Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

307 (2022) 117655

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Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of wire arc

additive manufactured 308 L stainless steel cylindrical components made
by gas metal arc and cold metal transfer arc welding processes
B. Prasanna Nagasai *, 1, S. Malarvizhi , V. Balasubramanian
Centre for Materials Joining and Research (CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608002, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Associate Editor: Jingjing Li Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is suitable for manufacturing large-scale complex parts due to many
advantages, including high disposition rate and low cost and thus become a viable advanced manufacturing
Keywords: technique. In the present study, two different arc welding processes were used to fabricate 308 L austenitic
Wire arc additive manufacturing stainless steel (SS) cylindrical components. The mechanism and impact of the processes on the microstructure
308 L stainless steel
and mechanical characteristics were analysed. The results indicated that the component produced by the cold
Microstructural characteristics and mechanical
metal transfer (CMT) arc welding process exhibits finer grains and higher amount of ferrite than conventional gas
properties
metal arc welding (GMAW) process. Furthermore, the percentage of anisotropy in tensile strength was reduced
from 8.07% to 6.21% for cylinders built by the GMAW process to the CMT process. In addition, the average
ultimate tensile strength (UTS), elongation (EL) and hardness of the CMT cylinder are 5.17–7.0%, 4.029–7.80%
and 4.02–5.88% higher than the GMAW cylinder, irrespective of orientations. The tensile properties are higher
than those of the 308 L welding wire and other arc-welding based additively manufactured 308 L stainless steel
parts. The produced WAAM 308 L SS cylinders exhibited superior performance than the stainless steel made by
industrial forging standards. Therefore, the 308 L SS cylindrical components made by WAAM technique are
found to be suitable for industrial application.

1. Introduction
In the late 1980s, Charles W. Hull introduced additive manufacturing
(AM) technology, also known as 3D printing or rapid prototyping (RP),
for the fabrication of prototypes, as reported by Horii et al. (2009). AM is
the process of manufacturing components from a three-dimensional
CAD model, typically one layer on top of another, and then rapidly so­
lidifying them together. In comparison to traditional manufacturing
methods, AM technology can produce complicated parts at a high
forming rate without the need for costly equipment or pre-production
expenditures, as reported by Wang et al. (2016).
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), which employs electric
arc as a heat source to melt wire feed material to build parts, has
received much interest because of its potential to produce complex parts
with low cost and high deposition rate. Carbon steel, aluminium alloys,
nickel-based super alloys and titanium alloys are among the metal
materials that may be used to create structural parts in WAAM at the
moment by Zinoviev et al. (2016). Ouyang et al. (2002) studied the ef­
fects of welding process parameters on the shape of 5356 aluminium
alloy beads, as well as the microstructural characteristics of walls
manufactured by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Wang et al. (2018)
used the WAAM approach to manufacture Ti-6Al-4 V components and
evaluated the impact of deposition parameters on grain growth and
tensile properties in the transverse direction. However, in order to sus­
tain the high deposition rate in WAAM, a substantial amount of heat is
necessarily injected. According to Zhao et al. (2011), repetitive heating
of deposited layers with considerable arc heat input would result in
significant heat accumulation and slow cooling rate during the WAAM
process. As documented by Xiong et al. (2018) high temperatures be­
tween inter layers generated by severe heat buildup, particularly for
manufacturing thin metal parts, may result in a slow cooling rate and
even forming failure due to overflow of weld pool. These difficulties will

* Correspondence to: Centre for Materials Joining and Research (CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
608002,Tamilnadu, India.
E-mail addresses: nagasaibellamkonda143@gmail.com (B.P. Nagasai), jeejoo@rediffmail.com (S. Malarvizhi), visvabalu@yahoo.com (V. Balasubramanian).
1
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8560-1643.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117655
Received 13 March 2022; Received in revised form 26 May 2022; Accepted 29 May 2022
Available online 1 June 2022
0924-0136/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Table 1
Chemical composition of 308 L SS filler wire.
Element C P S Cr
308 L SS 0.03 0.03 0.03 19.5–21
have a negative impact on the fabricated component forming quality,
especially microstructure and mechanical characteristics.
ER308L is an austenite stainless steel with a low carbon content,
good material properties, and excellent corrosion resistance behaviour.
Its uses can be found in a variety of industries, including oil, gas, mining,
manufacturing, automotive production, and steamship construction.
The laser metal wire deposition technology was utilised by Abioye et al.
(2017) to manufacture the 308LSi straight wall part. The studies
revealed that columnar dendrites develop vertically along the building
direction in the microstructures of parts. The material properties and
microstructural aspects of 308 L steel walls fabricated by WAAM were
investigated by Le et al. (2020). The microstructures of the component
are made up of austenite dendrites (γ) and residual ferrite (δ) phases that
exist inside the austenite matrix. In addition, large columnar grains of
austenitic dendrites grow in the vertical direction.
To solve this issue, it is essential and necessary to use efficient steps
to control the heat buildup of deposited parts for microstructure and
mechanical property control. Many studies are now being conducted in
order to provide some useful solutions to this issue. Montevecchi et al.
(2018) introduced a method for reducing heat buildup by increasing
time between consecutive layers in order to cool the deposited layers.
However, the major disadvantage of this technology is that it reduces
production efficiency. Water-cooled fixtures were used by Karunakaran
et al. (2010) for more heat sink impact of the base metal. However, this
technique can only successfully cool initial layers near the substrate, and
the heat flow effects the deposited beads further from the base metal are
not noticeable. Another strategy is to provide cooling gas setup to pre­
vent heat buildup in the WAAM layers. By using CO2 gas to induce
interpass cooling on Ti-6Al-4 V parts manufactured in WAAM, Wu et al.
(2018) were able to create an attractive smoothness of the beads with
reduced apparent surface oxidation, a refined microstructural charac­
teristics, and better hardness and tensile properties. While this technique
efficiently solves the problem of heat buildup, it greatly increases the
Fig. 1. Welding based additive manufacturing setup.
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
Ni Mo Cu Mn Si Fe
9–11 0.5 0.75 1–2.5 0.3–0.7 Bal
system complexity and experimental cost. Su et al. (2019) studied the
effect of heat input on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
CMT-WAAM Al-Mg alloy parts. The authors observed fine microstruc­
tural characteristics with higher tensile strength than cast Al-Mg alloy at
low heat input by changing WFS and TS. In recent studies reported by
Shen et al. (2020) and Osintsev et al. (2022), a combined cable wire arc
additive manufacturing (CCW-AAM) process was used. Shen Q. et al.
(2020) used this process to produce the Al-Co-Cr-Fe-Ni high entropy
alloy (HEA), which contains FCC and ordered BCC phases and exhibits
greater ultimate compressive stress and elongation than the cast alloy.
Similarly, Wang et al. (2021) used a cable type welding wire (AL-Mg) to
fabricate the component using the CMT-WAAM technique. The authors
reported that the average ultimate tensile strength of the parts made by
the WAAM with CWW increased by 19.8% due to less segregation of
secondary phases in microstructural characteristics.
Qi et al. (2018) manufactured Al-Cu-Mg components with different
chemical composition filler wire by double wire arc additive
manufacturing. The results revealed that adding the optimum quantity
of magnesium considerably improved the strength qualities. Feng et al.
(2018) used the double wire arc additive manufacturing (DW-AM)
method to produce SS components by introducing two identical feed
wires into the heat source, demonstrating that the DW-AM specimens
had a greater deposition rate and better tensile properties than the single
wire arc additive manufacturing (SW-AM) specimens. However, both
wires supplied into the heat source can reduce heat accumulation on
deposited layers. Using two filler wires results in a larger weld pool size,
and the cooling rate of weld pool decreased. Furthermore, the
morphology of the part become noticeably coarser, and the tensile
strength and hardness were decreased with larger weld pool size, as
reported by Wu et al. (2017). Fu et al. (2017) developed a hybrid
deposition approach for reducing anisotropy and improving grain
structure to manufacture carbon steel parts by WAAM. As reported by
Xu et al. (2013), different deposition processes were used to
B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Table 2 processes for microstructural and mechanical properties of WAAM 308 L

