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Anatomy of
OROFACIAL
STRUCTURES
A Comprehensive Approach
This page intentionally left blank
 WITH 800 ILLUSTRATIONS

Anatomy of
OROFACIAL
STRUCTURES
A Comprehensive Approach
8 th
EDITION

Richard W. Brand, BS, DDS

Professor Emeritus
Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri

Donald E. Isselhard, BS, DDS, FAGD, MAGD, MBA

Private Practice
St. Louis, Missouri

Contributing Editor:
Kimberly Erdman, RDH, PHDHP, MSDH
Clinical Coordinator/Assistant Professor of Dental Hygiene
Baltimore City Community College
Baltimore, Maryland
3251 Riverport Lane
St. Louis, Missouri 63043

ANATOMY OF OROFACIAL STRUCTURES: ISBN: 978-0-323-48023-9

A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

Copyright © 2019 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
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and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
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any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Previous editions copyrighted 2014, 2003, 1998, 1994, 1990, 1986, 1982, and 1977.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Brand, Richard W., 1933- author. | Isselhard, Donald E., author.
Title: Anatomy of orofacial structures : a comprehensive approach / Richard
W. Brand, Donald E. Isselhard ; contributing editor, Kimberly Erdman.
Description: Eighth edition. | St. Louis, Missouri : Elsevier, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017027341 | ISBN 9780323480239 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Stomatognathic System—anatomy & histology | Stomatognathic
System—embryology | Tooth—anatomy & histology | Head—anatomy &
histology | Neck—anatomy & histology
Classification: LCC QM311 | NLM WU 101 | DDC 611/.31—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017027341

Content Strategist: Kristin Wilhelm

Senior Content Development Manager: Luke Held
Content Development Specialist: Anna Miller
Publishing Services Manager: Jeffrey Patterson
Book Production Specialist: Carol O’Connell
Design Direction: Patrick Ferguson

Printed in China

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

We dedicate this eighth edition to our families.

To the memory of my father, Dr. Charles Brand, and my uncle, Dr. Thurlow Brand, who were
dental educators and my role models; and to my wife, Marie, our children, and to my extended
family for all their love and support.
Richard W. Brand

To my wife, Annette; to our grandchildren, Audrey, Siena, Mia, Joshua, Lucy, Jameson, Tommy,
Andrew, Eddie, and Abe. To our daughters and their husbands, a special thank you for your
love and support. And finally, to the memory of my uncle, Dr. Roland Isselhard.
Donald E. Isselhard
Reviewers
Judy DiLorenzo, RDH, MA
Department Chairperson
Dental Hygiene
Hudson Valley Community College
Troy, New York
Jodie Entinger
Dental Hygiene Instructor
Normandale Community College
Bloomington, Minnesota
Kimberly Erdman, RDH, PHDHP, MSDH
Clinical Coordinator/Assistant Professor
Dental Hygiene Program
School of Nursing and Health Professions
Baltimore City Community College
Baltimore, Maryland
vi
Christine Fambely, DH, BA, MEd
Dental Hygiene Instructor
John Abbott College
Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec
Canada
Becky Sue Moore, DMD, ABGD, MAGD, CAPT(ret) USN
Faculty
Dental Hygiene Program
Dixie State University
St George, Utah
Pamela P. Quinn, RDH, BSE, MSEd
Professor/Curriculum Coordinator
AAS Dental Hygiene Program
Rome, New York
Preface to the Eighth Edition
As in the past, we feel it is only appropriate to thank the many
instructors who have helped guide us with their changes in each
edition through their continuing input to Mosby, Elsevier Science,
and their representatives. Of course, much of this input originated
through the students. We also wish to thank those students who
have used our book and who continue to help in the development
of each new edition. As in any publication, numerous suggestions
are forwarded to us through the publishers. We have always tried
to follow the suggestions we have received and we hope that you
realize that we are unable to incorporate everyone’s suggestions
into this new edition. There are times when we are faced with
conflicting suggestions and we have tried to sort them out and do
what we feel might be best. If your suggestions have not been
adopted, please keep on giving your input. “Keep those cards and
letters coming in, folks.” One should never be satisfied. We hope
we, as the authors, will never be satisfied, and we hope the time
will never come when the instructors and the students cease to
give us input, for without them we would truly be lost.
From its inception, this book has been written for students
beginning their study of the anatomic sciences relating to dentistry.
We have always attempted to begin at a level that met the needs
of several types of dental programs and carry forward from there.
However, because various dental educational programs use this
book, we know that we will never be able to meet one group’s
needs without the possibility of creating a problem with another
program. There are some areas of the book that will always have
too much detail for one group and not enough for another. Some
topics will be discussed and others will not, but it is our feeling
that combining the three subjects of oral histology, head and neck
anatomy, and dental anatomy in one edition outweighs what
someone might perceive as shortcomings.
We are excited about this eighth edition! We feel that the
additional chapter on local anesthesia is an excellent way to apply
your knowledge of oral anatomy. The many new illustrations have
also really enhanced this edition. We have maintained the general
format of objectives at the beginning of the chapters and review
questions at the end of the chapters. New to this edition, the
answers to the review questions in every chapter are placed on the
Evolve companion site, along with the answers to the large unit
exams and workbook questions. The use of bolding important
terms, which are then defined in the glossary, has also been con-
tinued in this enhanced edition. The removable flashcards at the
back of the book were well-received in past editions and are
continued in this edition. We have also included a number of
flashcards on head and neck anatomy and hope the students will
find the new colored flashcards even more helpful. We hope that
students will also benefit from the quizzes available on the accom-
panying Evolve website.
For instructors adopting this text, a variety of instructor’s
materials are available on the Evolve site, including a test bank,
PowerPoint lectures, suggested activities, and color illustrations
from the text. Be sure to ask your local sales representative for
details.
We would like to recognize and thank the various people who
have made this book possible. We would like to thank Kristin
Wilhelm for her vision and support in this project. We would like
to thank Anna Miller, who guided us through this edition and
helped us with the illustrations. A special thank you to Carol
O’Connell for helping us do final edits, making this production
as free from errors as possible. You will note our test bank and
answers are much improved over any previous editions. We are
also very grateful to Jeanne Robertson who produced so many
wonderful illustrations in this new edition of our book. We have
been very fortunate to have Kim Erdman edit our manuscript and
offer her suggestions and input in the text and for her revision of
the workbook. We are indebted to many editors in past editions,
and especially Brian Loehr for bringing our book from black and
white into color. We would also like to thank all of those authors
and publishers who have given us permission to use their illustrations
in this eighth edition as well as in previous editions.
Finally, a special thank you goes out to Daniel Pernoud, DDS;
Pam Perrone, RDH; Lena Uebinger, RDH; and Tammy West,
CDA, for their support and assistance in this edition. A very special
thanks to Crystal Tucci for not only assisting us in this edition
but the previous two other editions as well.
Richard W. Brand
Donald E. Isselhard
vii
Contents

Unit I: Introduction, 1 6 Occlusion, 54

Position and Sequence of Eruption, 54
1 Oral Cavity, 2 Development of the Mesial Step, 54
Vestibule, 2 Horizontal Alignment, 56
Oral Cavity Proper, 5 Vertical Alignment, 57
Other Clinical Manifestations of the Oral Occlusion, 57
Cavity, 8 Open Bite, 61
Unit I Test, 9 Occlusal Classification, 61
Unit I Suggested Readings, 9 Lateral Mandibular Glide (Lateral Excursion), 63
Protrusion, 64
Premature Contact, 64
Unit II: Dental Anatomy, 10 Fundamentals of Ideal Occlusion in Permanent
Dentition, 64
2 The Tooth: Functions and Terms, 11
Function of Teeth, 11 7 Dental Anomalies, 67
Crown and Root, 11 Classification of Dental Anomalies, 67
Root to Crown Ratio, 11 Anomalies in Shape, 67
Tooth Tissues, 13 Abnormal Crown Shapes, 74
Types of Teeth, 17 Abnormal Root Formation, 75
Surfaces of Teeth, 19
Division of Surfaces, 19 8 Supporting Structures, 77
Line Angles, 19 Gingival Unit, 77
Point Angles, 19 Attachment Unit: Periodontium, 80
Point Angles for Anterior Teeth, 19 Gingival Sulcus and Dentogingival Junction, 84
Landmarks, 19
9 Clinical Considerations, 87
3 Fundamental and Preventative Preventive Clinical Considerations, 87
Curvatures, 27 Therapeutic Considerations, 88
Evolution of Fundamental and Preventative Interrelation of the Dental Structures, 89
Curvatures and Proximal Alignment of the
Teeth, 27 10 Tooth Identification, 93
Periodontium, 33 General Rules of Tooth Identification, 93
Incisors, 93
4 Dentition, 36 Canines, 96
Arrangement of Teeth, 36 Premolars, 99
Naming and Coding Teeth, 36 Molars, 101
Dental Formula, 41
Additional Information, 41 11 Root Morphology, 105
Functions of Roots, 105
5 Development, Form, and Eruption, 44 Root Canals, 107
Developmental and Form, 44
Eruption, 47 12 Incisors, 119
Permanent Dentition, 50 Maxillary Permanent Incisors, 119
Periods of Dentition, 51 Mandibular Incisors, 129

viii
 Contents ix

13 Canines, 137 21 Root Formation and Attachment Apparatus, 264

Maxillary and Mandibular Permanent Canines, 137 Root Formation, 264
Attachment Apparatus, 265
14 Premolars, 147 Structural Overview, 270
Maxillary Premolars, 147 Bone Remodeling in Tooth Movement, 270
Mandibular Premolars, 155
22 Eruption and Shedding of Teeth, 272
15 Molars, 165 Active Tooth Eruption, 272
Maxillary Molars, 165 Causes of Eruption, 273
Mandibular Molars, 177 Shedding of Primary Dentition, 275
Retained Primary Teeth, 275
16 Deciduous Dentition, 190
Essential Differences Between Deciduous and 23 Oral Mucous Membrane, 277
Permanent Teeth, 190 Divisions of Mucous Membrane, 277
The Importance of Deciduous Teeth, 191 Masticatory Mucosa, 277
Lining Mucosa, 280
Unit II Test, 213
Submucosa, 281
Unit II Suggested Readings, 215
Passive Eruption, 281
Changes in Oral Mucosa, 281
Unit III: Oral Histology and Embryology, 217
24 The Tongue, 283
17 Basic Tissues, 218 Development of the Tongue, 283
Cell Structure, 218 Tongue Muscles, 283
Epithelial Tissue, 220 Papillae, 284
Connective Tissue, 225
Muscle Tissue, 233 25 Histology of the Salivary Glands, 287
Nervous Tissue, 235 Components of a Salivary Gland, 287
Control of Secretions, 289
18 Development of Orofacial Complex, 238 Formation of Saliva, 291
Embryologic Stages, 238 Function of Saliva, 291
Prefacial Embryology, 238
Unit III Test, 291
Facial Development, 238
Unit III Suggested Readings, 294
Palatal Development, 239
Other Structural Development Inside the Pharyngeal
Arches, 245 Unit IV: Head and Neck Anatomy, 295
19 Dental Lamina and Enamel Organ, 249 26 Osteology of the Skull, 296
Dental Lamina, 249 Views of the Skull, 296
Enamel Organ, 249 Anterior View of the Skull, 296
Successional Lamina, 250 Lateral View of the Skull, 298
Vestibular Lamina, 250 Inferior View of the Skull, 298
Dental Papilla and Dental Sac, 252 Posterior View of the Skull, 301
Major Bones of the Skull, 306
20 Enamel, Dentin, and Pulp, 254
Dental Papilla, 254 27 Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Paranasal Sinuses, 312
Enamel Composition, 255 Nose and Nasal Cavity, 312
Development of Enamel, 257 Paranasal Sinuses, 314
Fate of Enamel Organ, 258 Function of Sinuses, 316
Abnormalities of Enamel, 258 Clinical Problems, 316
Dentin Composition, 259
Formation of Regular Dentin (Primary 28 Muscles of Mastication, Hyoid Muscles, and
Dentin), 259 Sternocleidomastoid and Trapezius Muscles, 317
Formation of Secondary and Reparative Muscles of Mastication, 317
Dentin, 259 Hyoid Muscles, 319
Abnormalities in Dentin, 261 Movements of the Jaw and Larynx, 323
Pulp, 262 Sternocleidomastoid Muscle, 324
Abnormalities in Pulp, 262 Trapezius Muscle, 324
x Contents

