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Xiaodong Cheng · Leyuan Fan ·
Weikang Gu

Comprehensive
Practice of Exploration
and Evaluation
Techniques in
Complex Reservoirs

็ᆳ߾ᄽ‫؜‬Ӳมᆶ၌ࠅິ
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY PRESS
Comprehensive Practice of Exploration
and Evaluation Techniques
in Complex Reservoirs
Xiaodong Cheng Leyuan Fan
• •

Weikang Gu

Comprehensive Practice
of Exploration
and Evaluation Techniques
in Complex Reservoirs

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY PRESS 123

Xiaodong Cheng Leyuan Fan
International Logging Company of CNPC International Logging Company of CNPC
GreatWall Drilling Company GreatWall Drilling Company
Beijing, China Beijing, China

Weikang Gu
International Logging Company of CNPC
GreatWall Drilling Company
Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-13-6430-3 ISBN 978-981-13-6431-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6431-0

Jointly published with Petroleum Industry Press, Beijing, China

The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please order the
print book from: Petroleum Industry Press.
ISBN of the Petroleum Industry Press edition: 978-7-5183-1247-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931843

© Petroleum Industry Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword

With the progress of global oil fields E&P, exploration and evaluation trend and
targets already turned to complex reservoirs and subtle traps. These kinds of reser-
voirs, mainly dominated by lithology, are usually characterized of low-amplitude
structures, complex pore-throat textures, thin thickness, and strong heterogeneity.
Due to the difficulties mentioned above, lots of challenges need to be solved
including petrophysical evaluation, reservoir identification and classification, reser-
voir prediction, and subtle trap identification and evaluation.
For the purpose of implementation of internationalization development strategy
of China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), GreatWall Drilling Company
(GWDC) of CNPC established its development orientation as a general contractor
of internationalization petrol engineering technology. During the past 15 years,
complex hydrocarbon reservoirs exploration and evaluation studies of more than
ten countries have been carried out by GWDC and China National Logging
Corporation (CNLC, which was reorganized to GWDC in 2009) in African, Central
Asian, Middle East, and other areas, which not only provides strong technical
support for major global oil regains but also forms a comprehensive technology
system for complex reservoirs exploration and evaluation. For better supporting and
serving the demand to global oil fields’ E&P, and engineering technology services
in global market, GWDC summarized and refined these techniques and practice
results, and compiled this book for formal publishing, so as to share and commu-
nicate with counterparts.
This book Comprehensive Practice of Exploration and Evaluation Techniques
in Complex Reservoirs enhances and improves the practice results of exploration
and evaluation techniques by GWDC International Logging Company. In several
technology fields including sequence stratigraphy, structure analysis, sedimentary
facies study, reservoir prediction, and subtle reservoir evaluation, this book sys-
tematically describes the technical application and practice achievements derived
from all kinds of complex reservoirs within clastic rocks, carbonate rocks and
metamorphic rocks, respectively. It is worthy to note that related results contained
in this book have been taken into practical application and generalization in the
Muglad Basin and Melut Basin, Bongor Basin, Agadem Basin, South Turgay

v
vi Foreword

Basin, and many other hydrocarbon-bearing basins. Accordingly, a set of matching

technology system and scientific research method suitable for complex hydrocarbon
reservoirs exploration and evaluation were formed, a series of patents for invention
and software copyright were obtained, and a batch of papers with significance
academic value in core journals of the world were published. These practice
achievements play a key role in fastening the progress of complex hydrocarbon
reservoirs exploration and evaluation and are highly affirmed and praised in written
form by many international oil companies. It is believed that this book will play a
key role in scientific exploration and evaluation and engineering technology service
for complex reservoirs exploration and evaluation.

Beijing, China Xinfeng Hu

December 2018 President of CNPC GWDC
Acknowledgements

The following organizations and oil companies are thanked for their support and
help during process of the studies implementation mentioned in this book:
China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC)
Oil Exploration and Production General Administration (OEPA)
Ministry of Petroleum and Mining (MPM)
Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC)
Petrodar Operating Company (PDOC)
Dar Petroleum Operating Company (DPOC)
China National Petroleum Corporation in Chad (CNPCIC)
China National Petroleum Corporation Niger Petroleum S. A. (CNPCNP)
China National Petroleum Corporation Halfaya (CNPC-Hafaya)
China National Petroleum Corporation Aidanmunai (CNPCADM)
China National Petroleum Corporation Aktobemunaigaz (CNPCAMG)
Thanks are given to the parent company of GWDC and CNLC, i.e., CNPC.
CNPC is always supporting big stages and opportunities for GWDC and CNLC to
develop mainly in the international market, aiming at a general contractor of
internationalization petrol engineering technology. Special thanks are given to our
colleagues in GWDC International Logging Company, who provide considerable
work and effort during the writing of this book, including:
Huaijiang Ran, You Zheng, and Jiapeng Wu participated in the writing of
Chaps. 1, 2, and 4 in this book.
Yang Li and Rutai Duan participated in the writing of Chaps. 1, 3, and 4 in this
book.
Guohui Ni, Xiaoquan Kang, and Haifeng Guo participated in the writing of
Chap. 3 in this book.
Tai Un Mei and Huizi Baomin participated in the writing of Chap. 2 and reference
in this book.