Welding Parameters for GMAW and CMT processes. cylindrical parts. Based on this, the present research focuses on WAAM
Parameters Units GMAW CMT 308 L stainless steel cylindrical parts produced using GMAW and CMT
processes. A complete and comparative mechanical properties and
Wire feed speed (mm/min) 5000 5000
Current (A) 158 132 microstructural characterization was done out to emphasise the
Voltage (v) 15.5 14.6 importance of heat input in the fabrication of WAAM 308 L cylindrical
Rotational speed (mm/min) 280 280 parts. In addition, to account for any possible anisotropy caused by the
Arc length correction (%) – 0 processes, all studies were carried out in three primary directions, which
99.99% Ar (lit/min) 15 15
Heat Input (kJ/mm) 0.391 0.308
were characterised by the deposition layers as longitudinal (L), trans­
verse (T), and diagonal (D).

manufacture nickel based super alloy IN625 parts by pulsed plasma arcs.
When compared to continuous deposition, interpass cooling depositions
had better bead geometry and tensile properties, as well as more refined
microstructural characteristics.
This work proposes a novel method of cold metal transfer(CMT) arc
welding in which the wire retraction mechanism decreases the heat
input and molten metal transfers in a short-circuit mode to reduce the
molten pool size and cooling rate. To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
it is understood that there is no study on the comparison of welding
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Materials and fabrication of cylinders
The cylindrical walls were deposited with ER308L stainless steel (SS)
welding wire with a 1.2 mm diameter. The chemical composition of
welding wire presented in the Table 1. The substrate (304 stainless steel)
was used with dimensions of 250 × 250 × 6 mm. 308 L SS cylinders were
deposited by GMAW and CMT processes, consisting of an advanced CMT

Fig. 2. Photographs of GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical component.

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B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 3. Photographs of CMT-WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical component.

parameters produced stable bead geometry with the desired form, which
Table 3
was then used to manufacture cylinders on a substrate. Table 2 shows
Dimensions of manufactured WAAM 308 L SS Cylinders.
the optimised welding parameters. The manufactured 308 L SS cylin­
Geometry Unit GMAW CMT drical wall parts are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Table 3 presents the di­
Average width of wall (mm) 9±1 8±1 mensions of the produced 308 L SS cylindrical parts that were built with
Average single layer height (mm) 1.9 ± 1 2.2 ± 1 a total of 11 layers (GMAW process) and 10 layers (CMT process).
Diameter of the cylinder (mm) 106 ± 1 104 ± 1
Total cylindrical component height (mm) 20.9 ± 1 22 ± 1
Total number of weld deposited layers 11 10
2.2. Mechanical properties characterization

4000 R welding machine, a CMT torch fixed on a three-axis automatic
moving system, and a controlled rotating table platform (for circular
motion), as presented in Fig. 1. The Advanced CMT 4000 R welding
machine has the capability to perform both GMAW and CMT variants.
The remote control unit (RCU) device was used to control the movement
of the CMT torch. The CMT torch was positioned at 90 degrees to the
horizontal plane of the 304 SS substrate. Many trials were performed on
the 304 SS substrate before producing the WAAM cylindrical parts,
changing the welding current and travel speed to identify the optimal
process parameters and reduce the material waste. The optimal
The mechanical properties of both the GMAW and CMT cylindrical
parts were evaluated using uniaxial tensile tests and hardness mea­
surements. Tensile specimens were extracted in three orientations from
the produced WAAM cylinders, as shown Fig. 4. A total of eighteen
specimens were cut in three orientations from the GMAW and CMT
cylindrical components. A Tinius Olsen universal testing machine
(H50KL) was used to record the tensile properties of the L, T, and D
directions of specimens in the GMAW and CMT cylindrical components.
Miniaturized tensile samples are becoming more popular for charac­
terization of AM materials, particularly for metal-based AM processes.
Continuous verification of the manufactured materials is required when