29 Temporomandibular Joint, 327 34 Nervous System, 356

Structure, 327 Central Nervous System, 356
Movement, 327 Peripheral Nervous System, 356
Problems Associated With the TMJ, 329 Autonomic Nervous System, 360
Nerves to the Oral Cavity and Associated
30 Muscles of Facial Expression, 332 Structures, 360
Ears, 332
Scalp, 332 35 Lymphatics and Spread of Dental Infection, 368
Neck, 332 Lymphatic System, 368
Eyes, 332 Node Groups Affected by Disease, 369
Nose, 334 Spread of Infection in Fascial Spaces, 369
Mouth, 335 Other Maxillary Infections, 371

31 Soft Palate and Pharynx, 338 36 Anatomic Considerations of Local

Soft Palate, 338 Anesthesia, 372
Pharynx, 339 Dental Local Anesthetics, 372
Actions, 343 Dental Nerve Blocks, 374
Unit IV Test, 383
32 Arterial Supply and Venous
Unit IV Suggested Readings, 387
Drainage, 345
Arterial Supply, 345
Appendix, 388
Venous Drainage, 350
Glossary, 390
33 Salivary Glands, 352
Index, 403
Major Salivary Glands, 352
Minor Salivary Glands, 353 Workbook Questions, 415
Development of Salivary Ducts, 355
Flashcards
Innervation of Salivary Glands, 355
 UNIT I

Introduction

1
1
Oral Cavity
OBJECTIVES
• To describe the boundaries and subboundaries of the oral
cavity and the structures in each area
• To define the terms vestibule, oral cavity proper, mucobuccal
fold, frenum, alveolar mucosa, gingiva, exostoses, torus
palatinus, and torus mandibularis
• To define the landmarks in the floor of the mouth and the
hard and soft palate and the structures that form them
• To differentiate normal from abnormal anatomy in the oral
cavity and to ensure a follow-up examination
A
s students of the dental profession, you will be concentrating
your studies on the head and neck and more specifically
on the structures that make up the oral cavity. It is imperative
that you are extremely familiar with the normal makeup and
structural components of this area. Therefore this chapter has been
set forth to serve as an introduction to your studies of the head
and neck region.
The oral cavity is the upper end and the beginning of the
digestive system and at its posterior end forms a common pathway
with the respiratory system. The oral cavity begins at the lips and
cheeks and extends posteriorly to the area of the palatine tonsils,
which are usually referred to as the tonsils. These lie on the sides
of the throat between two folds of tissues, one in front and one
in back, called the tonsillar pillars. Posterior to the tonsillar pillars
the oral cavity ends and the oral pharynx, a pathway shared by
the digestive and respiratory systems, begins. In the area from the
oral pharynx to the laryngeal pharynx, the digestive system
continues to share a common pathway with the respiratory system
and then goes on to the esophagus to the rest of the digestive
system. The respiratory system starts at the nasal cavity and includes
the nasal pharynx, oral pharynx, and laryngeal pharynx (the last
two of which are shared spaces with the digestive tract) and then
continues on into the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
The oral cavity can be logically divided into two parts: the
vestibule and oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the space or
potential space that exists between the lips or cheeks and the teeth.
In an edentulous person (one without teeth), it would extend
between the lips or cheeks and the alveolar ridges where the teeth
were at one time or will be if the person is an infant. The oral
cavity proper is the area surrounded by the teeth or alveolar
ridges back to the area of the palatine tonsils. This includes the
region from the floor of the mouth upward to the hard and soft
palates.
2
Vestibule
In considering the vestibular area, you should begin by examining
the lips. The lips are the junction between the skin of the face,
which is a dry tissue, and the mucosa of the oral cavity, which is
a moist tissue. Between these two areas lies a transitional zone of
reddish tissue known as the vermilion zone of the lip. It is along
the border between the skin and the vermilion zone that one
commonly encounters cold sores, which are generally caused by
a herpesvirus. The skin of the upper lip has an indentation at the
midline known as the philtrum, which is derived from the
embryonic medial nasal processes (Fig. 1.1). It is at the lateral
junction of this philtrum that a cleft lip might be formed.
Anterior and Posterior Borders
By elevating the mandible so that the teeth are in contact and
then retracting the lips and cheeks, you can see the vestibule. It
is bounded anteriorly by the lips (labia) and laterally by the cheeks
(bucca). A finger placed in the posterior portion of the vestibule
will be impeded by two obstacles, the bony anterior border of the
ramus of the mandible and the soft tissue. The cheek is formed
to a great extent by the buccinator muscle, which is covered with
skin on the outside and moist mucous membrane on the inside.
This muscle extends back from the corners of the mouth to join
with the muscles of the upper throat wall. As it passes backward,
it crosses in front of the mandibular ramus from a lateral position
to a medial position, limiting the posterior extent of the vestibule.
As you run your finger in the upper posterior vestibular space,
you can feel the ridge of bone that is the beginning of the anterior
part of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone). This is often referred to
as the zygomaticoalveolar crest. Run your finger along the cheek
area of the vestibule and note the landmarks and structures just
mentioned.
Superior and Inferior Borders
The point at which the mucosa of the lips or cheeks turns to go
toward the gingival or gum tissue is known as the mucobuccal fold
or mucolabial fold. The mucosa lying against the alveolar bone is
loosely attached and movable and known as the alveolar mucosa.
This mucosa is generally reddish because of the presence of blood
vessels underneath the relatively thin mucosa. The point at which
it becomes tightly attached to the bone is the beginning of the
gingiva. This is known as the mucogingival junction (Fig. 1.2).
The normal color of the gingiva is pink because the mucosal layer
is thicker; therefore, the blood vessels do not impart as much color.
In patients with darker skin color, generally some pigmentation
to the gingiva is evident.
 CHAPTER 1 Oral Cavity 3

Ala

Nares

Philtrum

Vermilion zone Lateral commissure

Junction of vermilion
zone and skin

• Figure 1.1 Vermilion zone of lips and philtrum of the upper lip.

Maxillary
Mucogingival Alveolar labial Marginal Maxillary
junction mucosa frenum gingiva vestibule

Attached
gingiva

Interdental
gingiva

Mandibular Mandibular
buccal frenum vestibule
• Figure 1.2 View of vestibule. A change in color at the mucogingival junction is noted. The maxillary
labial frenum is more evident than the mandibular labial frenum. Mucobuccal folds are quite evident. (From
Liebgott B. The Anatomical Basis of Dentistry. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 2011.)

Pulling outward on the lips or corners of the mouth shows
several areas in which the tissue is attached in folds to the alveolar
mucosa. At the midline in both the upper and lower lips, a fold
of connective tissue known as the labial frenum can be found.
The frenum contains no muscle tissue, and has only connective
tissue. The upper frenum is usually more pronounced than the
lower, but problems may occur with either one. The attachment
of the upper (maxillary) frenum may extend to the crest of the
alveolar ridge and even over the ridge. This band of tissue is so
firm that the erupting central incisors might not penetrate it but
may be pushed slightly aside so that a space exists between them.
This space is known as a diastema (Fig. 1.3A). Correction of a
diastema usually involves the surgical removal, or cutting, of the
frenum tissue between the teeth. After this, the teeth will generally
move together into normal contact. If they do not come back into
normal contact, minor orthodontic treatment may be required.
This procedure is best done when a child is 6 to 12 years old.
The mandibular labial frenum seldom extends up between the
teeth, but it often extends close enough to the gingiva to contribute
to gingival recession in that area by pulling downward on the
tissue when the lip is tensed (Fig. 1.3B). In this instance the frenum
attachment needs to be incised with possible periodontal follow-up
to restore the original gingival contours.
Less well-defined frena are evident in the maxillary and man-
dibular canine areas. These can be seen in Fig. 1.2 labeled mandibular
buccal frenum and in a similar area above it in the maxillary arch
4 UN I T I  Introduction
Labial frenum
A Diastema
• Figure 1.3 (A) Notice how the labial frenum extends between the maxillary teeth, causing separation
or diastema. (B) Notice how the mandibular labial frenum attaches close to an area of gingival recession
and contributes to that condition. (From Newman MG, Takei HH, Klokkevold PR, Carranza FA. Carranza’s
Clinical Periodontology. 11th ed. St. Louis: Saunders; 2012.)
just superior and posterior to the area labeled mucogingival junction.
Although they are not as well developed, along with the midline
frena they still have to be taken into consideration in the construc-
tion of a dental prosthesis. A space must be made in the dental
prosthesis to make room for this frenum. Otherwise the appliance
will be dislodged every time the frenum is pulled by the muscles,
and the frenum itself will become ulcerated.
Coronoid Process
As we continue to consider the structure of the vestibule in relation
to clinical dentistry, it is interesting to note what happens to the
vestibule when the mouth is opened wide. Place the teeth together,
with the lips and cheeks relaxed. Position your index finger in the
posterior-superior part of the vestibule, adjacent to the maxillary
third molar area, move your finger as far posteriorly as you can,
and open the mouth wide. You can feel your finger being pushed
anteriorly out of the area. This is happening because the coronoid
process of the mandible is moving into that vestibular space.
Clinical Consideration
In radiology, for example, you can take two periapical films of the
maxillary molar area: one using a bisecting angle technique with
the mouth open and the patient holding the film, and the other
using a paralleling technique with the mouth closed on a film-
holding device. The coronoid process intrudes into the vestibular
space on the film taken with the mouth open, making it difficult
to get a clear image on film. However, on the second film, taken
with the mouth closed, the coronoid process does not impinge on
the space, demonstrating the benefit of a film-holding device,
which eliminates exposure to radiation of the finger and a much
more stabilized and accurate film.
The coronoid process may also cause some problems when you
are trying to take maxillary impressions to fabricate study models.
When the mouth is open wide, the coronoid process may tend to
push on the posterior part of the impression tray and cause it to
be displaced, making it difficult to obtain a good impression of
the third molars and maxillary tuberosity regions. It may also
impinge on the posterolateral portion of a patient’s maxillary denture
and cause possible dislodgment of the denture. It is necessary to
Labial frenum
B
remove as much bulk as possible from both the impression tray
and denture in that area so this does not happen.
Alveolar Bone Loss
When teeth are lost, some loss occurs of the alveolar bone that
formed the sockets for the teeth. If too much bone loss occurs,
then there may not be enough room in the remaining bone to
anchor a dental implant.
Mucosa
Study the texture of the inner surface of the lip. Pull the lower lip
down, dry it with a tissue, and stretch it. Notice the small drops
of fluid on the lip, indicating the openings of many small salivary
glands. These of course are also found in many other areas of the
oral cavity (see Chapter 25).
The mucosa of the lips, cheeks, and retromolar pad area,
posterior to the mandibular molars, are also the most common
sites of misplaced sebaceous glands, which are commonly referred
to as Fordyce granules. These glands are normally associated with
hair follicles, which are only found on skin. In about 60% to 80%
of the population, some sebaceous glands may be located on mucosa
in areas of the oral cavity. They appear as yellowish granular
structures embedded in the mucosa. These may be of some concern
to patients, but with verification of their true identity, the patients
should be reassured that they are harmless and are only a cosmetic
situation. Look for these harmless glands in your own mouth.
Buccal Alveolar Bone
Another condition found on the buccal cortical plate of the
mandible and maxillae in a large portion of the population are
small bony growths called exostoses. They are generally seen more
often on the mandible than on the maxilla. They are normally of
no consequence unless they become tender from brushing in the
area.
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Before removable dental appliances can be constructed exostoses may
have to be removed. However, they may recur over the years and have to
be removed again.
 CHAPTER 1 Oral Cavity 5

Incisive papilla

Palatal rugae

Lingual (palatal)
gingiva
Vault of roof
of mouth

Minor salivary
glands

• Figure 1.4 View of palate. The incisive papilla and rugae. (From Liebgott B. The Anatomical Basis of
Dentistry. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 2011.)