vii
Contents

1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques

and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
1.1.1 Current Status and Prospect of Sequence Stratigraphy
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
1.1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 4
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation . . . . . ... 7
1.2.1 Palynological Stratigraphy Study and Application
Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 9
1.2.2 Comprehensive Study on Sequence Stratigraphy
of B-Z Area, Muglad Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 33
1.2.3 High-Resolution Sequence Stratigraphic Correlation
of an Area in the South Turgai Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 46
1.3 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Carbonate Formation . . ... 82
1.3.1 Study Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 82
1.3.2 Correlation of Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy in the
Central Block of Pre-Caspian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 100
2 Comprehensive Practice of Structural Analysis and Sedimentary
Facies Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
2.1 Structural Interpretation and Traps Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
2.1.1 Detailed Structural Interpretation and Analysis
in TM Area, South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
2.1.2 Structural Analysis and Traps Evaluation in B-Z Area,
Muglad Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119
2.2 Analysis Techniques of Sedimentary Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
2.2.1 Palynofacies Study and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
2.2.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Facies Study in the Central Block
of Pre-Caspian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189

ix
x Contents

3 Comprehensive Practice of Reservoir Prediction and Evaluation ... 193

3.1 Reservoir Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 193
3.1.1 Geostatistical Inversion Study on Reservoir Prediction
in MC Oil Field, Melut Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 195
3.1.2 Comprehensive Seismic Reservoir Prediction
of a Carbonate Reservoir in Z Oil Field,
Pre-Caspian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 210
3.2 Reservoir Evaluation Techniques and Applications
for Complex Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.2.1 Logging Evaluation of Carbonate Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.2.2 Logging Evaluation of Metamorphic Reservoirs . . . . . . . . 271
3.2.3 Logging Evaluation of Clastic Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4 Exploration and Evaluation Techniques of Subtle Reservoirs . . . . .. 331
4.1 Subtle Reservoirs Study Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 331
4.1.1 Status and Development Trend of Subtle Reservoirs
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 331
4.1.2 Difficulties and Technical Methods for Subtle
Reservoirs Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
4.2 Identification and Evaluation of Lithologic Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . 339
4.2.1 Lithologic Reservoirs Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
4.2.2 Lithologic Reservoirs in P Oil Field, Melut Basin . . . . . . . 342
4.2.3 Carbonate Lithologic Reservoirs in ZR Oil Field,
Pre-Caspian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 352
4.3 Identification and Evaluation of Stratigraphic Reservoirs . . . . . . .. 363
4.3.1 Features of Stratigraphic Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 363
4.3.2 Stratigraphic Reservoirs of the Exploration Area in South
Turgay Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366
4.3.3 Stratigraphic Reservoirs of B-Z Area in Muglad Basin . .. 371
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 388
Chapter 1
Comprehensive Practice of Sequence
Stratigraphy Techniques and Methods

Abstract This chapter includes practically effective methods of sequence stratig-

raphy studies for different complex reservoirs. Technology of palynological data
analysis and sporopollen assemblage applied and integrated with sequence
stratigraphy methods in complex clastic reservoirs improves the time precision of
the isochronous sequence stratigraphic framework. Integrated prediction error filter
analysis (INPEFA curves) are introduced and applied to show obvious multi-order
cyclicity and to recognize fourth to sixth-order high-frequency cycles for a car-
bonate sedimentary sequence. Sequence stratigraphy study of complex reservoirs
discussed in the chapter includes Muglad Basin, South Turgai Basin, and
Pre-Caspian Basin.

Keywords Sporopollen assemblage Palynological stratigraphy High-resolution



sequence INPEFA method

1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Overview

1.1.1 Current Status and Prospect of Sequence Stratigraphy

Study

Sequence stratigraphy theory is evolved from seismic stratigraphy; the theory was
early applied in sedimentary strata of passive continental marginal marine facies
(with simple structures), and then, it was applied in different basins to investigate
and explore the distribution regularity of different sedimentary filling systems. This
considerately enriches and develops sequence stratigraphy theory. Sequence
stratigraphy provides significant theories and methods for the establishment of
isochronous stratigraphic framework and the analysis of depositional systems tract
within a sequence stratigraphic framework and further provides important theo-
retical guide for efficient petroleum–gas prediction.
Sequence of strata, which was initially used as a stratigraphic unit with
unconformity interfaces boundary, has not been really developed until the