4
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 4. Specimen extraction details of WAAM 308 L SS cylinder.
Fig. 5. Dimensions of tensile specimen.
using AM in production. The characterization activity is costly in terms
of both time and resources used; in addition to the testing activities, the
volume of components and cost of the specimens produced must be
considered. Miniaturized specimens allow for significant reductions in
printing time and raw material requirements, as reported by Lorenzo
et al. (2019). The cylinders were fabricated with a minimum height and
wall thickness. The designed tensile specimens are reduced in cross
section with a flat shape. The ASTM E8/8 M standard was used to pre­
pare the miniature tensile specimens (shown in Fig. 5), adopted from
Kumar et al. (2014). The specimens are sliced with 1 mm thickness
without any curved surfaces. The testing was performed at a rate of
0.01 mm/s and the yield strength was derived from the recorded
stress-strain curve. The testing was done on three specimens in each
orientation of the GMAW and CMT cylinders, and their average results
are presented in the table. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was
utilized to examine the fracture morphology of WAAM tensile samples.
The pictures of the uniaxial tensile specimens (before and after
testing) are shown in Fig. 6. According to the ASTM E384 Standard, the
hardness was measured from the first to last layer of the additively
produced GMAW and CMT 308 L SS cylindrical components by a Vickers
microhardness tester (SHIMADZU HMV-2 T). The hardness measure­
ment was done with a 0.5 kg load and a 10 s dwell time. The micro­
hardness of each zone (bottom, middle and top) was measured at nine
different points and then repeated four times to calculate the average
value of hardness.
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
2.3. Microstructural analysis
The samples were cut at the cross sections of the WAAM cylinders
along the building direction for metallography analysis. The sticky dust
on the surface of micro-structural samples was cleaned with acetone
before moulding. The surface was then polished using 800#, 1000#,
1500#, 2000#, 2500#, and 3000# Sic papers until there were no visible
scratches. After that, the samples were polished with a 2 µm diamond
polishing agent to form the mirror surface, and then etched by using a
solution (30 mL water, 20 mL HCl, and 10 mL HNO3) for 10 s. An optical
microscope (MEJI, MIL-7100) and scanning electron microscopy (JEOL-
JSM-5610LV INCA EDS) were used to analyse the microstructural fea­
tures in the different zones (lower, middle, and upper) of the WAAM
cylindrical components. Chemical analysis was done using an optical
emission spectrometer (GDA 650) to confirm the chemical elements of
the manufactured GMAW and CMT cylindrical parts. Internal phases
were identified using an XRD (Miniflex 600) at 40 kV and 10 mA at the
diffraction angle range of 10–90◦ at 0.02◦ /s.
3. Results
3.1. Microstructural analysis
The morphology of the cross-section (building direction) of the
WAAM 308 L stainless steel cylinders produced by the GMAW and CMT
techniques is shown in Fig. 7. The deposited layers are free from major
defects such as large pores and faults.
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 6. Photographs of tensile specimens of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders (before and after testing).
The microstructure was taken from the cross sections (Fig. 7) of the
WAAM 308 L SS cylinders from the lower to upper zones. The micro­
structure of both (GMAW and CMT) WAAM 308 L SS cylinders was
characterised by the austenite dendrites (γ) and residual ferrite (δ) that
occur within the austenite phase (Figs. 8–10).
The microstructure of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders varied (size and
morphology) from the lower to upper zones due to different cooling
rates and thermal gradients. Fig. 8 shows the microstructural charac­
teristics of the lower zone of the 308 L SS cylinders deposited by GMAW
and CMT processes. The microstructure (OM and SEM photographs) of
the lower zone of the GMAW cylinder is shown in Fig. 8a-d. Fig. 8e-h
shows the OM and SEM photographs of lower zone of the CMT cylinder.
In the lower zone, the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders are characterised by
columnar structures that grow in different directions (Fig. 8a and e), and
the fine ferrite phase is formed in both skeletal and lathy morphologies
(shown in Figs. 8b-c and 8e-f). The observed ferrite morphologies were
finer in the CMT cylinder than in the GMAW cylinder. Fig. 8d and h show
the SEM photographs of the lower zone of the GMAW and CMT cylin­
ders. µm.
The ferrite phases include skeletal and lathy morphologies are found
in the lower zone, which are growing fast in vertical direction in the
GMAW component than the CMT component. The SEM photographs
also confirmed the ferrite morphologies in the grain boundaries of
austenite in the lower zone of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders, which grow
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
faster in the vertical direction of the GMAW cylinder than the CMT
cylinder. In two cylinders, the grains are smaller in the lower zone than
in the middle and upper zones. This is because of thermal conduction to
the cool substrate, which has the fastest cooling rate near the substrate.
Fig. 9 shows typical OM and SEM images taken in the middle zone of
the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders using GMAW and CMT welding processes.
The deposited microstructures are shown in Fig. 9a and e, and are
mainly composed of columnar dendrites, which grow along the building
direction. Moreover, the previously deposited layer (L-1) is partly
remelted by the temperature that forms the newly deposited layer (L).
Thus, the heat impacted zone (HIZ) between layers (L-1) and L, the area
2, can be seen (Fig. 9a and e). The HIZ is composed of equiaxed grains
(Fig. 9c and g) that are coarser than those found in area 1 of a newly
formed layer (Fig. 9b and f). Therefore, a specific layer in this zone of
both the WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical components is characterised by a
fine columnar morphology growing parallel to the building direction
and subsequently changing to a coarse columnar morphology, as re­
ported by Le et al. (2021). Li et al. (2021) also reported similar results in
cold metal transfer based additively manufactured 308 L stainless steel
components. The authors observed that the microstructure of the addi­
tively deposited component varied from a fine columnar morphology to
a coarse columnar morphology in the vertical direction due to the
temperature of the newly deposited layers. Wu et al., 2019a manufac­
tured thin-walled stainless steel parts by the speed-cold-welding
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 7. Cross-sectional view of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.
additive manufacturing process. The authors found that there was a
greater amount of fine grain ferrite phases in the bottom zone of the part
than in the middle and upper zones due to heat transfer differences
between the zones. The δ phases were formed in vermicular and skeletal
morphologies in the middle zone of the WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical
components. Fig. 9d and h show SEM photographs of the middle zone for
GMAW and CMT cylinders. The GMAW cylinder consists of columnar
grains that grow epitaxially from the substrate in the transverse orien­
tation. This is mainly due to greater heat transfer in the building di­
rection than in other directions in the weld pool, resulting in epitaxial
growth in the middle zone. On the other hand, the microstructure of the