Oral Cavity Proper

When the mouth is open, you can see the oral cavity proper. First
examine the roof of the mouth and study the hard and soft palates. Incisive
foramen

Hard Palate
See Chapter 26 for the extent and makeup of the hard palate. In
the anterior portion of the hard palate are transverse ridges of
epithelial and connective tissue known as rugae. During speech
and mastication, the tongue contacts these rugae. They are covered
with keratinized epithelium and are often burned by hot foods,
which can cause an ulcerated area of mucosa lingual to the maxillary
incisor.
Also within the hard palate is a singular bulge of tissue at the
midline immediately posterior to the central incisors known as
the incisive papilla. Beneath this papilla is the incisive foramen,
which carries the nasopalatine nerves and blood vessels to the
mucous membrane lingual to the maxillary incisor teeth (Fig. 1.4).
This is a point of injection for anesthetizing the anterior palate
area between the canines. At the posterolateral part of the hard
palate, lingual to the second and third maxillary molars, are two
openings in the bone on each side: (1) the greater palatine foramina,
through which the rest of the nerves and blood vessels enter to
the hard palate, and (2) the lesser palatine foramen, which carries
nerves and blood vessels to the soft palate. This area may also be
an injection site for local anesthesia (Fig. 1.5).
The tissue beneath the palatal epithelium varies from region to
region in the palate. In the midline of the hard palate the connective
tissue is rather thin, and the palate feels hard and bony. In the
anterolateral part of the hard palate the connective tissue contains
fat cells and is thicker than at the midline. In the posterolateral
portion the fat cells are still present, but numerous minor salivary
glands secrete mucus. The soft palate also contains these mucus-
secreting minor salivary glands, which serve to keep the epithelium
moist.
Greater
palatine
foramen
Hamular
process
Medial
pterygoid
plate
Posterior
nasal spine
• Figure 1.5 Hard palate. Notice how the posterior area curves toward
the posterior nasal spine indicating the end of the hard palate. Laterally,
notice the hamular process of the medial pterygoid plate.
The shape and size of the hard palate vary from individual to
individual. It may be wide or narrow; have a high, arching curvature
or vault; or be quite flat in its contours.
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Not infrequently excess bone growth occurs in the midline of the hard
palate. This is referred to as a torus palatinus (Fig. 1.6), which may grow
to varying sizes and is generally only a problem when the construction of
an upper denture is necessary. Under these circumstances the denture
cannot be accurately adapted to the palate area, and proper retention
cannot be achieved without surgically removing the growth.
6 UN I T I  Introduction
The junction of the hard and soft palates forms a double curving
line, and the posterior nasal spine of the palatine bone is the
primary landmark at the midline (see Figs. 1.4 and 1.5). Although
you cannot see this posterior nasal spine, you can palpate it.
Additionally, two small depressions are located on each side of the
spine and are known as fovea palatinae, which marks the spine
as a landmark in the construction of an upper denture.
Soft Palate
Most of the posterior portion of the soft palate is actually part of
the oral pharynx. The soft palate stretches back from the hard
palate and in its most posterior portion at the midline is a downward
projecting muscle known as the uvula. In a relaxed state the soft
palate has a slightly arching form from one side to the other.
However, in speech and swallowing the soft palate moves into
various positions and closes off the oral pharynx from the nasal
Maxillary torus
palatinus
• Figure 1.6 Typical torus palatinus. Notice the slightly constricted area
in which it attaches to the hard palate. (From Regezi JA, Scuibba JJ,
Jordan RCK. Oral Pathology: Clinical Pathologic Correlations. 6th ed. St.
Louis: Saunders; 2012.)
Pterygomandibular fold
Palatoglossal arch
(anterior faucial pillar)
Palatopharyngeal arch
(posterior faucial pillar)
• Figure 1.7 Various posterior palatal structures.
pharynx. This is accomplished by the levator veli palatini muscle,
which pulls the soft palate up and back until it contacts the posterior
throat (pharyngeal) wall.
In Chapter 18 the cleft lip and palate are discussed. Both are
drastic medicodental problems and are generally treated by a team
of dental and medical professionals. Another variation of cleft
palate is the short palate. The soft palate may look normal, but
it does not contact the posterior pharyngeal wall when it is elevated
during swallowing or speech, producing a nasal or cleft speech
sound. A dental appliance or speech therapy can correct this problem
with gratifying results.
Lateral Borders
The lateral borders of the oral cavity proper are bounded primarily
by the teeth and associated mucosa. In the posterolateral part of
the oral cavity the boundary is the palatine tonsil and its associated
pillars. The more prominent fold behind the tonsil, extending
from the soft palate downward into the lateral pharyngeal wall, is
referred to as the posterior pillar or palatopharyngeal arch or
fold. Immediately in front of the palatine tonsil is the anterior
pillar or palatoglossal arch or fold. The palatopharyngeal and
palatoglossal muscles, respectively (Fig. 1.7), form these folds.
Posterior Borders
Just distal to the mandibular second molar in Fig. 1.8 is a small
elevation of tissue known as the retromolar pad. This dense pad of
tissue is immediately posterior to the last tooth in the mandible
and covers the retromandibular triangle. This is usually a second
or third molar, but in a child the last molar could be a first molar.
The posterior extent of the oral cavity is the space between the
left and right tonsils and their pillars known as the fauces. Looking
into the oral cavity, you can see the tongue and soft palate. If you
depress the tongue with a tongue depressor blade and ask the
patient to say “ahhh,” the soft palate will rise, enabling examination
beyond the oral cavity into the oral pharynx. The posterior pha-
ryngeal wall can be an indicator of the health status of the patient.
Retro molar pad
Uvula
Palatine tonsil
 CHAPTER 1 Oral Cavity 7

• Figure 1.8 Arrow indicates retromolar pad behind mandibular third molar.

Tongue and Floor of Mouth Floor of mouth Sublingual fold

Tongue
Chapter 24 contains descriptions of structures on the tongue such
as filiform, fungiform, vallate or circumvallate papillae, and the
roughened lateral surface of the tongue opposite the vallate papillae,
which represents rudimentary foliate papillae. These foliate papillae
should be carefully examined in a routine oral examination because
it is a difficult area to see and might hide early signs of oral cancer.
There may also be enlargements of lymphoid tissue at the base of
the tongue, which are referred to collectively as the lingual tonsils.
If the patient elevates the tongue, the underside or ventral
surface of the tongue shows many blood vessels close to the surface.
Extending from an area near the tip of the tongue down to the
floor of the mouth is a fold of tissue known as the lingual frenum
or frenulum. If this frenum is attached close to the tip of the
tongue and is rather short, the tongue will have limited
movement.

Floor of Mouth Sublingual caruncle Lingual frenulum Vestibule

At the base of the lingual frenum is a small elevation on each side
known as the sublingual caruncle. This is the opening for the
ducts of two of the major salivary glands, the submandibular and
sublingual glands. Extending from the sublingual caruncle back
along the floor of the mouth on either side is a fold of tissue called
the sublingual fold. A number of small openings of the multiple
ducts of the sublingual salivary gland can be found along the
anterior and middle parts of this fold. This fold of tissue also marks
the paths of a number of structures as they run forward in the
floor of the mouth (Fig. 1.9).
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Bony swellings on the lingual surface of the mandible at the canine area
often occur. These are similar in nature to the palatal tori and are called
mandibular tori (Fig. 1.10). They may present a problem in radiology
because correct film placement may be difficult and sometimes painful for
the patient. If the patient requires a lower denture, it is usually necessary
to remove the mandibular tori to eliminate undercuts or improper contours
that would make denture construction and fit difficult. The same condition
can present problems when you are trying to take impressions to fabricate
study models. The flange of the tray may strike the area and cause
irritation and may also make it difficult to correctly seat the impression tray.
• Figure 1.9 Sublingual region demonstrating the lingual frenum, attached
to the lingual of the tongue. (From Liebgott B. The Anatomical Basis of
Dentistry. 3rd ed. St. Louis; Mosby; 2011.)
The floor of the mouth is supported by the paired mylohyoid
muscles, which form a sling from the mylohyoid line on one side
of the medial surface of the mandible to the same line on the
other side. Contraction of these muscles raises the tongue and
floor of the mouth (see Chapters 28). If you look in a mirror while
raising your tongue as high as possible, you will see the movement
and get an idea of where the mylohyoid muscle is attached to the
mandible. This area of attachment is important in denture construc-
tion and determines how far into the floor of the mouth the
denture flange should extend on the lingual side. If it extends
below the mylohyoid line, the denture may be dislodged during
elevation of the tongue, or it may irritate the lingual mucosa in
that area.
The oral tissue beneath the tongue in the floor of the mouth
is one of the thinnest in the oral cavity and therefore quite sensitive
to trauma. Note that any of the oral tissues may be traumatized,
but some are more susceptible than others. Some of the common
8 UN I T I  Introduction
Lingual torus
• Figure 1.10 Another sublingual view demonstrating bony mandibular
tori. (From Regezi JA, Scuibba JJ, Jordan RCK. Oral Pathology: Clinical
Pathologic Correlations. 6th ed. St. Louis: Saunders; 2012.)
injuries seen in a dental practice may relate to hot foods and
liquids. Potato chips or bone-in foods may cause cutting injuries
to various areas of the oral cavity, especially the gingiva. Be aware
that these tissues may be readily injured.
Other Clinical Manifestations of the
Oral Cavity
Although many other chapters in this book refer to the oral cavity,
it is important to stress that all readers should be aware of the
need for a solid background in the normal anatomy of the oral
cavity. It is the responsibility of all who view the intraoral anatomy
of the patient to be aware of what the normal anatomy of the oral
Review Questions
1. What are tori and exostoses? What clinical complications may
they cause?
2. Define the boundaries of the vestibule.
3. Are muscles contained in the frenum attachments of
the lips?
4. Why is the alveolar mucosa redder than the gingiva?
5. What are the divisions of the palate? What are the transverse
ridges in the anterior palate?
6. Where and what is the posterior nasal spine?
7. Which muscle supports the floor of the mouth?
8. What and where is the sublingual caruncle?
cavity looks like, regardless of whether you are a dental assistant,
laboratory technologist, dental hygienist, or dentist. Legally, the
dentist bears the primary responsibility for much of the diagnosis
and treatment of the patient, but every member of the team should
look carefully for anything that appears abnormal. Because sig-
nificant differences within the oral cavity exist, it is beneficial for
students to examine as many other students in their class as possible.
This provides proper perspective on anatomic variation within the
general population.
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
We often think about the effects of oral diseases on other parts of the body,
and we consider the spread of dental infections, oral cancers, and so forth.
However, we should never lose sight of the fact that problems in other
parts of the body may show up early or late in the disease state in the oral
cavity. Early stages of measles show up as spots in the oral cavity. Many
times, AIDS may be suspected because of oral lesions relating to Kaposi’s
sarcoma, which is a disease that may be found in association with AIDS.
Many types of cancer from other parts of the body may spread to the oral
cavity. A young child may be brought to the office because of bleeding
gums. The child may have good oral hygiene, and the tissues may not
appear notably abnormal, and yet the gums, or gingiva, bleed readily on
brushing. One should seriously consider having blood tests run because
bleeding gingival tissues in a mouth with good oral hygiene are a possible
early sign of leukemia. A reddened, painful tongue may be a sign of vitamin
deficiencies, and oral lesions may occur that can be associated with a
number of other diseases.
This chapter is not meant to be comprehensive; rather, it is
meant to reinforce the fact that all members of the dental team
have the responsibility to be observant as they work within the
oral cavity. Our patients deserve the very best care and concern
that we can provide, and a good, solid knowledge of the normal
anatomy of the oral cavity enables any member of the team to
spot something abnormal and have the dentist examine it
carefully.
9. What makes up the anterior and posterior pillars? What lies
between them?
10. What is the fauces?
11. What are the two parts of the oral cavity? What are the
boundaries of each part?
12. Why is knowledge of normal anatomy of the oral cavity so
important for all members of the dental team?
13. Name three generalized disease states that can be detected by
the presence of oral signs or oral lesions.
14. What are Fordyce granules? Describe the appearance of Fordyce
granules.
 CHAPTER 1 Oral Cavity 9