© Petroleum Industry Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1
X. Cheng et al., Comprehensive Practice of Exploration and Evaluation
Techniques in Complex Reservoirs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6431-0_1
2 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

monography of seismic stratigraphy (Vail et al. 1977) was published. Sequence of

strata is defined as “a set of relatively conformable stratigraphic sequences that are
correlated with genesis and bounded by unconformity or the correspondent con-
formity interface,” and sea-level fluctuation change is considered as a leading factor
of sequence formation and evolution. Vail (1987) proposed that “sequence
stratigraphy is a discipline that studies formation correlation within a chronos-
tratigraphic framework comprising a set of sequences that are bounded by
unconformity interface and the correspondent conformity interface and correlated in
genesis,” as well as proposed a series of new concepts like “systems tract,” and
identified strata distribution and genesis relationship within a sequence stratigraphic
framework.
Due to some differences in sequence formation mechanism and identification
characteristics, etc., different scholars have different understandings on the analysis
basis of sequence formation controlling factors and sequence stratigraphy, and
determination methods of sequence boundaries and sequence units and other sig-
nificant aspects. From the development of sequence stratigraphy till now, theoret-
ically, three major factions have been formed, i.e., sequence stratigraphy of Vail,
high-resolution sequence stratigraphy of cross and genetic sequence stratigraphy of
Galloway. Basically, sequence stratigraphy focuses on strata superimposition form
and variation within a chronostratigraphic framework. All existing definitions on
sequence stratigraphy stress cyclicity, time framework, genetically correlated for-
mation, and mutual effect between accommodation space and sedimentation. Due to
the interaction between sediment accumulation and accommodation space, a
complete cycle of base-level change can record four events; the four events control
the formation time of all sequence stratigraphic boundaries and systems tracts, and
all “schools” of sequence stratigraphy can identify them in different degrees. The
four events of base-level cycle include: (1) start of forced regression; (2) end of
forced regression; (3) end of regression; and (4) end of transgression. Seven
sequence stratigraphic boundaries that are related to the four base-level cycle events
include continental unconformity interface and the correspondent conformity
interface, forced regression basal plane, regression erosion surface, maximum
regression surface, maximum flooding surface, and transgression erosion surface
(Catuneanu 2006). In 2009, Catuneanu et al. believed that sequence stratigraphy
stresses the sedimentary facies correlation and strata structure within a chronos-
tratigraphic framework; the key of sequence stratigraphy analysis is to identify the
sediment genesis type and sequence stratigraphic boundaries of a set of strata.
Various sequence stratigraphy “schools” have some rationality under specific
background conditions, which should be objectively evaluated; this is more
favorable for standardization of sequence stratigraphy.
Sequence study includes seismic reflection data interpretation and comprehen-
sive application of outcrops, core, logging and geochemical data, and other data. Its
general applications include regional stratigraphic correlation, identification and
prediction of reservoir, cap and source rocks and their time–space distribution.
Sequence stratigraphy has been widely applied in marine facies and continental
facies prospective areas and mature oil–gas exploration regions, particularly
1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Overview 3

exploration areas of lithostratigraphic oil and gas reservoirs (Van Wagoner et al.
1990; Weimer and Posamentier 1994; Wei et al. 1996; Lin et al. 2000; Li et al.
2002; Jiang et al. 2008). In terms of methodology, conventional outcrop, core,
logging, and high-precision seismic data can be applied; moreover, 3D seismic data
visualization technology, paleontology, geochemistry, numeric analysis, and com-
puter analog technology are available. The diversity of methods makes sequence
stratigraphy study more flexible and correct (Jiang 2010).
In recent years, high-resolution sequence stratigraphy theory has gotten wide
attention and made great progress. High-resolution sequence stratigraphic unit
mainly refers to fourth-and fifth-order (below third-order) sequence and systems
tract; fourth- and fifth-order sequences represent fourth- and fifth-order sedimentary
cycles within a third-order sequence (Lin et al. 2000). High-resolution sequence
stratigraphy study aims to establish finer isochronous sequence stratigraphy and
lithofacies frameworks, to finally predict reservoir distribution, reservoir–cap
combination, and others. High-resolution sequence stratigraphy is based on analysis
of combining outcrop, core, logging with high-resolution seismic data. In terms of
development trend, on the one hand, in-deep analysis and study will be conducted
on high-resolution sequence stratigraphy principles and methods, and controlling
factors of high-precision sequence stratigraphic units and sedimentary systems will
be positively explored; on the other hand, high-resolution computer analog tech-
nology and geophysical technology must be developed, so as to improve the pre-
diction of underground complex geological conditions (Lin et al. 2002).
High-resolution sequence stratigraphy study should take fourth-order sequences
division and the interior parasequence architecture style analysis as main objectives;
the relatively low-order regression and transgression interfaces present in different
systems tracts within a third-order sequence are the basis of division of
high-precision sequence stratigraphic units (Jiang 2010). Although different
scholars and “schools” have some different understandings on high-precision
sequence stratigraphy, their basic idea is to seek lower-order isochronal horizons.
Posamentier and Wagoner’s schemes of high-precision sequence unit division
contain lowstand, transgressive and highstand systems tracts, sequences are
bounded by relatively transgressive interfaces, and each fourth-order sequence
contains several parasequences. Theoretical study and practical exploration indicate
that Exxon’s sequence stratigraphic system division is more favorable for estab-
lishment of a sequence stratigraphy framework and prediction of advantageous
reservoir facies.
With the development of sequence stratigraphy theory and process of sedi-
mentation being discussed in the time–space framework of geological evolution, a
set of new methods will be gradually formed in the study of process of sedimen-
tation in an isochronal stratigraphic framework in combination with multi-cycle
evolution research, so as to provide significant tools for oil–gas exploration and
prediction (Lin 2009). Sequence stratigraphy will develop toward standardization of
research methods and specialization of application areas; sedimentary system study
will develop from macroscopic analysis toward microscopic depiction, from static
description toward dynamic simulation; moreover, sedimentation process
4 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