CMT cylinder is characterised by columnar grains and oriented fine
cellular grains, as shown in Fig. 8h. This is mainly due to heat transfer of
the weld pool solidification is nearly vertical to the previously deposited
layers, resulting in columnar grains of oriented growth, as described by
Zhao et al. (2011). Furthermore, the grains in the middle zone are
coarser than those in the lower zone. This is due to differences in so­
lidification rate and thermal gradient in the middle and lower zones.
Due to the increased number of layers, the temperature also increased.
As a result, the middle zone cools slowly and takes more time to solidify.
Fig. 10 shows typical OM and SEM images taken in the upper zone of
the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders using GMAW and CMT welding tech­
niques. The upper zone of the cylinders consists of γ and δ phases, which
have skeletal and lathy morphologies in the boundaries of austenite. As
shown in SEM photographs (Fig. 10d and h), the grains of the cylinders
deposited under both welding processes exhibit randomly distributed
morphologies. The photograph (Fig. 10h) shows the widmanstatten
austenite (w-γ) and reticular or net like delta ferrite morphologies along
the building direction. However, for the morphology of the cylinder
deposited using the GMAW-WAAM process, a part of ferrite dissolves in
austenite and the residual ferrite exhibits vermicular morphology within
the austenitic matrix (shown in Fig. 10d). According to Yilmaz and Ugla
(2016) studies, the solidification process in the GMAW-WAAM takes a
long time to reach room temperature (RT), and the transition of ferrite to
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
austenite can be carried out continuously. Furthermore, the grains in the
upper zone are coarser than those in the middle and lower zones. The
upper zone was affected by a high thermal gradient as a result of the
increased deposited layers, resulting in coarse grains in the upper zone
compared to the other zones.
The volume fraction of the γ (austenite) and δ (ferrite) phases was
measured on the basis of panoramic images of the prepared metallog­
raphy samples of the 308 L SS cylinders, which were taken at a magni­
fication of 100 µm under an optical microscope. The volume fraction of
the γ and δ phases was measured using the ImageJ programme on
microstructural images, reported by Prasanna Nagasai et al., 2022c. For
the calculation of the volume fraction of phases, the scale was initially
set according to the magnification of the microscope. Then, an upper
brightness threshold was set with respect to the colour thresholds using
the brightness slider so that the colour values were filtered according to
the brightness of the colour values of the phases and displayed in the
selected colours of white and black. The analysis tool was used to
measure the area of the selected contour. Then, the percentage of phases
in the total area was determined. The same procedure was repeated
three times on each image to ensure accurate data. An average of three
images was taken in the GMAW and CMT cylinders. Table 4 presents the
percentages of the γ and δ phases of the WAAM 308 L SS components.
Fig. 11 shows the micrograph pictures of GMAW and CMT components
produced by the image analysis programme ImageJ. The images clearly
show that the volume fraction of δ phase is significantly lower in the
GMAW component (shown in Fig. 11 c) when compared to the CMT
component (shown in Fig. 11 d). The differences in the volume fraction
of phases in the WAAM 308 L SS components are mainly due to the
different heat inputs of the welding processes (presented in Table 4).
Similarly, Zhang et al. (2021a) also used ImageJ software to calculate
the ferrite and austenite content in the WAAM 308 L stainless steel
components. The authors observed variation in the ferrite and austenite
content by changing the wire feed speed from 0.2 m/min to 0.8 m/min
due to different cooling rates.
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 8. Macrostructure of lower zone of WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical components, a-d) GMAW-WAAM process and e-f) CMT-WAAM process.
3.2. XRD analysis
The XRD analysis was done on the centre portion of the WAAM 308 L
SS cylindrical components. Fig. 12 shows the XRD patterns of WAAM
308 L SS cylindrical components fabricated by GMAW and CMT pro­
cesses. It is indicated that γ is detected at (111), (200) and (220) peaks in
the two cylinders and δ is detected at (111), (200) and (211) peaks in the
two cylinders, which means the manufactured components are
composed of austenite and ferrite phases. There is a reduction in the
γ-111 peak intensity and a rise in the γ-200 peak intensity of the cylin­
ders built from the GMAW-WAAM to the CMT-WAAM, which is
consistent with Ke et al. (2020) results. The results indicated that a
cylinder produced with the CMT-WAAM technology has more ferrite
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
than the GMAW-WAAM cylinder. During the solidification of SS, the
transition of ferrite to austenite is limited at slow solidification rate by
Skiba et al. (2009). Therefore, a large percentage of ferrite in the
CMT-WAAM component is retained and turns into residual ferrite at
room temperature. Li et al. (2020) also reported similar results in
laminar plasma-based additively manufactured 308 L stainless steel
parts. The authors observed austenite and ferrite phases, and the in­
tensity of γ-(111) and γ-(200) peaks had the opposite effect from the
lower to upper zone. Prasanna Nagasai et al., 2022c also observed dif­
ferences in α-Al orientations in the AA5356 aluminum cylindrical parts
at different cooling rates by using different welding processes.
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 9. Macrostructure of middle zone of WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical components, a-d) GMAW-WAAM process and e-f) CMT-WAAM process.
3.3. Mechanical properties
Fig. 13 shows the microhardness variation along the building di­
rection of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. The produced 308 L SS cylinders
had uniform hardness values (no major variations) along the building
direction. The average microhardness values of the lower, middle, and
upper zones of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders are presented in Table 5. The
hardness taken from the lower zone of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders was
higher than the middle and upper zones. The hardness of the CMT-
WAAM cylinder is 4.02–5.88% higher compared to GMAW-WAAM
cylinder, irrespective of zones (lower, middle, and upper).
Fig. 14 shows the tensile properties of specimens taken from longi­
tudinal, transverse, and diagonal orientations of WAAM 308 L SS
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
cylinders processed using GMAW and CMT processes. From the results of
tensile properties, the following conclusions were derived:
i. The specimens sliced from the longitudinal orientation of the
GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder exhibited higher strength (UTS)
than the diagonal and transverse orientations;
ii. The specimens sliced from the longitudinal orientation of the
GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder showed higher ductility (elon­
gation) than the diagonal and transverse orientations;
iii. The tensile properties (UTS and EL) of the CMT-WAAM 308 L SS
cylindrical component were almost isotropic in longitudinal,
transverse, and diagonal orientations;
B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 10. Macrostructure of upper zone of WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical components, a-d) GMAW-WAAM process and e-f) CMT-WAAM process.

