä tarvitse sellaisilla asioilla itseäsi vaivata. Pitä vaan huoli
omistasi."
Selmaa nauratti.