reconstruction and sedimentary system research within a standard isochronal

sequence stratigraphic framework will be strengthened, to provide reliable basis for
looking for oil–gas resources. Sedimentary facies distribution will be further studied
within high-precision sequence stratigraphic units, and a fine sedimentary system
analysis will be conducted with sedimentary facies taken as the mapping unit (Jiang
2010). In the 18th international sedimentology conference, 2010, seismic stratig-
raphy and sequence stratigraphy were ascertained as the second generation and
third generation of analysis methods; source-to-sink (S2S) analysis methodology
for sedimentary systems tract study conducted after quantitative assessment of
geomorphic parameters, paleoclimate, sedimentary passing-through area, sedi-
mentary area, sediment supply, and other factors from source to sink was taken as
the fourth generation of analysis method. Under the guide of new theories, correct
sequence stratigraphic framework and systems tract architecture styles are estab-
lished; on the basis of illustration of interface characteristics and distribution of
various orders of sequences as well as sedimentary facies space distribution, the
source–reservoir–cap rock model can be developed for a basin. Aiming at existing
problems in sequence stratigraphy and current oil–gas exploration demand,
sequence stratigraphy will possibly develops toward: making breakthroughs in
theory, perfectness in methodology, innovation in technology, and benefits in
application. The key points of sequence stratigraphy study include (Jiang 2012):
(1) deepwater sequence stratigraphy study; (2) carbonatite sequence stratigraphy
research; (3) sequence stratigraphy standardization; (4) sequence stratigraphic
simulation research; (5) technological means innovation of sequence stratigraphy
study; and (6) shelf-edge trajectory and systems tract identification method study.

1.1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Methods

Sequence is a genetic stratigraphic unit with unconformity interfaces and the cor-
respondent conformity interfaces as its boundaries; the key of sequence stratigraphy
analysis is to identify sequence boundary and to establish the isochronal strati-
graphic framework by tracing and correlating boundaries. As the upper and lower
boundaries of sequences commonly experienced cessation of deposition, sedi-
mentary facies transformation, etc., sequence boundaries show response charac-
teristics on core data, drilling logging curves, and 2D and 3D seismic profiles.
These characteristics from the data as mentioned above can be applied to identify
sequence boundaries. Besides, with deepening of sequence stratigraphy study,
technological methods that are applied will be continuously innovated; paleonto-
logical, geochemical, and other methods have played a great role in sequence
stratigraphy research.
1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Overview 5

1.1.2.1 Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy Study

As seismic data has a large lateral identification range, high lateral resolution and
low longitudinal resolution, sequence boundaries can be identified more clearly, so
seismic data is mostly applied to identify high-order sequence boundaries.
Particularly, 3D seismic data can reflect stratigraphic structure and palogeomor-
phology in 3D space. Different termination types of seismic reflection events reflect
different termination and wedge-out types of strata. The denudation and wedge-out
information of strata reflected by seismic reflection events are rightly the main
indicators to identification of sequence boundaries on seismic profiles. Typical
identification indicators of seismic sequence boundary include onlap, truncation,
downlap, toplap, and other termination types of seismic reflection events. Certainly,
a major sedimentary transformation occurred, and thus, obvious difference in
seismic reflection characteristics exists between the upper and lower sequence
boundaries; this is also an indicator to identify seismic sequence boundaries. If an
intense tectonic movement occurred in the late stage of sedimentation and resulted
in a great variation of attitude of original strata, it would be more difficult to
discriminate some termination characteristics of seismic reflection characteristics,
e.g., onlap and downlap. Thus, it is required to analyze the location of provenance
and subsidence center as well as the tectonic movement of a basin and reconstruct
paleogeomorphologic characteristics during stratigraphic deposition. Seismic data
is characterized by large coverage and can reflect mutual contact relationship of
strata and macroscopic 3D shape of sedimentary bodies. Although vertical reso-
lution is lower in seismic data than that in outcrop and drilling logging data,
continuous seismic reflection of seismic data has stratigraphic significance in rel-
ative age, which provides good basis for establishing the chronostratigraphic
framework within a basin range.

1.1.2.2 Well Logging Sequence Stratigraphy Study

Compared to seismic data, in terms of sequence boundary identification, the

advantage of well logging data lies in high longitudinal resolution; therefore, log-
ging data can be more easily used to identify the sequence boundaries at a certain
location of well. However, logging data has a lower lateral resolution, and thus, its
3D space concept is relatively weaker. Sedimentary environment is different, and
sedimentary facies change greatly between upper and lower sequence boundaries,
which displays an abrupt change of basic value on well logging curves; if
progradation sedimentary characteristics from delta front to delta plain show below
the boundary, SP and GR curves will display an inverse cycle composed of
superimposition of multiple bell and box shape sands; above the boundary, the
sands abruptly change into shore-shallow lake mudstone; SP and GR curves show a
low-amplitude straight configuration. If sequence boundary lies in the place where
lithofacies types or facies combination features transforms, it mainly shows trans-
formation of curve combination form on well logging curves, such as
6 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

transformation from progradation superimposition to aggradation superimposition,

transformation from aggradation superimposition to retrogradation superimposition,
transformation from progradation superimposition to retrogradation superimposi-
tion, and transformation between progradation superimpositions. Sequence
boundaries display obvious characteristics in natural gamma ray spectrometry
logging curves and dip log vector diagrams in addition to conventional electrical
logging curves. Generally, in natural gamma ray spectrometry logging curves,
sequence boundaries display low gross-count rate, low Th value, low Th/U ratio,
and high Th/K ratio; on dip log vector diagrams, they primarily display a
promiscuous mode or faulted mode.