v. The UTS of the CMT-WAAM cylinder is 5.15–7.0% higher

Table 4 compared to GMAW-WAAM cylinder, irrespective of orientations
Contents of δ and γ phases in WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. (longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal);
Process δ (%) γ (%) vi. The elongation of the CMT-WAAM cylinder is 4.29–7.80% higher
GMAW-WAAM 4.59 95.41 compared to GMAW-WAAM cylinder, irrespective of orientations
CMT-WAAM 6.91 93.09 (longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal).

The ASTM E8/8 M miniature tensile specimens showed good tensile

iv. The UTS and elongation of the CMT-WAAM cylinder are superior
compared to GMAW-WAAM cylinder, irrespective of orientations
(longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal);
properties, which are equal to the conventional tensile specimen prop­
erties reported by Le et al. (2021). Similarly, Byun et al. (2019) extracted
tensile specimens from additively manufactured 316 L stainless steel
components based on the ASTM E8/8 M miniature standard. The au­
thors observed similar tensile properties in different printing conditions

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B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 11. Austenite and ferrite phases of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.

Fig. 12. XRD patterns of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.

due to the uniform microstructure. The tensile properties of the WAAM due to the upward growth of columnar dendrites. In recent studies re­
304 L stainless steel components were tested as per the ASTM E8/8 M ported by Zhang et al. (2021) and Kolhatkar et al. (2019), a comparative
miniature standard, reported by Ji et al. (2017). The authors noticed study was conducted between standard (conventional tensile specimens)
variation in tensile properties from horizontal to vertical directions is and non-standard (miniature tensile specimens) specimens of AM