Unit I Test
1. Small localized growths of bone on the buccal cortical plate 6. When the tongue comes forward, which of the following may
are known as inhibit its movement?
a. torus mandibularis a. mandibular condyle
b. exostoses b. labial frenum
c. torus palatinus c. torus mandibularis
d. torus buccalis d. lingual frenum
e. none of the above e. none of the above
2. What are Fordyce granules? 7. Which of the following structures is often the cause a
a. abnormal minor salivary glands diastema?
b. excessive numbers of salivary glands a. maxillary lingual frenum
c. misplaced sebaceous glands b. mandibular lingual frenum
d. abnormal hair follicles c. maxillary labial frenum
e. intraoral acne pustules/oral pimples d. mandibular labial frenum
3. What is the location of the fovea palatinae? e. all of the above
a. in the posterior lateral palate over the opening of the greater 8. Rugae are located on which landmark in the oral cavity?
palatine foramen a. hard palate
b. in the anterior palate over the incisive foramen b. soft palate
c. on either side of the posterior nasal spine c. vestibule
d. between the anterior and posterior tonsillar pillars d. tonsillar pillars
e. none of the above 9. Which term is commonly called “tongue tied” and refers to
4. The space between the left and right palatine tonsils is known a short lingual frenum, limiting tongue movement?
as a. sublingual caruncle
a. anterior pillars b. lingual flange
b. posterior pillars c. ankyloglossia
c. palatoglossal folds d. fovea lingual
d. fauces 10. The oral cavity is divided into which two parts?
e. uvula a. anterior vestibule and posterior vestibule
5. If denture flanges are overextended, which of the following b. vestibule and fauces
muscles may cause displacement of the mandibular denture? c. oral cavity anterior and oral cavity posterior
a. styloglossus d. oral cavity proper and vestibule
b. hyoglossus e. fauces and oral cavity proper
c. mylohyoid
d. all of the above
e. none of the above

Unit I Suggested Readings
Avery JK. Essentials of Oral Histology and Embryology: A Clinical Approach.
St. Louis: Mosby; 1991.
Berkovitz S. The Cleft Palate Story. Carol Stream, IL: Quintessence; 1994.
Berkovitz BK, Moxham BJ. Head and Neck Anatomy: A Clinical Reference.
Isis Med: GBR; 2001.
Berkovitz BK, et al. Color Atlas and Textbook of Oral Anatomy, Histology,
and Embryology. 2nd ed. London: Mosby; 1992.
Bevelander G. Outline of Histology. 8th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1979.
Bhaskar SN. Orban’s Oral Histology and Embryology. 11th ed. St. Louis:
Mosby; 1991.
Carlson BM. Human Embryology and Developmental Biology. 2nd ed. St.
Louis: Mosby; 1999.
Fehrenbach M. Illustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck. 5th ed. St.
Louis: Elsevier; 2017.
Larsen WJ. Essentials of Human Embryology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Harcourt
Health Sciences; 2001.
Melfi R. Permar’s Oral Embryo Logy and Microscopic Anatomy: A Textbook
for Students in Dental Hygiene. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams &
Wilkins; 2000.
Moss-Salentijn L, Hendricks-Klyvert M. Dental and Oral Tissues: An
Introduction. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1990.
Sadler TW. Langman’s Medical Embryology. Philadelphia: Lippincott,
Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
Ten Cate AR. Oral Histology, Development, Structure and Function. 3rd
ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1989.
UNIT II

Dental Anatomy

10
2
The Tooth: Functions and Terms
OBJECTIVES
• To identify the different functions of the teeth
• To identify the different tissues that compose the teeth
• To differentiate between clinical and anatomic crowns and
roots
• To define single, bifurcated, and trifurcated roots
• To understand the significance of the crown/root ratio
• To recognize how the functions of teeth determine their
shape and size
• To understand the individual functions and therefore the
individual differences that exist among incisors, canines,
premolars, and molars
• To name and identify the location of the various tooth
surfaces
• To name and identify the line angles of the teeth
• To name and identify the point angles of the teeth
• To define the terminology used in naming the landmarks of
the teeth
Function of Teeth
Teeth are important in many functions of the body. They are
essential for protecting the oral cavity, in acquiring and chewing
food, and in aiding the digestive system in breaking down food.
The teeth form a hard physical barrier that protects the oral cavity.
This shield not only affords protection to the oral structures, but
the teeth themselves are formidable weapons. One group of
mammals belonging to the order Carnivora demonstrates this
particularly well. Lions and tigers are members of this order and
have well-developed canines that they use as weapons to defend
themselves and to attack and kill their prey. The teeth also function
in communication. They are necessary for proper speech, phonetics,
and even whistling. In many cultures their appearance can be a
very positive sexual attraction. In dental anatomy the teeth are
studied individually and collectively, including their functions,
anchorages, and relationships to one another. Our study, therefore,
begins with a discussion of the individual tooth.
Crown and Root
Each tooth has a crown and root portion. The crown is covered
with enamel, and the root portion is covered with cementum.
The crown and root are joined at the cementoenamel junction
(CEJ). The line that demarcates the crown and root is called the
cervical line, which is a line that is formed by the junction of the
cementum of the root and the enamel of the crown (Fig. 2.1).
The crown portion of the tooth erupts through the bone and
gingival tissue. After eruption it will never again be covered with
gingiva. Only the cervical third of the crown in healthy young
adults is partly covered by this tissue. The tooth continues to
erupt from the bone and gingiva until the entire crown is exposed
(Fig. 2.2).
A clinical difference is evident between the amount of crown
that could be erupted and the actual amount that is visible in the
mouth. The anatomic crown is the entire crown of the tooth that
is covered by enamel, regardless of whether it is erupted. The
clinical crown is only that part seen above the gingiva. Any part
of the unerupted crown is not a part of the clinical crown of the
tooth; therefore, if the entire anatomic crown does not erupt, the
part that is visible is considered the clinical crown, and the unerupted
portion is part of the clinical root (Fig. 2.3). Eruption of a tooth
is thus the moving of that tooth through its surrounding tissues
so that the clinical crown gradually appears longer.
The tooth has coronal, cervical, and apical areas. The coronal
portion (crown area) is the part of the tooth that is most incisal
or occlusal. The point of a cusp or the incisal edge would be the
very most coronal part of a tooth. The cervical area is the area that
forms the junction of the crown and the root. The cervical line
marks this junction, and that part of the tooth located in this area
would be called the cervix of the tooth (Fig. 2.4). The apical area
ends at the terminal end of the root and is called the apex. It is
here at the apex of the root that the apical foramen of the root
canal is located. This apical foramen is the opening into the root
canal and is where the blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic tissues
enter the tooth.
The root is held in its position relative to the other teeth in the
dental arch by being firmly anchored in the bony process of
the jaw. The portion of the jaw that supports the teeth is called
the alveolar process. The bony socket in which the tooth fits is
called the alveolus (Fig. 2.5). Teeth in the upper part of the jaw
are called maxillary teeth because they are anchored in the maxilla.
In the lower jaw they are called mandibular teeth because they
are anchored in the bone called the mandible.
The tooth may have a single root (see Fig. 2.1) or multiple
roots with bifurcation or trifurcation, that is, division of the
root portion into two or three segments (Figs. 2.6 and 2.7). Each
root has one apex or terminal end. The area between multirooted
teeth is called the furcal region, and in a healthy bone–tooth
relationship it would be filled with bone (see Fig. 2.4). In an
unhealthy situation the gingiva and possibly the bone would be
missing, and this space would be open and exposed.
Root to Crown Ratio
The root anchors the tooth in the bone. The longer and wider the
root is, the more it offers resistance to displacement of the tooth.
11
12 UN I T I I  Dental Anatomy
CEJ
• Figure 2.1 Maxillary right central incisor. The crown and root are sepa-
rated by the cementoenamel junction (CEJ). (Modified from Zeisz RC,
Nuckolls J. Dental Anatomy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1949.)
• Figure 2.2 (A) Unerupted tooth. (B) Beginning eruption.
(C) Young adult in which the eruption almost completed.
A B
Clinical crown
Gingival line
• Figure 2.3 Longitudinal section of a tooth. The clinical
crown and root can change, but the anatomic crown and
root always remain the same for any one tooth. CEJ,
cementoenamel junction. Clinical root
A tooth with a wider root offers more surface area for periodontal
ligaments to attach the tooth to the bone. Both length and surface
area play a part in resisting displacement.
It is also true that the longer the tooth root is the more surface
area for periodontal attachment. If one root is longer than another
(both teeth having the same crown length) the longer root offers
more resistance to displacement of the tooth because the longer
the root is the more force is necessary to cause movement. This
is called the lever principle, which explains the greater proportional
force required to displace a small incremental increase in length.
It is related purely to length and not surface area. The fulcrum is
the bone attached to the tooth, and the lever is that part of the
clinical crown exposed above the bone. The longer the clinical
crown is the greater the lever and the easier it is to displace the
tooth (Fig. 2.8).
The root to crown ratio is the length of the root divided by
the length of the crown. The root is measured from its apical end
to the cervical line. The crown is measured from the cervical line
to its most occlusal or incisal part. Almost all anatomic teeth have
longer roots than crowns; therefore, the root to crown ratio of
anatomic teeth is nearly always at least 1 or more. The higher the
root to crown ratio number the more resistance to displacement.
This ratio affords us a way to compare the resistance to displacement
C
Anatomic crown
CEJ separates the
anatomic crown and root
Anatomic root
© Elsevier Collection
 CHAPTER 2 The Tooth: Functions and Terms 13

Furcal region
Apex of root Apical foramen

Apical

Cervical Cervix

Cervical line
Coronal

© Elsevier Collection

• Figure 2.4 The closer the location to the apex of the tooth root the
more apical is the location. Conversely, the closer the location to the tip
of the crown cusp the more coronal it is. The area between the bifurcated • Figure 2.6 Bifurcated root: one mesial and one distal. (Modified from
roots is called the furcal region. The cervix of the tooth is located in the Zeisz RC, Nuckolls J. Dental Anatomy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1949.)
cervical area.

Alveolar
process

Alveolus

A
• Figure 2.5 (A) Tooth surrounded by a bony alveolus. (B) Alveolus is the tooth socket in the alveolar
process. This is an upper tooth, so it is an alveolus of the maxillary bone.

of teeth based on the length of their roots compared with their
crowns.
This ratio has clinical significance in restorative dentistry in
which the length of a clinical crown might make it necessary to
change supporting teeth because of an unfavorable root to crown
ratio. If a prosthetic device is attached to a tooth with a low root
to crown ratio then the chances of this tooth being displaced or
lost are greater than another tooth with a higher root to crown
ratio (Fig. 2.9).
Tooth Tissues
The four tooth tissues are enamel, dentin, cementum, and dental
pulp (Fig. 2.10). The first three are hard tissues, and the pulp is
soft tissue.
Enamel
Enamel forms the outer surface of the anatomic crown. It is thickest
over the tip of the crown and becomes thinner until it ends at the
cervical line. The color of enamel varies with its thickness and
mineralization. The thicker the enamel is the whiter it appears.
The thinner the enamel is the more it varies, from grayish white
at the crown cusps’ edges to white in the middle of the tooth to
yellow-white at the cervical line where the thin enamel covering
is translucent enough to show the yellow tint of the dentin
underneath. The more mineralized the enamel the more it lends
itself to translucency. These two factors, the mineralization and
thickness of enamel, coupled with skin pigmentation, determine
the color of the enamel. Older individuals and people with darker
skin coloration often display brownish or grayish tones of coloration.
14 UN I T I I  Dental Anatomy