1.1.2.3 Outcrop Sequence Stratigraphy Study

Outcrops are the most direct, real and detailed data in sequence stratigraphy study
and have high-resolution characteristics that drilling and seismic data do not have;
and a series of characteristics that reflect sequences and sequence boundaries can be
directly observed on outcrops, and thus, some subjectivities produced from drill
hole, logging, and seismic data interpretation can be avoided. Considering cover-
age, discontinuity, and deformation by tectonic movement within the study area,
outcrops that contain complete strata can be continuously traced, are easily
observed, and are selected for field outcrop observation, layering, and measure-
ment; sequence boundaries, systems tract boundaries, and sedimentary facies
markers are collected for high-resolution sequence stratigraphic interpretation.

1.1.2.4 Biosequence Stratigraphy Study

Fossil distribution and conservation conditions in strata are closely related to the
location and key boundaries in sequences. Some flora and specific sporopollen
assemblages were formed in some certain geological time and specific natural
conditions. Therefore, sporopollen assemblages can indicate the lithofacies paleo-
geography environment at that time. Loutit et al. (1992) believed that: detailed
biostratigraphic research on key sequence boundaries, key systems tracts, and key
positions not only can attain the result with half effort in correct identification,
division and correlation of sequences, and establishment of a sequence chrono-
logical framework, but also can extend key sequence boundaries outwards till to the
correspondent horizons/strata that contain very rare and even no fossils.

1.1.2.5 Core Sequence Stratigraphy Study

Compared to seismic data and well logging data, core data is reliable, direct and can
be easily identified, and has a higher longitudinal resolution than logging data,
which is a good tool to identify sequence boundaries. However, due to high cost of
1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy Study Overview 7

coring, small quantities of core, and other factors, core has a lower lateral resolution
in identifying sequence boundaries and basically can only reflect characteristics of
sequences at drilling location. In terms of core, sequence boundaries are identified
mainly according to exposure markers, abrupt changes of sedimentary facies and
lithofacies.
As sequence boundaries mostly are unconformity planes, the underlying for-
mations mostly exposed and suffered from long-term weathering denudation,
forming paleosol layers, paleoweathering crust and plant roots and stems, and other
weathering and exposure markers. However, above the sequence boundaries,
subsidence of deposition base level resulted in rivers rejuvenation, weathering
formations which were exposed formerly received deposition again, and a set of
coarse grained, highly mature lag deposits, which were in eroded and scoured
contact with the underlying strata, were formed. On the other hand, rapid change of
deposition base level of upper and lower sequence boundaries led to the abrupt
change of sedimentary environment of upper and lower strata, which is reflected by
core, namely abrupt change of lithofacies or sedimentary facies characteristics.

1.1.2.6 Other Sequence Stratigraphy Studies

In recent years, new methods have been applied in sequence stratigraphy study,
including paleontology high-resolution sequence stratigraphy study, sample anal-
ysis and test and organic geochemistry research, 3D visualization, seismic intel-
lectual analysis, geostatistics, numerical stimulation and mode recognition and
others; these methods enrich and promote the development of sequence stratigraphy
theory and research methods. Besides, as modern sediments are the most direct
places for observation of geological phenomena, strengthening modern sediments
geological survey and research is of great significance to the promotion of sequence
stratigraphy research and development.

1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic

Formation

As mentioned above, sequence stratigraphy originated from seismic stratigraphy,

and with unconformity plane and the correspondent conformity plane taken as
boundaries, a chronostratigraphic framework can be established for formations with
genetic relationship. Therefore, in combination with longitudinal high-resolution
logging data and core data, etc., seismic data has been widely applied in sequence
stratigraphic framework establishment and sequence stratigraphy study. As
sequence is a result of combined action of sea-level fluctuation, sediment supply,
tectonic subsidence, and many other factors, non-uniform velocity and non-uniform
amplitude of variation of different factors make sequence characteristics and
8 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