11
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 13. Microhardness distribution of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.
Table 5
Average microhardness values of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.
Process Location Hardness (HV0.5)
GMAW-WAAM Upper 199
Middle 212
Lower 221
CMT-WAAM Upper 207
Middle 219
Lower 234
components. Zhang et al. (2021b) observed almost similar tensile
properties (without major variation) in both the standard and
non-standard specimens of additively manufactured DP800, DP600, and
316 L stainless steel components.
Ahsan et al. (2020) fabricated rectangular-shaped austenitic stainless
steel components by the WAAM technique. The average value of UTS is
560.56 ± 6.23 MPa, which is lower than the WAAM cylindrical shape
308 L SS component in the present study. Unlike a rectangular shape, a
round shape has one continuous surface with no edges. Compared to the
rectangular shape, the cylindrical shape is stronger as it has no weak
points from corners and consistent strength along its interior and exte­
rior surfaces. Sharp corners attract stress concentration, while curved
ones do not.
3.4. Fractography
Fig. 15 shows the fracture morphologies of the GMAW-WAAM 308 L
SS cylindrical component tensile specimens. The transverse orientation
of the fracture morphology of the specimens is shown in Fig. 15a and b.
Fig. 15c and d shows the diagonal direction of the fracture morphology
of the specimens. The longitudinal direction of the fracture morphology
of the specimens is shown in Fig. 15e and f. The stress was equally
distributed throughout the whole fracture surface during the tensile
testing, resulting in equiaxial dimples. There were multi-scale dimples.
Furthermore, tear edges were formed around the dimples, confirming
that the plastic deformation was adequate. On the fracture surface,
enormous dimples with a relatively homogenous distribution are
noticed, proving that the fracture mode is a ductile fracture and that the
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
as-deposited cylinder has high elongation. The longitudinal direction
specimens exhibited finer and deeper dimples, whereas the transverse
and diagonal specimens had shallower dimples, indicating that the
longitudinal tensile specimen had high strength as well as ductility.
Similar fracture results were observed by Wu et al., 2019a in the
stainless steel parts deposited by the GMAW-WAAM process. The au­
thors found high UTS and EL in the longitudinal direction rather than the
transverse direction due to large and deeper dimples.
The fracture surface of the tensile specimens of the CMT-WAAM
308 L SS cylinder is shown in Fig. 16. Fig. 16a and b shows transverse
orientation of the fracture surface of the specimens. The diagonal
orientation of the fracture surface of the specimens is shown in Fig. 16c
and d. The longitudinal orientation of the fracture surface of the speci­
mens is shown in Fig. 16e and f. In the fracture morphologies of the
longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal tensile specimens, there are
numerous dimples with a homogeneous distribution. The appearance of
many dimples on the fracture morphologies implies that all of the
specimens failed as a result of ductile behaviour. However, there are
noticeable variances in the dimple sizes and depths between the parts
manufactured by GMAW and CMT WAAM processes. The dimple sizes
and depths of the CMT-WAAM component are somewhat higher than
those of the GMAW-WAAM component, indicating that the CMT-WAAM
component has better ductility. The inferences are reasonably consistent
with the experimental data, as presented in Table 6. Prasanna Nagasai
et al., 2022d correlated the mechanical properties and microstructural
characteristics of GMAW and CMT-based additively manufactured steel
parts. The authors found higher strength and toughness in the
CMT-based manufactured cylinder. This is mainly due to the larger and
deeper dimples in the CMT cylinder specimens than in the GMAW cyl­
inder specimens.
Fig. 17. shows the results EDS analysis of the GMAW and CMT
WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. The particle elements in the dimples of the
longitudinal tensile specimens (taken from Fig. 15f) of the GMAW cyl­
inder are shown in Fig. 17a. Fig. 17b shows the particle elements in the
dimples of the longitudinal tensile specimen (taken from Fig. 16f) of the
CMT cylinder. The atomic percentage of oxygen was observed 20.34% in
the GMAW-WAAM component and 15.78% in the CMT-WAAM
component. Wang et al. (2019) also observed different atomic percent­
age of oxygen in SpeedPulse and SpeedArc WAAM stainless steel
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 14. Tensile properties of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders, a) UTS in L, T and D orientations and b) EL in L, T and D orientations.
components. The authors documented that the atomic percentage of
oxygen was reduced from 42.93% to 37.85% due to the controlled heat
input of SpeedArc WAAM process. According to the EDS results, the
particles in the dimples are oxidising contaminants. This oxidising im­
purity increases brittleness of the material, which leads to the formation
of cracks. The atomic percentage of oxygen was lower in the CMT cyl­
inder than the GMAW cylinder due to the low heat input of CMT process.
4. Discussion
4.1. Phase transformation in WAAM 308 L SS cylinders
The microstructure of the GMAW and CMT WAAM 308 L SS cylin­
ders varied slightly from the lower to the upper zone. This is mainly due
to differences in thermal gradient from one zone to the other zone as
well as changes in cooling rates in welding processes. The acceptable
Schaeffler equivalent formulae for 308 L stainless steel wire are
13
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
presented below, taken from Li et al. (2015) work.
Nieq = % Ni + 30% C + 30% N + 0:5% Mn (1)
Creq = % Cr + % Mo + 1:5% Si + 0:5% Nb (2)
According to the chemical elements of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders
presented in Table 6, using the formulae of Eqs. (1) and (2), the Cr and
Ni equivalents are calculated and their values are 20.57 ± 0.004% and
11.325 ± 0.03%, respectively. The ratio of Creq to Nieq is approximately
1.811 ± 0.005. The phase transition of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders is
assumed to be L → L + δ → L + δ + γ → δ + γ → γ (FA mode), as reported
by Takalo et al. A schematic scheme of the microstructure at different
welding procedures is given in Fig. 18 to reveal the mechanism of the
microstructure of 308 L SS cylinders manufactured by the WAAM
technique explained by (Ke and Xiong, 2020 and Li et al. (2021).
In general, the cooling rate of manufactured components is related to
the as-deposited microstructure by Skiba et al. (2009). When the cooling
rate exceeds a particular limit, the stability of the γ morphology, which
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 15. Fracture surfaces of GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder, a-b) transverse direction, b-d) diagonal direction and e-f) longitudinal direction.
might be considered the main phase, outperforms the ferrite
morphology owing to differences in dendrite cooling by Li et al. (2015).
Meanwhile, Chen et al. (2017) stated that for the GMAW-WAAM tech­
nique, the predominant solidification morphology of SS is δ ferrite if the
Creq: Nieq ratio is greater than 1.7. The Creq/Nieq ratio was found to be
1.81 in this investigation. The major solidification phase during the
solidification process is found to be δ-ferrite using the above (1) and (2)
equations. First, the filler wire (ER308L SS) is melted into a liquid phase
using arc heat (shown in Fig. 18a). Then, during the solidification pro­
cess (shown in Fig. 18b), γ will be formed in the dendritic ferrite (DF)
boundaries due to the peritectic-reaction (L + δ → γ). The DF was dis­
solved, and the peritectic/eutectic reaction takes place to generate the γ
(as shown in Fig. 18c). Finally, the peritectic reaction occurs (δ + γ → γ),
and the majority of the primary ferrite is replaced by austenite, as shown
14
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
in Fig. 18e. As shown in Fig. 18f, austenite grows until it reaches
900–1000 ◦ C, at which point elemental (Ni, Mn, and C) diffusion is
restricted and the δ-phase change into vermicular morphology is pre­
served within austenite matrix. The CMT-WAAM technique accelerates
the solidification (as shown in Fig. 18c-d) process and suppresses the
transition of ferrite to austenite, resulting in higher residual ferrite
content. Fig. 18d) depicts how enormous δ morphologies with a fine
network or netlike structure are preserved within γ morphologies. As a
result, in the upper zone, the δ morphology of the GMAW-WAAM pro­
duced cylinder contains vermicular δ ferrite, whereas the δ morphology
of the CMT-WAAM produced cylinder has reticular δ ferrite by (Ke and
Xiong, 2020) Moreover, the grain size of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders is
increased from the lower to upper zone due to the differences in thermal
gradient and solidification rates.
B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 16. Fracture surfaces of CMT-WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical component, a-b) transverse direction, b-d) diagonal direction and e-f) longitudinal direction.