Individuals with red or auburn colored hair often exhibit a slight

reddish or brown-red coloration.
Our teeth get darker as we get older. As we age the dentin in
our teeth gets darker as the pulp recedes and is replaced by secondary
dentin. Years of wear causes our enamel and cementum to become
thinner, allowing the dentin to show through. Stains accumulate
on the surface of our teeth with age.
Enamel is the most densely mineralized and hardest tissue in
the human body. The chemical composition of enamel is 96%
inorganic and 4% organic matter and water. This dense mineraliza-
tion gives enamel the ability to be more resistant to the wear that
the crown of a tooth is subjected to. The hard enamel does not
wear very readily; rather, it wears down, grinds up, and crushes
almost anything to which it is subjected, including nuts; seeds;
ice cubes; and even particles of bone, grit, sand, and leather.
Our ancestors wore the enamel off the occlusal of their
teeth because their diet consisted of hard uncooked nuts,
fruits, and grains. In addition, their food was unprocessed so
• Figure 2.7 Trifurcated root: one mesiobuccal, one distobuccal, and one that pieces of rock, sand, dirt, and grit were embedded in it.
lingual. (Modified from Zeisz RC, Nuckolls J. Dental Anatomy. St. Louis: Their lifestyle required chewing leather or bone to fabricate
Mosby; 1949.) clothing. Often the life expectancy of our ancestors was directly
related to whether they still possessed functional teeth. Those
who were fortunate enough to have adequate enamel (durable
and wear-resistant) were able to live longer and produce more
offspring.
Present-day humans rarely wear the enamel off of their teeth.
Enamel is not only resistant to wear, but it is very durable and
Fulcrum rather resistant to bacteria, mild acids, and tooth decay. The densely
packed enamel is smooth, which gives the crown of the tooth a
self-cleaning ability, making it difficult for food particles, bacteria,
A B Fulcrum sticky carbohydrate material, and other debris to adhere to the
surface of the tooth crown. This self-cleaning ability of enamel
and its extreme hardness and resistance to wear make it a nearly
perfect outer covering for the crown. Enamel is the hardest and
most resilient body tissue and is able to withstand extreme tem-
peratures. The only natural material harder than enamel is a
Movement Movement
diamond. Still enamel can be eroded away with severe abrasion
© Elsevier Collection
and can be broken or chipped under pressure. Even today there
is no dental restorative material that possesses the unique qualities
• Figure 2.8 The force exerted on these two identical teeth is the same.
The clinical crowns are different: (A) has a shorter clinical crown than (B).
of enamel.
Because the clinical crown acts as a lever and the bone as a fulcrum the
tooth with the longer lever magnifies the effects of the force; thus, (B) is Dentin
affected more. The fact that there is less bone attached to (B) makes it
easier to move than (A). Dentin forms the main portion or body of the tooth; it comprises
the greatest bulk of the tooth because it forms the largest portion
of the crown and root. Dentin is wrapped in an envelope of enamel,
which covers the crown, and an envelope of cementum, which
covers the root.
Dentin is a hard, dense, calcified tissue. It is softer than enamel
but harder than cementum or bone. It is yellow in color and elastic
in nature. Its chemical composition is 70% inorganic and 30%
organic matter and water. Unlike enamel, dentin is capable of
adding to itself. When it does this, the new dentin is called second-
ary dentin or tertiary dentin.
Secondary dentin is formed throughout the pulp chamber after
the tooth erupts. In time, secondary dentin could completely fill
the pulp chamber. When it does completely obliterate the pulp
A B cavity with dentin the tooth becomes nonvital because no nerve
© Elsevier Collection or vascular tissue remains inside the tooth. This process does not
• Figure 2.9 Tooth (A) has a larger root to crown ratio than (B). The occur until the individual is well into old age. Secondary dentin
crowns are nearly equal in length, but the root of (A) is much longer grows very slowly and seems to be initiated by normal attrition
than (B). and wear, which is a normal process of aging.
 CHAPTER 2 The Tooth: Functions and Terms 15

Enamel

Dentin

Pulp horns
Gingival
line
Gingiva
Pulp
chamber
Cervical
line

Pulp
canals
Submucosa

Alveolar
bone

Peri-
odontal
membrane

Cementum
Apical
foramen

• Figure 2.10 A pulp cavity is composed of pulp chambers, pulp horns, and root canals. This tooth has
two bifurcated roots: one buccal and one lingual. Each root has its own root canal.

Tertiary dentin, often called reparative dentin, is the dentin
that is laid down in response to caries or trauma (Fig. 2.11). It is
not clear whether these same odontoblasts or modified odontoblasts
form tertiary dentin. Tertiary dentin can take several forms and
each is probably formed by different types of modified cells and
initiated by specific types of stimuli. One form, called reparative
dentin, can quickly form in response to injuries such as deep decay,
fracture, or when the tooth is subjected to bacterial invasion.
Another form, called sclerotic dentin, forms less rapidly and is
seen in elderly patients with slow-growing root caries. It can appear
as a translucent form of dentin. It is less elastic, very hard, and
also occurs under slow-failing restorations.
Tertiary dentin can be initiated by many different traumas
including the following: cracked teeth, occlusal trauma, leaky
restorations, exposure into the pulp cavity, deep caries, slowly
developing caries, deep restorations, attrition, abrasion, erosion,
and any other traumas causing damage to the odontoblastic
cell layer.
16 UN I T I I  Dental Anatomy
Caries
Tertiary
(reparative) dentin
Pulp
Secondary dentin
Primary dentin
© Elsevier Collection
• Figure 2.11 Longitudinal section. New dentin is laid down during the
entire life of the tooth. Secondary dentin is formed as a normal process
of aging. Reparative dentin is formed more quickly in response to major
trauma.
Cementum
Cementum is a bonelike substance that covers the root, although
the root is not covered with a perfect layer of cementum. Voids
expose small patches of dentin. The main function of cementum
is to provide a medium for the attachment of the tooth to the
alveolar bone. It is not as dense or as hard as enamel or dentin
but is denser than bone, to which it bears a physiologic resemblance.
The chemical composition of cementum is 45% to 50% inorganic
and 50% to 55% organic, making it a less durable tissue than
dentin or enamel. Cementum is quite thin at the cervical line but
increases slightly in thickness at the apex of the root. The union
of cementum and dentin is called the dentinocemental
junction.
The two types of cementum are cellular and acellular (Fig.
2.12). Acellular cementum can cover most of the anatomic root.
Cellular cementum is confined to the apical third of the root and
can reproduce itself, compensating for the attrition (wear) that
occurs on the crown of the tooth and other microtraumas. Cellular
cementum derives its name from the fact that the very cells that
lie down and form the cementum eventually become entrapped
within newly formed cementum. The cells that produce cementum
are called cementoblasts.
Cementum gives the tooth a mechanism of anchorage that
protects and supports the tooth, yet it is self-adjusting and inde-
pendent of the tooth’s main nourishment system. The nutrition
for cementum is derived from the outside of the tooth through
blood vessels that come directly from the bone.
Acellular cementum’s primary function is to be part of the
attachment system of the tooth. Acellular cementum has Sharpey’s
fibers embedded in it to anchor the tooth in bone. One end of
the Sharpey’s fiber is embedded in acellular cementum and the
other in bone. Bare spots denuded of cementum can be found in
the coronal two-thirds of the root. Although cementum nearly
covers the root surface completely, it has a meshlike opening
exposing the underlying dentin.
Cellular cementum does not have Sharpey’s fibers or bare spots.
It is so dense that it has the same cementoblasts that form the
Acellular Acellular cementum
cementum
Cellular
cementum
Cellular cementum
© Elsevier Collection
• Figure 2.12 (A) The coronal two-thirds of the root are covered by acel-
lular cementum. The apical third of the root is covered by cellular cemen-
tum. At this area the two meet and overlap, and one becomes thinner as
the other phases in. (B) Acellular dentin covers the root in a meshlike layer
of cementum with bare spots of dentin exposed in small areas. The cellular
cementum is much thicker, has no bare spots, and is laid down in layers
parallel to the root surface.
cellular cementum that can be trapped inside of it. This is because
cellular cementum forms very quickly in response to microtraumas,
such as when one tooth chronically hits before the rest of the
teeth. It is laid down in layers parallel to the root surface, and new
layers are added one on the other. Cellular cementum covers the
apical third of the root with the thickest part of the cellular
cementum at the apex of the root. Cellular and acellular cementum
overlap each other where they meet in the apical third of the root.
As the acellular cementum begins to thin out, the cellular cementum
phases in and becomes thicker. Cellular cementum does not appear
to have an attachment function; instead, it is more of a cushioning
function.
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
When the tooth lays down new layers of cellular cementum in response to
trauma, there is a period of new calcification. The new forming calcified
area appears darker on an x-ray and resembles an infection. If the tooth is
sensitive because of this trauma and the x-ray looks like an infection, then
a misdiagnosis could easily occur and the wrong treatment applied.
Pulp
Dental pulp is the nourishing, sensory, and dentin-reparative system
of the tooth. It is composed of blood vessels, lymph vessels, con-
nective tissue, nerve tissue, and special dentin-formation cells called
odontoblasts.
The pulp is housed in the center of the tooth, with dentin
surrounding the pulp tissue. The walls of the pulp cavity are lined
with odontoblasts, the chief function of which is to lay down
primary, secondary, and tertiary dentin. The odontoblasts lay down
primary dentin when the tooth is first formed. After the tooth has
 CHAPTER 2 The Tooth: Functions and Terms 17

erupted and is in occlusion, odontoblasts begin to form secondary

dentin. Later the tooth lays down tertiary dentin in response to
specific types of trauma.
In all instances, the blood vessels of the pulp bring in the
nourishment necessary to activate and support the formation of
dentin. In addition, the blood vessels also supply the white blood
cells necessary to fight bacterial invasion within the pulp. The
lymph tissue filters the fluids within the tooth, and the nerve tissue
responds to pain and does not differentiate the cause. The nerves
in the tooth cannot respond to cold or heat, only pain. Pressure
can be felt but that is a response elicited from the periodontal
ligament outside the tooth and not the pulp tissue inside the tooth.
Anatomically the pulp is divided into two areas: the pulp
chamber and the pulp canals or root canals. The pulp chamber
is housed within the coronal portion of the tooth, and the pulp
canals are located within the roots of the tooth. Together the pulp
chamber and pulp canals are referred to as the pulp cavity; thus,
the pulp cavity runs the entire length of the interior of the tooth
from the tip of the pulp chamber (the pulp horns) to the apical
foramen at the apex of the root canal (see Fig. 2.10).
• Figure 2.13 Mandibular central incisor. Notice the incisal edge (arrow),
which incises or cuts food. (Modified from Zeiss RC, Nuckolls J. Dental
Anatomy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1949.)
C L I N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
It is critical to know if the tooth is alive or dead. In the case of a patient
with a possible infection at the end of the root, the treatment is dependent
on this information. If the tooth is nonvital (dead) a root canal or extraction
would be indicated. If the tooth is sensitive to pressure, is mobile, and
shows a dark area (radiolucency) on the radiograph it could be an infection
caused by a dying tooth, or it could be an alive tooth with newly formed
cellular cementum and the tooth might be sensitive and loose because of
occlusal trauma. This latter situation would only require grinding the tooth
out of the traumatic occlusion. The dental provider would perform vitality
tests to determine whether the tooth was alive. These tests sometimes rely
on ice touching the tooth and causing a pain response in a vital (alive)
tooth. The tooth cannot differentiate hot or cold, but it can elicit a pain
response if the ice causes discomfort. The patient cannot tell if it is cold or
hot causing the pain. He or she only feels pain. In a much older patient this
is a more difficult test to perform because the extra secondary dentin
insulates the pulp chamber and does not readily cause a pain response.
Much older patients have less sensitive teeth because their pulp chambers
are filled in with dentin. Different types of vitality tests may be required for
these patients.