conservation status, etc. of strata very different, which also leads to the difficulty in
sequence boundary identification, sequence division, and correlation by conven-
tional technological methods. In order to resolve this problem, many new experi-
ments and technological methods have been gradually applied to sequence
stratigraphy study, e.g., sequence stratigraphic simulation, shelf-edge trajectory
quantitative analysis, and geochemical parameter analysis. As species, enrichment
degree, and combination characteristics of paleontology are different in different
development periods and are commonly closely related to the position and key
boundaries in sequence, paleontology provides good reference for determination of
stratigraphic age. In addition, with expanding of application range of sequence
stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy study continuously deepens from basin-scale
sequence and sedimentary systems tract analysis to sedimentary microfacies and
reservoir-scale high-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis; fine sedimentary
system, sedimentary facies analysis, and sands distribution prediction require a
high-resolution effective stratigraphic correlation framework.
On the basis of Exxon’s sequence stratigraphy theory and in combination with
sequence analysis cases of multiple basins, Lin et al. (2002) proposed a classifi-
cation scheme and analysis methodology for high-resolution sequence stratigraphic
framework. The high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework refers to the
isochronal stratigraphic framework that is established by taking fourth- and
fifth-order sequences and systems tracts within a third-order sequence as strati-
graphic units. Fourth-order sequence is a basic stratigraphic unit of the
high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework, whose sequence boundary can
be fourth-order sea (lake) level or transgression surface or regression surface of a
deposition base-level cycle. Sedimentary sequence research of Chinese continental
facies lake basins and shore-shallow sea basins indicates that the transgression
surface of a fourth-order sedimentary cycle can be traced and correlated within
basin range or most part of a basin; the identification is a key to establishment of the
high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework. The fourth-order sequence can
be generally subdivided into several fifth-order sequences or parasequences with
sea or lake flooding planes as boundaries, and the general superimposition pattern
displays a sequence structure from progradation to retrogradation. In terrigenous
detrital basin filling, the fourth-order sequence represents one relatively obvious
sedimentary episode from advancing to recession then to transgression. This sed-
imentary episode or sedimentary cycle is controlled by synchronous variation of
regional sea level or climate, etc., which is of “other cycle” that is not directly
related to sedimentary process itself. The fifth-order sequence represents a single
sedimentation from progradation to retrogradation; these sedimentary cycles might
be direct products of sedimentary “autogenetic cycles” like river migration or delta
abandoning. Establishment of the high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework
can provide significant reference for analysis and prediction of reservoir–cap
combination; sandstone sedimentary bodies within the fourth-order sequence and
argillaceous sediments during transgression period constitute a reservoir unit and
trap cover.
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 9

1.2.1 Palynological Stratigraphy Study and Application

Effect

Different plants produce different kinds of pollens. In certain geological period,

flora which is dominant in specific natural condition always corresponds to a
particular combination of pollen. Pollen deposited near the distribution zone of the
parent plants. Therefore, the combination of pollens is useful in the study of the
ancient geography, further study of sequence stratigraphy, and sequence or systems
tract boundaries identification by the analysis of pollen species. Loutit (1991)
formally proposed the term of biological sequence stratigraphy which closely
combined the traditional biostratigraphic with the sequence stratigraphy which is
currently more popular and created a new trend in the current sequence stratigraphy
and biostratigraphy studies. Holland (1992, 1994, 1995) used the computer to
simulate the distribution and output status of fossils in strata and found that the
segments which fossils firstly and lastly existed had close relationship with the key
interfaces of sequences and systems tracts. In general, ancient geographical envi-
ronments are greatly different crossing the sequence boundary and also the pale-
ontological combination; besides, the species and number of fossils are abundant
and diverse in the vicinity of the maximum sea-flooding surface. Therefore, using
pollen and other paleontological data, sequence boundaries, especially some
unrecognizable interfaces by seismic and logging, can be more accurately identified
for the fossil’s continuity and differentiation.

1.2.1.1 Regional Geological Background

Muglad Basin, the largest rift basin discovered in Sudan, is located in the middle of
African Plate, inside Sudan Republic. Its total area is about 12  104 km2, and
hydrocarbon discovery is also the most among the rift basins of central African
Plate. Oil and gas exploration in Muglad Basin began in the 1970s, Chevron Corp.,
SPC company, GNPOC, etc., carried out oil exploration within the basin and has
discovered oil fields in the northern and southern parts of the basin. The oil dis-
covered in the basin now is more than 14  108 t. The structural belt in strike is
mainly in NW-SE, and the formations are thin in the west and thick in the east. It is
mid-Cenozoic rift basin, bounded by East African fault belt in the northwest, in
WN-SE strike, narrow in the south, and wide in the north. It contains four
depressions, three uplifts, and some small sags (Fig. 1.1). The study area is on the
western slope of B-Z area of Muglad Basin, located on the trend belt of Kaikang
Depression (also called Abyei Slope Belt) (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). To the east side of
the study area is Kaikang Depression, to the northwest is HS oil field, and the
exploration area is about 5500 km2. Since December 2009, the total recoverable oil
of the district has been proven up to 10.55 billion barrels, HS oil field, D oil field,
and B oil field are as the main producing areas, and the main producing layers are
Bentiu and Aradeiba Formations of Cretaceous.
10 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

Fig. 1.1 Tectonic units of Muglad Basin (after CNODC 2006)

Formation Development Characteristics

The study area is B-Z area on the western slope of Muglad Basin, located on the
trend belt of Kaikang Depression (also called Abyei Slope Belt). The basement of
the basin is Precambrian granite and granodiorite. In early Cretaceous period,
Muglad Basin began to depress and receive deposition. The remnants of basin
filling strata is about 5000 m, thinner than the formation thickness of the abdomen
of Muglad Basin which is more than ten thousand meters thick. The basin is located
high due to its location, so in each structural conversion period, it was eroded more
seriously.
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 11