Table 6
Chemical composition of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.
Element C P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Mn Si Fe

GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS Cylinder 0.022 0.029 0.021 19.81 9.89 0.01 0.081 1.69 0.5 Bal
CMT-WAAM 308 L SS Cylinder 0.020 0.028 0.022 19.70 9.72 0.009 0.082 1.73 0.55 Bal

4.2. Microhardness evolution
The microhardness distribution (shown in Fig. 13) of the WAAM
308 L SS cylinders is consistent with microstructural characteristics. The
fabricated cylinders exhibited uniform hardness (without major differ­
ences) values from the lower to upper zone. According to microhardness
results, the hardness measured in the lower zone of the cylinders was
higher than in the middle and upper zones, which is consistent with
Abioye et al. (2017) results. Meanwhile, the microhardness of the
CMT-WAAM produced cylinder is higher than that of the GMAW-WAAM
produced cylinder in the same zone. The average microhardness values
range between 199 and 221 HV0.5 for the GMAW-WAAM cylinder and
207–234 HV0.5 for the CMT-WAAM cylinder. Microhardness differences
are usually influenced by the microstructure of the produced

15
B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 17. EDS analysis of WAAM longitudinal tensile specimens, a) GMAW and b) CMT.

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of phase transformation of 308 L SS cylinders (Ke and Xiong, 2020).

components. The faster cooling rate in the weld pool during the
CMT-WAAM process is supported by increasing the content of residual
ferrite and a decrease in the content of austenite, resulting in increased
hardness.
4.3. Tensile properties evolution
Fig. 14 shows the comparison of UTS for the longitudinal, transverse,
and diagonal directions of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. The variation
in EL of the cylinders is shown in Fig. 14b. Prior to fracture, all of the
samples were subjected to elastic and plastic deformation. All samples
had ultimate tensile strengths of more than 580 MPa, which is obvious.
The mechanical properties (UTS and EL) were slightly changed from the
one direction to other direction of the GMAW-WAAM cylinder. The
specimens extracted from the longitudinal orientation of the GMAW-
WAAM 308 L SS cylinder exhibited higher tensile properties (UTS and
EL) than the diagonal and transverse orientations. The non-uniformity of
microstructures (upward growth of columnar structures) is responsible
for the variance in tensile properties. The transverse and diagonal
stretching resist internal grain forces and interlayer binding forces, but
longitudinal stretching resists grain boundary forces. The results indi­
cated that bonding between interlayer’s was strong, but the forces be­
tween grain boundaries were weak, and the forces within the grains
were stronger than the forces between grain boundaries by Wu et al.,
2019b. Prasanna Nagasai et al., 2021a also observed similar results in
GMAW-WAAM cylindrical wall steel parts. The authors observed vari­
ations in tensile properties from one region to another region. The top
region exhibited higher strength and elongation than the bottom region

16
B.P. Nagasai et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655

Fig. 19. Anisotropy behaviour of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders.

Table 7
Comparison of tensile properties of WAAM 308 L SS cylinders with widely used wrought 308 L stainless steel alloy, ASTM A479 ER308L welding wire and other arc
welding based WAAM 308 L stainless steel parts.
Process Specimen location UTS (MPa) EL (%) Reference

Wrought 308 L steel / 530–650 35–45 Lippold and Kotecki, 2005

ASTM A479 ER308L annealed condition / ≥ 515 ≥ 30 Li et al. (2021)
Industrial requirement properties of stainless steel as per forging standards / 450 / Wu et al., 2019a
GTA-AM 308 L stainless steel part T 490.72 48.62 Zhang et al.(2021a)
L 570.71 53.7
Plasma based AM 308 L stainless steel Bottom region L 511 47
T 488 55
Middle region L 505 57 Li et al. (2020)
T 467 58
Top region L 477 52
T 489 53
Laser based-AM 308 LSi stainless steel part L 548 43 Abioye et al. (2017)
T 482 38
GMAW-WAAM 308 L stainless steel part T 531.78 39.58 Le et al. (2021)
L 552.95 54.13
GTA-AM 308 L stainless steel part Single wire-AM 492 50 Ke and Xiong (2020)
Double wire-AM 571 51.5
Present study GMAW-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder L 582 51.53 /
D 561 47.46
T 535 44.23
CMT-WAAM 308 L SS cylindrical L 612.66 55.55
D 593.33 50.13
T 574.66 46.13

due to the hard Widmanstätten ferrite and acicular ferrite.
The CMT-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder showed almost similar tensile
properties (UTS and EL) in three directions. The anisotropy of the me­
chanical properties of the specimens is due to columnar austenitic and
dendritic structures, which are typical of AM-produced materials. Dur­
ing plastic deformation, dendritic δ-ferrite causes a hardening effect
similar to grain refinement due to the limitation of the dislocation free
path between interphase boundaries (austenite/δ-ferrite), reported by
Astafurova et al. (2020). With the fast cooling of the short-circuit mode
of the CMT process, it was observed that the upward growth of columnar
dendrites (γ/δ) was controlled and increased refinement in grain size,
which resulted in almost similar tensile properties without much
variation. The UTS and EL of the CMT-WAAM cylinder are superior
compared to GMAW-WAAM cylinder, irrespective of orientations (lon­
gitudinal, transverse, and diagonal). Metal and alloy strengths are
known to be significantly influenced by microstructural refinement.
According to the Hall-Petch relation, a finer microstructure promotes
mechanical properties, reported by Zuback and DebRoy (2018). There­
fore, the CMT-WAAM component features higher UTS and EL due to its
favourable microstructural characteristics. Wang et al. (2019) correlated
mechanical and microstructural characteristics of SpeedArc and
SpeedPulse based additively deposited stainless steel components. The
authors documented that the UTS and YS of stainless steel parts
exhibited better performance in horizontal direction. The tensile