Types of Teeth
The functions of teeth vary, depending on their individual shape
and size and their location in the jaws. The three basic food-
processing functions of the teeth are cutting, holding, and
grinding.
Incisors
The incisors are designed to cut (incisor means “that which makes
an incision, or cut”), and the biting edge is called an incisal edge
(Fig. 2.13). The tongue side, or lingual surface, is shaped like a
shovel to aid in guiding the food into the mouth (Fig. 2.14). When
we bite into something we are actually using the incisal edges of
our incisors as scissors to shear off a piece of food. In this example
these edges are used as cutting tools. All teeth can also be used as
holding or grasping tools and as tearing tools to some extent, but
the primary function of incisors is to cut through something. In
• Figure 2.14 Shoveled-out lingual aspect of a maxillary right central
incisor (arrow). (Modified from Zeisz RC, Nuckolls J. Dental Anatomy. St.
Louis: Mosby; 1949.)
humans there are eight incisors: four maxillary and four mandibular
with two on each side.
Canines
The canines are designed to function as holding or grasping teeth.
When we look at canines they resemble spear heads, which are
used primarily to pierce and grasp. The importance of these teeth
can be seen in dogs, for example, whose genus, Canis, is named
for these teeth. The dog uses the canines as a weapon to pierce
and hold its prey.
In humans the canines also function to protect the jaw joint
during side jaw movements (see Chapters 6 and 13). The canines
Another random document with
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 Der Festhüttenring Lisakassa im Walde bei Akundonde.
So habe ich an jenem Spätnachmittage im Pori westlich von
Akundonde gedacht, ohne zu ahnen, daß kaum einen Tag später
bereits ein Teil meines letztgeäußerten Wunsches in schönster
Weise in Erfüllung gehen sollte. Hastig kommt der durch sein
Honorar begeisterte Jumbe kurz nach dem Mittagessen zu Knudsen
und mir in unser Lager. Dieses haben wir, mehr idyllisch als vor dem
Abendwinde geschützt, auf dem höchsten Punkte des Hügels am
Waldesrand aufgeschlagen; Knudsen hat wie immer für das
Beziehen der Barasa plädiert, aber unser alter Feind, die Windhose,
die uns selbstverständlich auch hier wieder gerade bei der
Erbsensuppe überraschte, hat ihn sehr bald eines Besseren belehrt.
Jetzt dämmern wir im Halbschlaf unter der Banda, jener Laube aus
Zweigen und Gras, die jeder Trägerführer mit seinen Leuten im Nu
zu errichten versteht, pressen uns aus Gewohnheit wegen der
glühenden Hitze den schmerzenden Kopf und denken an nichts, die
unfraglich beste Beschäftigung in diesen Breiten. Da trabt der Jumbe
heran; in Akuchikomu sei Echiputu, ruft er schon von ferne, der
Bwana kubwa und der Bwana mdogo könnten viel sehen, wenn sie
hingingen; aber die Weiber seien scheu und furchtsam, und die
Träger und Soldaten dürften deswegen auch jetzt nicht mit. Wenige
Minuten später sind wir bereits auf dem Marsch; Moritz und Kibwana
haben diesmal arg zu schleppen, denn zur großen Kamera habe ich
auch noch den Kinematographen gesellt, der ach so lange schon zur
Untätigkeit verdammt gewesen ist und von dem ich mir manches
verspreche. Zudem ist der Weg noch länger als gestern; er führt erst
nach Nordosten, immer den Hügelkamm entlang, biegt dann nach
Westen ab und steigt in das grüne Tal eines munteren Baches
nieder. Schon ehe wir dieses erreichen, gibt es Aufenthalt: ein
ungeheurer Hüttenring sperrt uns den Pfad; Bauten allerprimitivster
Art sind es; ein paar Stangen senkrecht und schräg in die Erde
gerammt, darüber eine Querstange, das Ganze bedeckt mit dem 2
bis 3 Meter langen afrikanischen Stroh; das ist alles. Aber Hütte reiht
sich an Hütte, in fast mathematisch genauer Kreislinie umzirken sie
eine Fläche von wohl über 50 Meter Durchmesser. Dies ist der
eigentliche Festplatz, doch nicht für die Mädchen, sondern für das
Lupanda; hier beginnt der lange Festturnus der
Knabenbeschneidung mit Tanz, Schmaus und Gelage, und hier
findet auch, wenn die Knaben nach 3 oder 4 Monaten geheilt und in
die Mysterien des Geschlechtslebens und den Sittenkodex des
Stammes eingeweiht zurückkehren, das Schlußfest statt. Also
schnell heraus mit Stativ, Kamera und Platte; vom Anfänger in der
Lichtbildkunst bin ich längst ein Fundi, ein Meister, geworden, der im
Handumdrehen seine 20, 30 Aufnahmen bewältigt; ein Blick noch
auf die zwei kleinen Aschenhügel an bestimmten Stellen des
Platzes, dann geht es auch schon weiter.
Es ist 2 Uhr mittags; die noch immer unangenehm hochstehende
Sonne sendet ihre glühendsten Strahlen auf den freien Platz des
elenden kleinen Makuadorfes hernieder, in das wir soeben
eingetreten sind. Dorf ist schon viel zu viel gesagt, kaum den Namen
Weiler verdienen die paar kläglichen Strohhütten, deren wenige
Bewohner sich erkühnt haben, die ganze Umgegend zu Gaste zu
laden. In der Tat ist viel Volks versammelt, vor allem Frauen und
Mädchen; die Männer treten an Zahl sichtlich zurück. Schon daraus
würde man entnehmen können, daß es sich um die Feier eines
ausgesprochenen Frauenfestes handelt.
Kein Fest ohne den schmückenden Rahmen. Und was für einer
ist es, der sich unserem erstaunten Auge darbietet! Ganz
afrikanisch, nicht übergroß, aber vollkommen ausreichend ist der
Festsaal, den die Gastgeber hier errichtet haben. Die Neger
verstehen es meisterhaft, aus den billigsten Materialien, mit den
einfachsten Hilfsmitteln in der größten Schnelligkeit
zweckentsprechende und auch in Stil und Form ganz ansprechende
Bauten herzustellen. Dieser hier ist kreisrund; die peripherische, aus
Holzstangen und Hirsestroh gefertigte Wand ist etwa 2 Meter hoch,
mit zwei einander gegenüberliegenden Türöffnungen; der
Durchmesser beträgt etwa 10 Meter, das Dach wird von einem
Mittelpfeiler getragen. Gerade jetzt ziehen die Weiber feierlich in den
Festraum ein, aus dem bereits das bekannte Stimmen mehrerer
Trommeln dröhnend und polternd ertönt. Der Hinweis des Jumben
auf die Scheu der hiesigen Frauen ist sichtlich gerechtfertigt; wer
von den Weibern uns sieht, nimmt schnell Reißaus. Erst nachdem
es uns Fremden gelungen ist, uns ungesehen an die Außenwand
des Festsaals heranzuschlängeln und dort inmitten eines dichten
Haufens verständiger Männer einen sehr erwünschten Unterschlupf
zu finden, beruhigen sich die Festteilnehmerinnen. Aber zeichnen
läßt sich gleichwohl auch jetzt noch keine von ihnen. Ich habe die
Gewohnheit, wo immer es geht, mit einigen wenigen raschen
Strichen jedes malerische Motiv zu skizzieren; und wie malerisch
sind gerade diese Motive! Lippenscheiben, Nasen- und Ohrpflöcke
sind mir seit meinem Einmarsch über die Küstenzone hinaus ins
Innere etwas Altes und Vertrautes geworden, doch Exemplare von
solcher Größe und Rassentypen von so ausgesprochener Wildheit
und Unberührtheit zu bewundern, habe ich bislang doch noch keine
Gelegenheit gehabt. Und wenn so ein Frauenzimmerchen gar erst
lacht! Das ist einfach unbeschreiblich; solange das Gesicht den
normalen, ernsten Ausdruck bewahrt, steht die schneeweiß gefärbte
Lippenscheibe ebenso ernsthaft horizontal in die Weite, notabene
wenn ihre Trägerin noch jung und schön ist; verzieht sich aber
dieses selbe Gesicht zu dem kurzen kichernden Auflachen, wie es
nur der jungen Negerin eigen ist, wupp! mit einem kurzen, schnellen
Ruck fliegt das Pelele nach oben, es richtet sich steil auf über dem
elfenbeinweißen, noch völlig intakten Gebiß; strahlend schauen auch
die hübschen braunen Augen des jungen Weibes in die Weite; unter
dem Gewicht des schweren Holzpflocks gerät die um fast
Handbreite vorgezerrte Oberlippe in ein rasches Zittern; das Baby
auf dem Rücken des Weibes — sie haben fast alle ein Baby auf dem
Rücken — fängt unter dem forschenden Blick des fremden Mannes
jämmerlich zu weinen an — kurz, es ist ein Anblick, den man erlebt
haben muß; zu schildern vermag ihn keine Feder.
Unser Platz ist gut gewählt, ungehindert können wir das ganze
Hütteninnere überschauen. Die menschliche Psyche ähnelt sich
überall, ob unter dem 10. oder 11. Grade südlicher Breite, oder aber
in den Schneewüsten Sibiriens oder den Bankettsälen europäischer
Festhallen: überall huldigt sie dem Grundsatz: Ehre, wem Ehre
gebührt.
„Was sind das dort für drei Knirpse?“ frage ich den Jumben, der
dienstbeflissen neben mir steht und mit zufriedenem Verständnis
den Vorgängen im Innern folgt. Drei angehende Jünglinge sind es,
die an einer reservierten Stelle des Saales auf Ehrenschemeln
sitzen. Das sind die Ehemänner der Frauen, deren Echiputu heute
gefeiert wird.
„Und Echiputu, was ist das?“ Das ist das Fest der ersten Menses;
doch es ist eine lange Geschichte. Diese lange Geschichte jetzt zu
verfolgen ist indessen keine Zeit; in dem bewußten, jedem Besucher
Ostafrikas unvergeßlichen Takt, der bei allen Ngomen wiederkehrt,
haben die Trommeln eingesetzt; im gleichen Augenblick hat sich der
dichtgeballte Knäuel der schwarzen Leiber auch schon zu einem
Reigen geordnet. In einer Art Bachstelzenschritt bewegt er sich
rhythmisch wiegend und gleitend um den Mittelpfahl. Doch dieser ist
nicht frei, sondern lieblich grinsend umstehen ihn drei alte Hexen.
„Wer ist das?“ frage ich.
„Das sind die Anamungwi, die Lehrerinnen der drei Mädchen, die
heute den Lohn ihrer Arbeit ernten; sieh Herr, was jetzt passiert.“
Einstweilen passiert noch nichts; der Tanz geht weiter und weiter,
zunächst noch in der alten Art, dann in einer neuen. Diese ist
weniger afrikanisch als allgemein orientalisch, es ist der gewöhnliche
sogenannte Bauchtanz. Endlich geht auch er zu Ende; der Reigen
löst sich wieder zu einem wilden Durcheinander auf; die eine greift
hierhin, die andere dorthin, dann sammelt sich alles wieder um die
Anamungwi. Diese lächeln jetzt nicht mehr, sondern sehen recht
hoheitsvoll drein; und sie haben ein Recht dazu. Eine nach der
anderen überreichen ihnen die Frauen ihre Gaben: Stücke neuen
Zeuges, Perlenschnüre, fertige Hals- und Armbänder aus Perlen und
dergleichen. „Das ist alles recht gut und schön,“ scheint der Blick der
Beschenkten zu sagen, „doch ist das etwa ein Äquivalent für die
unsägliche Mühe, die uns die Heranbildung unserer Amāli, unseres
Zöglings, seit Jahren gemacht hat? Da müßtet ihr uns schon ganz
anders kommen.“ Doch die Festgesellschaft läßt sich durch diese
stumme Kritik nicht im mindesten beirren, ganz wie anderswo in der
Welt plappert alles durcheinander, und alles ist eitel Lust und
Freude.

