flield Sca

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le
 Definition of “Scale”
• Scale is a hard deposit resulting from the deposition of mineral
compounds present in water

• It may consist of one or more types of inorganic scale deposited

together along with other debris (organic material, sand)
 Scale Problems M120 Example

• Scale Deposit
– Safety Valve, Choke Failure
– Pump Wear
– Restrict/Block Flow Lines
– Blockage of Gas lift Valves
– Corrosion Underneath Deposits
– Perforation, Gravel Pack
Blockages
– Reservoir (Near Well Bore)
• Suspended Particles
– Plug Formation, Oil/water
Sulphate Scale
Log responses
Obstructions Gamma ray
in pipework Depth

barite scale Caliper

Flow
Formation meter
damage
(PI loss)
 Common Oilfield Scales

• Calcium Carbonate CaCO3

• Barium Sulphate BaSO4
• Strontium Sulphate SrSO4
• Calcium Sulphate CaSO4, CaSO4.2H2O
• Iron Scales Fe2O3, FeS, FeCO3
• Exotic Scales ZnS, PbS, CaF2
Reservoir Barium Sulphate
Comparative Solubility

• In pure water at 25oC

– CaCO3 53 mg/l
– BaSO4 2.3 mg/l
– SrSO4 114 mg/l
– CaSO4 2000 mg/l

Solubility in brines differ

 Calcium Carbonate

• CaCO3 formation is based on the equilibrium:

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
• Complex system involving CO2 dissolved in
brine, which depends on pressure and gas
phase composition
• At typical oilfield pH HCO3- is the predominant
species present in solution (H2CO3, CO32-)
• CaCO3 formation favoured by increased
temperature, reduction of partial CO2 pressure
 Barium Sulphate

• Formed from
Ba2+ + SO42- BaSO4
• Waterflood mixes connate water (Ba2+ source) with
injected sea water (SO42- source)
• Solubility decreases with declining temperature
• May co-precipitate with other sulphate scales -
radium sulphate is radioactive
 Strontium Sulphate

• Similar to BaSO4 formation:

Sr2+ + SO42- SrSO4
• Waterflood mixes connate water (Sr2+ source) with
injected sea water (SO42- source)
• Solubility decreases above 40oC
• Solubility increases with increased pressure
• Not normally a significant problem in North Sea
(mainly in Middle East) other than co-precipitate with
BaSO4
 Calcium Sulphate
• Similar to BaSO4, SrSO4:
Ca2+ + SO42- CaSO4
• Waterflood mixes connate water (Ca2+ source)
with injected sea water (SO42- source)
• Two main forms:
CaSO4 anhydrite preferred > 50oC
CaSO4.2H2O gypsum preferred < 50oC
• Solubility decreases with increased temperature
• Solubility increases at higher pressure
 Iron, Zinc, Lead Sulphide

• FeS, ZnS, PbS:

Fe or Zn or Pb2+ + H2S Fe, Zn, PbS + 2H+
• Waterflood mixes connate water (Fe2+, Zn 2+, Pb2+
source) with injected seawater and reservoir gas
(H2S source)

Factors which effect Solubility

• Increasing temperature >>> solubility
• Increasing salinity >>> solubility
• Increasing pH (acidity) >>> solubility
Zinc and Lead Solubility Implication
for Oil/Gas Processing
• Cooling of fluids in production system

• Dilution of high TDS brines within multilayer wells

• Injection water breakthrough downhole/topside

• Wash water mixing with produced fluids

• Removal of CO2 in degassers and hydrocyclones

Scale Prevention How?
• Control physical variables
– These are normally fixed
• Removal of scale forming ions
– Avoid SW injection, use low SO42- SW
• Avoid mixing incompatible waters
– Avoid SW injection used aquifer source
or natural depletion,
• Use scale inhibitors
 Scale Inhibitor Applications
• Water injection well protection
Downhole mixing of incompatible waters, temp & pressure
changes. (treat injection water with SI, first 1,000,000 bbls)

• Production system protection

Wellbore, tubing, flowlines, topside, mixing of incompatible
waters, temp & pressure changes, (treat with continual injection,
gas lift application and scale squeeze residuals)

• Reservoir protection
Reservoir and production system are protected via scale
squeeze or other forms of batch treatments
Offshore
Scale Squeeze
 Scale Prediction Programs
• Range of Scale Prediction programs:
– Scaleup (Heriot-Watt) - sulphate scale only
– Scalechem (OLI)- user friendly carbonate sulphate
code
– Multiscale (Petrotech) - most convenient and up to
date currently available for carbonate and sulphate.

• Many others available in the market place

 Scale Prediction
• Scale Tendency/Scaling Index

• Issues to be addressed by such information

How much scale will form ?

Where will it form ?
How damaging will it be ?

• It is important to carry out regular assessment of

water chemistry and scaling potential.
 Water Analysis
• For meaningful scale prediction and performance tests need
accurate water analysis
• Water will change between sampling and subsequent lab
analysis (scale formation, loss of dissolved gases, etc)
• For new field developments difficult to determine if water
sample is truly representative
 Life Cycle of Seawater Flood
PROJECT DECLINE

PLATEAU

DECOMMISSION

BRINE SAMPLING
And ANALYSIS

MODELING MONITORING
Oilfield Scale Monitoring
• Water Chemistry
• Visual Inspection
• Scale Coupons and Spools
• Suspended Solids
• System Parameters
– Pressure increases
– Production declines
– Emulsion tendency
– Heat transfer, pipe temperatures
– Pump efficiencies
• Inhibitor Residuals
• Real Time Monitoring (RTM)