Fig. 1.2 Location map of the western slope in B-Z area of Muglad Basin, Sudan

The research strata in this study is from Cretaceous to Paleogene, which are Abu
Gabra Formation, Bentiu Formation and Darfur Group (Aradeiba Formation, Zarqa
Formation, Ghazal Formation, and Baraka Formation) of Cretaceous, and Amal
Formation, Nayil Formation, and Tendi Formation of Paleogene from bottom-up.
The deposition period of Abu Gabra Formation corresponds to the movement
period of initial rift structure, and the deposition period of Bentiu Formation cor-
responds to thermal subsidence stage after integration of the basin; the deposition
period of Darfur Group corresponds to the second rift movement stage; the depo-
sition period of Amal Formation corresponds to the second thermal subsidence
stage; the deposition period of Nayil Formation corresponds to the third rift stage,
and the deposition period of Tendi–Adok Formation corresponds to the third
thermal subsidence stage. Tectonic background of different periods has close
relationship with the sedimentary facies types of each period.
The Abu Gabra Formation of Cretaceous is the first depositional layer in the
study area, developed at the faulting stage of the first rift valley period, overlying
the Precambrian basement as angular unconformity. Due to the effect of fracturing
motion, the depositional thickness in different areas varies greatly; this formation
had structural reversal at the later depositional stage, and its remaining thickness in
some regions is very small, even absent at the edge of the basin. The Abu Gabra
Formation in the east of this study area and the thrown side is up to 2000 m thick;
the west part and upthrown block is only about 500 m due to severe denudation.
The lower part is mainly sand–mud interbeds, the middle part is mainly large suite
of pure mudstone, and the upper part is severely denudated, and sandstone content
is more than that in the middle part. This formation in the study area is mainly
deltaic deposition, and at the center of the sag, there developed shore-shallow lake.
The Bentiu Formation was developed in late stage of early Cretaceous, overlying
Abu Gabra Formation as regional unconformity; it is the most widely distributed
formation in the whole basin and is divided into upper part and lower part. In the
12 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

northwest of the study area, the thickness of upper remaining formation is 1400 m,
and the remaining thickness in the western edge and southwest is about 700 m. The
lower section of Bentiu is about 700 m thick, and the thickness of some faulted
highs is about 500 m; the northwest and northeast parts of the study area are
evidently controlled by fracture, and the deposition thickness can be up to 1000 m,
mainly interbeds of thin sandstone layers in superimposition. The upper part of
Bentiu Formation is composed of thick layers of sandstone interbedded with silt-
stone and mudstone, reflecting a braided river environment of high energy, instable
channel and large width-to-depth ratio; channel sand body (including channel bar)
is the major reservoirs of Block X/Y/Z. These two parts do not have evident proof
of unconformity or depositional break between them, just that the lake level sub-
sided and braided river deposition advanced to the center of the lake basin, so the
lower braided river delta and lake facies developed on the slope gradually evolved
into the upper braided river–braided river delta deposition.
The Darfur Group was developed in late Cretaceous and created with the control
of the faulting in the second rift period; the tectonic motion of this period was
weaker than that of the previous faulting mobility, so the differences of formation
thickness of footwall and hanging wall are small; the hanging wall formation
thickness is about 800 m, and the footwall thickness is about 1600 m; the thickness
of Darfur Group developed near Kaikang Sag in the east is up to 2800 m. The
Darfur Group Aradeiba Formation locally onlaps above Bentiu top interface, and
the onlap angle is low. In the study area, braided river delta facies and
shore-shallow lake subfacies mainly developed, generally in cycle of sedimentation
becoming thick upward.
Well logging data shows that Aradeiba Formation has high silt content and is a
favorable regional cap rock in this region, forming the best source–reservoir–cap
rock assemblage in the whole block together with Gabra–Bentiu–Aradeiba
Formations. The average thickness of Cretaceous Aradeiba Formation is about
1000 m, overlying the Bentiu Formation as parallel unconformity; the thickness
may be up to 1800 m near the center of Kaikang Depression and local faulted
places.
Zarqa Formation’s bottom is in conformity contact with underlying Aradeiba
Formation. It is about 250–500 m in thickness, mainly braided deltaic sand and
shore-shallow lake subfacies; formation distribution is relatively stable.
A stable mudstone has developed on top of Ghazal Formation; the sandstone
demarcation at the bottom of Baraka Formation is relatively apparent. This for-
mation is mainly interbedded and successive braided river delta medium-coarse
sandstone and sandy mudstone of different thicknesses.
The upper section of Baraka Formation is mainly sandstone, containing small
amount of mudstone; the lower section has high content of silt and forms another
source layer with mudstone at the top of underlying Ghazal Formation. The for-
mation thickness of this formation is small, about 300 m at the northwestern
boundary zone and about 500 m at the southwestern boundary zone, a little bit thick
in the east. This formation changed gradually from large delta front subfacies to
delta plain subfacies.
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 13