Lachende Schönheiten.
Eine neue Phase. „Hawara marre“, knurrt der Jumbe. Dies kann
auch Nils Knudsen nicht übersetzen, denn es ist Kimakua, das er
nicht versteht; aber der Jumbe ist vielsprachig wie alle Intelligenzen
hierzulande; „Kisūwi mkắmŭle“ heiße es im Kiyao, „der Leopard
bricht aus“. In diesem Augenblick geschieht auch schon etwas
Unerwartetes: die drei jungen Kerle haben sich blitzschnell erhoben;
ein lautes Gekrache und Geraschel — durch die leichte Strohwand
sind sie nach außen gebrochen und entweichen in der Richtung auf
die entfernteren Dorfhütten zu. Ich habe bis jetzt nicht klar ersehen
können, ob diese jugendlichen Ehemänner selbst den Leoparden
repräsentieren sollen oder ob sie als durch den imaginären
Leoparden verfolgte Größen zu betrachten sind; in beiden Fällen
jedoch kann unsereinem das behagliche Schlendertempo, in dem
sie davonpilgern, wenig einleuchten und noch weniger imponieren,
viel weniger jedenfalls als das mit ebensoviel Verve wie Ausdauer
gesungene Lied „Hawara marre“ der Frauen, das in das
sonnendurchglühte Pori noch hinausschallt, längst nachdem die drei
Leoparden verschwunden sind.
Ein anderes Bild. Die Festhalle ist leer; dafür wimmelt es jetzt von
buntfarbigen, abenteuerlichen Gestalten auf dem danebenliegenden,
sauber gekehrten Platz. Jetzt erst sieht man, wie schön sich alles
gemacht hat. Wie gleißend Gold erstrahlen die schweren, massiven
Messingringe von mehr als Daumenstärke an Fuß- und
Handknöcheln; in den leuchtendsten, reinen Farben erglänzen auch
Schurz und Obergewand, beide soeben erst von dem galanten
Ehemann auf eigens zu diesem Zweck ausgeführter Expedition vom
Inder in Lindi oder Mrweka für teures Geld erstanden; weißer noch
womöglich als sonst leuchtet schließlich der Lippenklotz in seinen
wuchtigen Abmessungen zu dem staunenden Fremden herüber.
Und wie glänzen die wolligen Krausköpfe und die braunen Gesichter
unter der dicken Schicht frisch aufgetragenen Rizinusöls, dem
Universalkosmetikum des ganzen Ostens! Wieder stehen die
Anamungwi in hoheitsvoller Pose da; wieder drängt sich alles um
sie. Diesmal kommt der materiellere Teil: Maiskolben sind es,
Hirserispen und ähnliche, ebenso nützliche wie angenehme Dinge.
Sie regnen in Massen in ihre Hände.
Und wiederum ein neues Bild. Die Kapelle hat noch sorgfältiger
als gewöhnlich ihre Instrumente gestimmt; mit einem letzten
Aufzucken sinkt das hellodernde Strohfeuer gerade in diesem
Augenblick in sich zusammen. Bŭm, bŭm búm, bŭm bŭm búm, bŭm
bŭm búm, setzt auch schon die erste von ihnen ein. Hei, wie fliegen
dem Manne die Hände! Trommeln und Trommeln ist zweierlei, der
Ngomenschlag indes ist eine Kunst, die gewiß nicht jeder lernt; es ist
nicht gleichgültig, ob die Hand mit der ganzen Innenfläche oder den
Fingerspitzen allein auf das pralle Fell niedersaust, oder ob die
untere oder obere Knöchelreihe der geballten Faust den Ton
hervorbringt; auch dazu gehört sicherlich eine gewisse Begabung.
Wir Europäer sind nach ziemlich allgemeiner Annahme psychisch
doch wesentlich anders organisiert und veranlagt als die schwarze
Rasse, doch auch unsereinen lassen Takt und Rhythmus gerade
dieses Ngomenschlags durchaus nicht kalt. Unwillkürlich fängt auch
der Europäer an, mit den Beinen zu wippen und zu knicken, und fast
möchte er in die Reihe der schwarzen Gestalten eilen, gälte es nicht
das Dekorum der Herrscherrasse zu wahren und Auge und Ohr
anzuspannen für alles, was da vorgeht.
Ikoma heißt der Tanz, in dem die Frauen sich jetzt wiegen. Unser
Auge ist zu wenig geschult für die feinen Unterschiede zwischen all
diesen einzelnen Reigentänzen; deswegen ermüden wir auch schon
vom bloßen Zusehen viel früher als der Neger im angestrengtesten
Tanze. In diesem Falle tut auch die Sonne ein übriges; dem Knaben
Moritz ist bereits schlecht geworden; wie er behauptet, von dem
Dunst der Menschenmenge. Als wenn der Bursche nicht selbst mit
duftete! Zwar habe ich ihn noch nicht wie seinen Kollegen Kibwana
vorzeiten in Lindi unter Androhung von Peitschenhieben und
Ohrfeigen in den Indischen Ozean zu jagen brauchen, weil dieser
edle Vertreter des Wassegedjustammes so fürchterlich nach faulem
Haifischfleisch roch, als wenn er selber schon monatelang im Grabe
gelegen hätte; allzuviel Recht, sich über seine Landsleute zu
mokieren, hat das Bürschchen Moritz gleichwohl kaum. Ich bin
gerade im Begriff, meine Apparate abzubauen, da endlich ändert
sich das Bild der im ewigen Gleichmaß durcheinanderwogenden
schwarzen Leiber mit einemmal erheblich. Bis dahin ist alles, auch
nach unseren Begriffen, höchst dezent vor sich gegangen, jetzt aber,
was muß ich sehen! Mit rascher Gebärde fliegen die bunten Kattune
hoch, Unter- und Oberschenkel und die ganze Gesäßpartie liegen
frei; rascher schreiten die Füße, feuriger und lebhafter tänzeln die
einzelnen Partnerinnen im Kreise umeinander. Und mich bannt,
wovon ich schon lange gehört, was mein Auge aber vordem nie
erschaute. Wuchtige Ziernarben sind es, auf Oberschenkeln, Gesäß
und Rücken in den mannigfachsten Mustern eingeritzt und durch
vielfaches Nachschneiden im Stadium der Verschorfung zu diesen
dicken Wulsten herangebildet. Auch das gehört zum Schönheitsideal
hierzulande.
Ich habe das Ende des Ikomatanzes zu meinem Leidwesen nicht
abwarten können; einmal fühlten sich die Teilnehmerinnen trotz des
kleinen Silberstücks, das ich freigebig an jede von ihnen austeilen
ließ, durch die Anwesenheit eines Vertreters der weißen Rasse, die
den meisten von ihnen bis dahin nur vom Hörensagen bekannt
geworden war, sichtlich bedrückt, so daß die ungezwungene
Fröhlichkeit des geschlossenen Festsaals hier draußen durchaus
nicht aufkommen wollte, sodann gebot die Rücksicht auf Moritz, der
vor Übelkeit schon ganz grau war, schleunigste Heimkehr.
Der Jumbe von Akundonde besitzt wohl den Vorzug der
praktischen Führung, aber er ist kein Theoretiker; um von den
Weistümern seines Volkes und der Makua viel zu wissen, ist er wohl
noch zu jung. Auch Akundonde selbst schweigt sich aus, vielleicht
bedarf es bei ihm immer erst eines stärkeren Reizmittels, wozu ich
aber nicht in der Lage bin, zumal wir selbst hier gänzlich auf unsere
Konserven, die üblichen mageren Hühner und ein paar von Knudsen
erlegte alte Perlhühner angewiesen sind; von der reichlichen
Pombezufuhr, wie sie in Massassi und Chingulungulu unser
bierfreundliches Herz entzückt hatte, keine Spur. Leichten Herzens
sind wir denn auch schon am vierten Tage von Akundonde
aufgebrochen, um in dreitägigem Marsch das langersehnte Newala
zu erreichen. Stationen: Chingulungulu, wo ein großer Teil unseres
Gepäcks liegengeblieben war, sodann Mchauru, ein außerordentlich
weitläufig gebauter Ort in der gleichnamigen Landschaft und am
gleichnamigen Fluß in den Vorbergen des Makondeplateaus.
Mchauru ist in mehrfacher Beziehung interessant genug;
zunächst in topographischer: wohl 20, ja 30 Meter tief in den
lockeren Aufschüttungsboden eingeschnitten, zieht sich das Flußbett
dahin, in südwestlicher Richtung, dem Rovuma zu; es ist eine wahre
Kletterpartie, in diese Klamm hinunterzugelangen. Unten stößt man
keineswegs direkt auf fließendes Wasser, sondern man muß auch
hier erst noch mindestens 2 Meter tief in den reinen Sand
hineingraben, bevor man das unterirdisch abströmende Naß
erreicht. Damit rechnen auch die Eingeborenen, auf deren enge,
tiefe Wasserlöcher der Wanderer alle Augenblicke stößt. Um so
üppiger ist dafür die Vegetation im ganzen Gebiet; woher sie in
diesem Gebiet des Regenschattens kommt, ist mir noch nicht ganz
klar; möglich, daß der Humusgehalt hier größer ist als an den
meisten Stellen der weiten Ebene.
Mchauru ist nicht nur landschaftlich schön, sondern auch
ethnographisch berühmt im ganzen Lande; einmal durch einen
Fundi, der die schönsten Ebenholznasenpflöcke fertigt und sie am
geschmackvollsten mit Zinnstiftchen auslegt, sodann durch den
Zauberer Medulla; dieser beiden Personen wegen habe ich
überhaupt hier haltgemacht. Der Kipini-Fundi war nicht zu finden; er
sei verreist, hieß es; aber Medulla war daheim.
Durch wahre Bananenhaine — für mich ein ganz neuer und
ungewohnter Anblick — und ausgedehnte Fruchtfelder von Mais,
Bohnen und Erbsen sind wir, d. h. wir beiden Europäer und die
engere Garde mit den Apparaten, von unserm an der Barrabarra
unter einem riesengroßen Baum aufgeschlagenen Lagerplatz eine
kleine Stunde südwestwärts gezogen. Ab und zu führt der Weg im
Flußbett entlang; dann ist es ein mühseliges Waten im
unergründlichen Sande. Endlich heißt es: wir sind da. Wir klettern
einen kleinen Hügel empor und stehen vor einer offenen,
schuppenähnlichen Hütte. Ein Negergreis sitzt darin, nicht kauernd
nach der Weise der Eingeborenen, sondern wie wir mit
ausgestreckten Beinen auf einer Matte. Begrüßung; mein Anliegen:
seine Zaubermittel soll er mir erklären und käuflich ablassen,
fernerhin aber soll er uns etwas weben. Nur zwei Männer sind nach
den Erzählungen der Eingeborenen im ganzen weiten Lande noch in
der Lage, dem Fremdling und auch den eigenen Stammesgenossen
diese unter der Wucht des eingeführten Kattuns bereits
ausgestorbene Kunst vorzuführen. Den einen, einen zittrigen Greis,
habe ich vor vielen Wochen in Mkululu kennen gelernt; der andere
sitzt jetzt vor mir. Der Mkululumann hat mich arg enttäuscht; von
Weben keine Ahnung, auch nichts vom Vorhandensein eines
Webstuhls selbst; nur einen mäßig guten Baumwollfaden hat uns der
Alte mit seiner Spindel zu bereiten gewußt. Das war alles gewesen.

Versammlung der Teilnehmer an der Festhütte.

Präsentation des Feststoffes durch die Mutter.

Tanz der Alten.

 Erscheinen der Novizen auf dem Festplatz.
Mädchen-Unyago im Wamatambwe-Dorf Mangupa. I.

Gruppierung der Alten um die Festjungfrauen.

Tanz der Alten um die Festjungfrauen.

 Prüfungstanz der Festjungfrauen vor den Alten.

Abzug der Festjungfrauen.

Mädchen-Unyago im Wamatambwe-Dorf Mangupa. II.
Um so größer sind meine Erwartungen bezüglich Medullas. Doch
die Medizinen gehen vor; wir feilschen mit ihm wie die Armenier, der
Mann läßt sich auf nichts ein; schließlich zeigt er uns ein paar der
üblichen Kalebassen mit ihren fragwürdigen Mixturen, fordert aber
dafür so unverschämte Preise, daß nun auch ich einmal, und zwar
mit großer Genugtuung, sagen kann: „Hapana rafiki, gibt’s nicht,
Freundchen.“ Auch Medulla ist Philosoph; „na, denn nicht“, denkt er
allem Anschein nach, beginnt ein großes Gespräch über seinen
Namen, versucht sich dann mit der Aussprache des meinigen und
geht erst allmählich zu dem zweiten Teil des Programms über. Wie
ein Reporter unserer gräßlichen modernen Wochenblätter stehe ich
mit meinem Apparat auf der Lauer; Medulla sitzt ungünstig, draußen
schreiendes Licht, in seiner kühlen Hütte tiefes Dunkel; ich nötige ihn
sich umzusetzen, er tut’s nicht; ich bitte, ich schmeichle ihm, er
grinst, holt umständlich seine Pfeife hervor, zündet sie mit glühender
Kohle an, pafft und rührt sich nicht. Im Vertrauen auf mein
Voigtländersches Kollinear lasse ich ihn schließlich sitzen, um
überhaupt nur weiter zu kommen. Ich will den Webstuhl sehen und
wie er gebraucht wird. Erst müsse er, Medulla, den Faden machen,
heißt es. Ich füge mich. Langsam greift der Alte in einen Korb, holt
ebenso bedächtig eine Handvoll Kapseln hervor, entkernt sie
kunstgerecht und beginnt nun, die flockige weiße Masse mit einem
Stäbchen zu schlagen. Überraschend schnell ist das ziemlich große
Quantum Baumwolle gleichmäßig locker. Medulla nimmt sie in die
Linke und beginnt mit der Rechten den Rohfaden zu zupfen. „Aha,“
denke ich, „die Sache kommt dir bekannt vor; das haben vor mehr
als 30 Jahren die Eichsfelder ebenso gemacht, wenn sie allwinterlich
in unser hannöversches Dörfchen kamen, um dort den Bauern die
Wolle zu verspinnen.“ Doch damit hört auch schon die Parallele auf,
der weitere Gang ist wieder ganz urmenschlich: Anknüpfen des
Rohfadens an das Fadenende auf der Spindel, Durchziehen dieses
Fadens durch den unsere Öse ersetzenden Spalt, Wirbeln der
Spindel in der Rechten unter weit abgespreizter Linker; sodann ein
Herniedergehen mit beiden Armen, ein rasches Rollen der Spindel
auf dem rechten Oberschenkel — der Faden ist zum Aufwickeln
fertig.
 Der alte Medulla, sein Pfeifchen anbrennend.
Medulla hat es fertiggebracht, uns eine ewige Zeit in derselben
Weise zu langweilen; den berühmten Webstuhl hat auch er
schließlich nicht hervorgeholt, sicher aus dem einfachen Grunde,
weil dieses Rudiment eines alten Kulturzustandes wohl nur noch im
Munde seiner leichtgläubigen Landsleute existiert. Der gerissene
Allerweltskünstler versprach bei unserem mehr als kühlen Abschied
zwar hoch und heilig, er werde mit seiner Maschine nach Newala
kommen, doch dies hat ihm nicht einmal der dümmste meiner Leute
geglaubt.
 Mädchen-Unyago im Makondeweiler Niuchi.