17
B.P. Nagasai et al.
Fig. 20. Current-voltage wave forms: a) GMAW process, b) CMT process and c) wire retraction mechanism of CMT process.
properties of the parts processed by SpeedArc-AM are higher than those
of parts processed by SpeedPulse-AM due to the finer solidification
morphology provided by SpeedArc-AM process. In the present study, the
tensile properties are studied in three directions to understand the
anisotropy behaviour of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. Fig. 19 shows the
anisotropy percentages of UTS of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders. The
anisotropy percentages of UTS are 7.02% and 8.07% for the
GMAW-WAAM cylinder, and 5.16% and 6.21% for the CMT-WAAM
cylinder. The percentage of anisotropy (UTS) of the CMT-WAAM cyl­
inder showed lower than the GMAW-WAAM cylinder. The percentage of
anisotropy (UTS) was below 10% in both the GMAW and CMT WAAM
308 L SS cylinders. It indicates that the manufactured cylinders
exhibited isotropic properties.
Table 7 compares the tensile properties of the previous studies for the
wrought 308 L SS alloy, WAAM 308 L SS components, industrial
requirement properties of stainless steel as per forging standards, and
ER308L SS welding wire. The specimens tested from the longitudinal,
transverse, and diagonal directions of the WAAM 308 L SS cylinders (in
the present study) showed equal or higher values of UTS and EL than the
properties of the wrought 308 L stainless steel and ASTM A479 ER308L
stainless steel welding wire, reported by Li et al. (2021) and (Lippold
and kotecki, 2005). According to previous studies (refer Table 7), the
cylinder manufactured by the CMT-WAAM process showed equal or
higher values of UTS and EL than the other arc welding based additively
manufactured 308 L stainless steel parts, reported by Abioye et al.
(2017), Le et al. (2021), (Ke and Xiong, 2020), Li et al. (2020), Zhang
et al. (2021a) and Wu et al., 2019a. The upward growth of columnar
dendrites in vertical direction will affect the mechanical properties of
WAAM stainless steel parts.
CMT-WAAM is an advanced welding technique for building com­
ponents with high deposition rate. It employs a wire retraction system,
which sends a signal that retracts the welding wire and allows time to
18
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 307 (2022) 117655
form the next weld drop. In the CMT process, the wire travels continu­
ously until a short circuit occurs, while in the GMAW process, there is no
wire movement and there is a constant current during deposition (shown
in Fig. 20a). During the arcing phase of the CMT process (shown in
Fig. 20b), the current varies from a higher to a lower value, resulting in a
short-circuit at a very low level of current at the short-circuit phase
(shown in Fig. 20c), as reported by Prasanna Nagasai et al., 2022b. Due
to the reduced heat input of the short-circuit mode of the CMT process, it
was observed that the upward growth of columnar dendrites (γ/δ) was
controlled, and increased content of residual ferrite, which enhanced the
mechanical properties of the CMT-WAAM 308 L SS cylinder compared
to GMAW-WAAM cylinder and the properties of other conventional arc
welding AM techniques, as described by (Lippold and Savage, 1979).
The produced WAAM 308 L SS cylinders showed better performance
than the properties of stainless steel for industrial forging standards
(refer Table 7). Therefore, the properties of the WAAM 308 L SS cylin­
drical components are confirmed to be adequate for industrial applica­
tion. In comparison to other manufacturing processes, forged austenitic
stainless steel has an austenite equiaxed crystal structure, whereas
additively produced 308 L has an austenite columnar crystal structure.
Despite the differences in structure, the tensile strength of the additive
manufactured 308 L component is higher than that of filler wire, re­
ported by Zhong et al. (2017). Although the tensile strengths of the
WAAM 308 L components produced by GMAW and CMT arc welding
had little anisotropy, the lowest value satisfied industrial requirements
reported by Wu et al., 2019a. The growth direction of columnar crystals
should be modified or the column crystals broken and improved in
future studies to increase the uniformity of mechanical characteristics.
5. Conclusions
In this study, the microstructural and mechanical properties of 308 L
B.P. Nagasai et al.
SS cylinders produced by two different WAAM techniques (CMT and
GMAW) were investigated. The following are the important conclusions
from this study:
The GMAW and CMT processes are capable of fabricating 308 L SS
cylindrical components with high density and without major defects.
The deposited layers are evident and free from large pores and cracks
in both the components.
The microstructure of both the components is composed of vertically
growing austenite dendrites and residual ferrite within the austenite
matrix. The residual ferrite of the upper zone is coarser than that of
the middle and lower zones. Although the microstructural features of
GMAW and CMT are the same (from lower to upper zone) with
different morphologies, CMT has a lower heat input and a higher
cooling rate. Therefore, CMT produced finer solidification structures
in the lower to upper zones.
The percentage of anisotropy in UTS was reduced from 8.07% to
6.21% for cylinders built by the GMAW to the CMT. In addition, the
average UTS, EL and hardness of the CMT cylinder are 5.17–7.0%,
4.029–7.80% and 4.02–5.88% higher than the GMAW cylinder,
irrespective of orientations.
The UTS of the GMAW and CMT specimens along the longitudinal
direction is greater than 580 MPa, and the tensile properties of CMT
specimens are higher than the 308 L filler wire and previously pub­
lished results (WAAM 308 L stainless steel parts). The fracture sur­
faces showed enormous dimples with relatively uniform
distributions, indicating that the failure modes are ductile fractures
and that the manufactured components have excellent elongation.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Bellamkonda Prasanna Nagasai: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Writing – original draft, Methodology, Writing – review & editing.
Sudersanan Malarvizhi: Supervision, Methodology, Validation. Vis­
valingam Balasubramanian: Resources, Supervision, Methodology,
Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The first author is grateful to the Department of Science and Tech­
nology (DST), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India,
New Delhi, for the financial assistance provided through the PURSE-
Phase-2 Fellowship scheme. The authors express their gratitude to M/s.
Fronius India Pvt.Limited, Chennai, for their technical assistance.
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