Dreizehntes Kapitel.
Unyago überall.
Newala, Mitte September 1906.

Hurra, Unyago überall, an allen Ecken und Enden; es ist eine

Lust zu leben! Mit dem reizvollen Fest von Akuchikomu scheint der
Zauberbann gebrochen, der mir gerade die besten Wochen hindurch
die Einsicht in diesen völkerkundlich so wichtigen und
hochinteressanten Gegenstand verwehrt hat; an nicht weniger als
zwei typischen Festfeiern habe ich in der kurzen Zeit meines
Newala-Aufenthaltes bereits teilgenommen, und beide waren noch
dazu Mädchen-Unyago. Und das hat mit seiner Güte Akide Sefu
getan.
O du braver Sefu bin Mwanyi, du Zierde deiner Vaterstadt Ssudi,
du Stolz und Perle deines Standes, wie soll ich dir danken, was du
bereits an mir getan hast, täglich tust und fernerhin noch tun wirst!
Du bist ein Mann von edlem Schnitt des Antlitzes, von hohem Wuchs
und der Farbe der Nachkommen des Propheten; Negerblut hast du
wohl kaum ein Tröpfchen in deinen Adern, sondern rein und
unvermischt hat sich die Reihe deiner arabischen Ahnen durch die
Jahrhunderte hindurch bis auf dich herab fortgeführt. Und
sprachgewandt bist du, daß Nils Knudsens Ruhm schnell vor dir
verblaßt! Bewahre dir dein Verständnis auch für die Ziele späterer
Reisender, dann kann es an Früchten deutscher wissenschaftlicher
Forschungsarbeiten nicht fehlen!
Wir hatten uns von dem schrecklich mühsamen Aufstieg, den die
Steilheit des Plateauabsturzes gerade hier bei Newala bedingt, ein
klein wenig erholt, hatten uns notdürftig in der gegen den
gefürchteten Abendwind von Newala weit offenen Barasa in der
Boma, der Palisadenumzäunung, dieses Ortes eingerichtet und uns
gegen die geradezu arktische Kälte der ersten Newala-Nacht durch
alle verfügbaren Decken zu schützen gesucht, da kam auch schon
im frühen Morgengrauen der diensteifrige Akide herbeigeeilt, um uns
nach dem Makondedorf Niuchi zu führen; dort sei heute das
Schlußfest des ersten Mädchen-Unyago, da würde ich viel Neues
sehen und hören. Eine Stunde später hatten meine Auserwählten,
wozu in diesem Falle auch mein gutes, altes Maultier gehörte, und
wir uns bereits durch eine tüchtige Portion urechten
Makondebusches hindurchgewunden; mein Reittier hätte, selbst
wenn es in seinem angeborenen Stumpfsinn dazu fähig gewesen
wäre, sich durchaus nicht zu wundern brauchen, warum es denn
heute die gewohnten 180 Pfund nicht zu tragen hatte, denn an
Reiten war bei diesem Kampf mit Dorn und Busch, die selbst auf
dem begangensten Makondepfade kaum 30, 40 Zentimeter eines
halbwegs freien Raumes offen ließen, nicht zu denken. Gänzlich
unvermittelt standen wir auf einem kleinen, freien Platz inmitten
einiger Häuser und sahen mit ebenso großer Verwunderung auf
einen stattlichen Haufen seltsam ausschauender Frauengestalten,
die erschreckt zu uns herüberstarrten. Ich sah sofort, daß auch hier
möglichste Zurückhaltung nur von Nutzen sein könne und
verschwand mit all meinen Apparaten und Leuten hinter der Ecke
der nächsten Hütte. Von dort aus habe ich ganz ungestört eine
Summe von Vorgängen sich abspielen sehen, wie sie in dieser
Eigenart bisher wohl selten einem Reisenden sichtbar geworden
sind.
Es ist 8 Uhr morgens; im frischesten Grün schließt sich der
Makondebusch fast über unseren Häuptern zusammen; nur ein
Baum mitten auf dem Dorfplatz und einige wenige, ebenso stattliche
Gefährten ragen über das Buschwerk und die niedrigen
Makondehütten hinaus in die klare Morgenluft. Die wenigen Weiber,
die bei unserer Ankunft den Platz mit Büscheln grüner Zweige
sauber gefegt hatten, sind blitzschnell in den Schwarm der übrigen
Frauen zurückgetaucht. Diese stehen wie eine Mauer um fünf
andere, in schreiendes Bunt gekleidete Wesen, die in Hockstellung
im Schatten eines Hauses kauern, sich mit den Händen Augen und
Schläfen überdecken und durch die Finger unverwandt zu Boden
starren. Da, ein schriller Ton; fünf oder sechs der Frauen eilen mit
grotesken Sprüngen über den Platz, keck steht das Pelele, die
Lippenscheibe von wahrhaft fabelhaften Dimensionen, in die Luft,
unter ihm aber fliegt die weit vorgestreckte Zunge in raschen
Horizontalschwingungen hin und her. Dies gehört nun einmal zu dem
berühmten Frauentriller Ostafrikas; ohne dies ist er nicht
kunstgerecht. Den ersten sechs folgen bald ein Dutzend andere
Weiber.

„Anamanduta, anamanduta, mwanangu mwanagwe“,

„Es geht weg, es geht weg, mein liebes Kind“,

ertönt es aus ihrer Mitte, zunächst solo, dann im Chor;

Händeklatschen im strengen Takt, tänzelnde Schreitbewegungen
über den Platz hin und her begleiten das Lied. Trennungsschmerz
im wilden Osten, denke ich, als mir Sefu in rascher Gewandtheit den
Text übersetzt hat. Da ertönt auch schon ein neuer Sang:

„Namahihío atjikuta kumawēru.“

„Die Eule schreit in der Schamba.“

 Auch der Vortrag dieses Sanges dauert eine geraume Zeit; dann
steht alles plötzlich wieder in dichter Scharung um jene fünf
Kleiderbündel herum. Aus dem Schwarm treten fünf ältere Gestalten
hervor; mit Bündeln von Hirserispen schmücken sie das Haupt ihrer
Schülerinnen, denn das sind jene buntfarbigen Wesen. Diese
erheben sich jetzt, treten eine hinter der andern an, legen beide
Hände auf die Schultern des „Vordermannes“, die Trommelkapelle
setzt ein; alt und jung wiegt den Mittelkörper rhythmisch und
meisterhaft zugleich im Bauchtanz.

„Chihakātu cha Rulī́wĭle nande kuhuma nchēre.“

„Das Chihakatu (eine kleine Korbschale) des Liwile wird früh aus
dem Haus herausgetragen“, so erschallt es jetzt aus dem Chor
heraus. Mit dem Chihakatu ist anscheinend der Ährenschmuck
gemeint; der Neger liebt es, zu symbolisieren.
Endlich geht auch dieses Lied zu Ende, der Reigen löst sich auf;
nach allen Seiten eilen die Frauen auseinander, kehren aber sofort
zurück, um Hirse, Maniok, Kleidungsstücke u. dergl. vor den fünf
Lehrerinnen niederzulegen. Diese haben sich inzwischen zu neuem
Tun gerüstet; das erstaunte Auge des Weißen sieht, wie ein Ei
zerschlagen und von dem Gelben den fünf Novizen etwas auf die
Stirn gestrichen wird; ein anderer Teil dieser Masse wird mit
Rizinusöl vermischt und den Mädchen auf Brust und Rücken
gesalbt. Das ist das Zeichen der Reife und des beendeten Unyago.
Überreichung von noch mehr neuen Stoffes an die Mädchen bildet
den Schluß.
Damit scheint der erste Teil des Festes zu Ende zu sein. Sefu
macht mich aufmerksam auf eine bestimmte Stelle des Festplatzes,
an der ein einfacher Stock dem Boden entragt; unter diesem Stock
seien Medizinen vergraben, die zum Unyago gehören; an einer
anderen Stelle aber sei schon vor Monaten ein großer Topf mit
Wasser in die Erde versenkt; dieser sei auch Medizin.
Noch während dieses Privatkollegs hat sich der Schwarm der
Weiber von neuem geordnet. Nach einem Triller, der selbst uns
Fernstehenden die Trommelfelle fast platzen macht, ein
Emporfliegen aller Arme mit einem Ruck; im nächsten Augenblick
sausen sie auch schon wieder hernieder, um von nun an mit jenem
Händeklatschen, das in dieser Virtuosität nur den Anwohnern des
Indischen Ozeans eigen zu sein scheint, folgendes Lied zu
begleiten:

„Kanole wahuma kwetu likundasi kuyadika kuyedya ingombe.“

Zu deutsch heißt dies etwa: „Seht euch einmal das Mädchen an,
sie hat einen Perlenschurz geliehen und versucht nun, ihn kokett
und elegant zu tragen.“
O, ihr Weiber, knurre ich bei Sefus Übersetzung; ihr gleicht euch
überall, eitel auf der einen, boshaft auf der andern Seite. Das Lied ist
ein Spottgesang; es bezieht sich auf ein Fräulein Habenichts, die in
geborgtem Putz erscheint. „Der wollen wir es anstreichen“, sagen,
nein singen die anderen.
Und jetzt nehmen sie sogar mich vor:

„Ignole yangala yangala meme mtuleke weletu tuwakuhiyoloka“,

singen sie. Dem Sinne nach heißt das etwa:

„Ihr, die ihr hier (bei der Unyago) zusammen seid, freut euch,
belustigt euch. Wir, die wir hierher gekommen sind, wir wollen nicht
mitspielen, wir wollen bloß zuschauen.“
Wenn Sefu recht hat, und dem scheint doch wohl so, so sind
diese Worte als mir in den Mund gelegt aufzufassen; entweder sind
sie dann ein Ausfluß meines Edelmutes: ich will durchaus nicht
stören; oder aber sie sind eine captatio benevolentiae: bleib ja ferne,
Weißer, wir fürchten uns sonst.
Ganz geheuer scheint den Teilnehmerinnen trotz meiner
diskreten Zurückhaltung überhaupt nicht zu sein, denn sie singen
nunmehr bis zur Erschlaffung:

„Nidoba ho, nidoba ho.“

„Es ist schwer fürwahr, es ist schwer fürwahr.“ —

 Große Pause.
Der zweite Hauptteil des Programms bringt zunächst die
Wiederholung einer Partie von Teil I: noch tiefer in ihre grellbunten
Tücher vermummt, so daß von Gesicht und Armen nichts zu sehen
ist, treten zuvörderst die Festjungfrauen an, wie vorhin in Reihen
rechtsum; an sie gliedert sich in derselben Anordnung die ganze
andere Gesellschaft an. Jetzt setzt auch schon die über gewaltigem
Feuer neugestimmte Kapelle von frischem ein, und wieder beginnt
das Dauerlied: „Chihakatu cha Ruliwile“ usw.; wieder fliegen die
Mittelpartien der Körper im Bauchtanz. Das dauert eine geschlagene
halbe Stunde lang; dann löst sich die lange Reihe auf, die älteste der
Lehrerinnen tritt frei vor die übrigen hin, setzt eine kritische Miene
auf und harrt der Dinge, die da kommen sollen. Und es kommt. Wie
ein schillernder Falter löst sich eins der bunten Zeugbündel aus der
Masse heraus, tänzelt zierlich vor die Alte hin,

„nande äh äh, nande äh äh“,

setzt der Chorus ein, von dem Kleiderbündel aber sieht der höchst
erstaunte Weiße nur noch Kopf- und Fußpartie in einiger Ruhe,
alles, was dazwischenliegt, verschwimmt zu einem unerkennbaren
Etwas. Erst ein keckes Nähertreten erläutert mir das: die Kleine
„zittert“ mit ihrer Beckenpartie, sie wirft sie so schnell hin und her,
daß tatsächlich keine Körperlinie zu verfolgen ist. Die eine tritt ab,
die anderen folgen der Reihe nach; Lob und Tadel werden aus
hohem Munde auf sie herabgesprochen. Was der Liedertext aber
bedeutet, kann mir auch Sefu nicht sagen.