The Amal Formation of Paleocene overlies above Baraka Formation in

low-angle unconformity contact. This formation was developed in depression
period, so the study area received deposition for even subsidence, its thickness
being about 300 m; it is a large suite of thick blocky medium-coarse quartzose
sandstone, interbedded with small amount of thin layers of mudstone; its lithology
is relatively simple, representing the braided river fluvial plain environment.
Nayil Formation and Tendi Formation were developed at early stage of Eocene
epoch to Miocene epoch. Nayil Formation is relatively thin, about 250 m in the
west and northwestern boundary zone, but up to 800 m near Kaikang Sag. It was
developed in the faulting period of third rift stage, so its accommodation space
increased rapidly; the mid to upper sections are mainly large suite of mudstone,
interbedded with sandstone and siltstone.
The variation in thickness of Tendi Formation is similar to that of Nayil
Formation; from west to east within the study area, the formation thicknesses
increases from 300 to 800 m. The lithology is mainly sandstone interbedded with
mudstone; well logging shows that sandstone of delta front subfacies is well
developed in Tendi Formation.
Adok Formation was developed in Miocene, showing certain stratification
property at the bottom of sag, but also featured by weak amplitude and poor
continuity. Its formation thickness is about 750 m, and it is the product of fluvial
plain.

History of Depositional Evolution and Source–Reservoir–Cap rock

Background

In early Cretaceous, the Muglad Basin was affected by Mid-African right-lateral

strike-slip faulting, and the settling rate of the basin was great, depositing Abu
Gabra Formation. This is the initial extension faulting period of Muglad Basin,
developing the major hydrocarbon source layer of this area. After deposition of
Gabra Formation, Muglad Basin was uplifted or tilted, so most of Abu Gabra
Formation was denudated at updip position. The top surface of Abu Gabra
Formation is an intensely denudated surface, in angular unconformity contact with
the overlying Bentiu Formation.
The depositional stage of Bentiu Formation was the thermal subsidence stage
after integration of the basin; the depositional stage within the study area was
delta-lake to river-delta facies, and the depositional lithology is mainly sandstone
interbedded with mudstone, showing the toothed box-like logs. It is the major
regional pay zone of Muglad Basin.
After deposition of Bentiu Formation, local uplift denudation occurred to the
basin at the end of early Cretaceous, and the basin entered the second successive
extension faulting rift valley stage, and began to deposit the Darfur Group. This
faulting motion is weaker than the first rift faulting motion; within the study area,
the difference in the thicknesses of the hanging wall and footwall is small. The
depositional types of the formations within the Darfur Group are mainly braided
14 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

river delta and shore-shallow lake, and its plane spread is mainly controlled by
rising and decreasing of lake level. The lithology of formations within Darfur Group
tends to be fine, widely seen within the area, such as Aradeiba Formation, forming
the best cap rock overlying the source–reservoir unit of the first rift stage. Also, a
number of thin layers of sandstone and mudstone assemblages have developed
within Darfur Group, and each formation has oil–gas shows, so a number of
self-generated and self-stored oil–gas reservoirs have been formed.
Starting from Paleogene, the faulting motion of second rift period of the Muglad
Basin completed, and the faulted basin was transformed to extension depression
basin; affected by regional thermal subsidence, the Amal Formation was deposited.
The basin structures were stable in this period, so large fluvial sandstone was
deposited in Amal Formation, in box-like shape as shown in well logs; this for-
mation becomes another favorable reservoir stratum.
Due to the expansion of Red Sea and volcanic eruption of Mid-African rift, the
second successive extension motion ended, and the basin entered the third exten-
sion depression stage and subsided as a whole. The study area deposited Nayil
Formation mainly composed of dark mudstone of sand–mud interbedding. After
that, the entire structures of the basin were relatively stable, and the third thermal
subsidence stage began, depositing the Tendi Formation mainly composed of
deltaic sandy mudstone of lake–land transitional phase and Adok Formation mainly
composed of fluvial sandstone.

1.2.1.2 Palynological Stratigraphy Study

Palynological Study Methods

The studied 204 palynological samples (including nine core samples and 195 ditch
cutting samples) were collected from 16 wells. The locations of the wells and the
stratigraphic level and sampling depth of the samples are shown in Figs. 1.3 and
1.4, respectively. Generally, the samples were collected at a 5.0 m interval for
cutting samples.
Standard preparation procedures for palynological study, such as the chemical
solution, heavy fluid flotation, slide fixation, and identification, were carried out
(Fig. 1.5). Palynological fixed slides were made for each sample. A quantitative
method was employed for this study. Using variation of the proportions of the
palynofloral components, evolution trends of the sporopollens were identified, and
the palynozone were established, by which one could define meaningful correlative
units/horizons, identify stratigraphic gaps and environmental changes. Identification
and photography of sporopollens were carried on using a Leica D4000B micro-
scope attached with a SPOT-FLEX digital camera system. At least three to four
slides (size of the cover slides were 15 mm  15 mm) were identified for each
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 15

Fig. 1.3 Geographical locality of the studied wells

sample, the first 50–100 palynomorphs were counted and labeled as dominant
(>30%), abundant (11–30%), common (5–10%) or rare (<2%). Thereby, a rough
estimation of the relative frequency of each specie in each sample could be made. In
addition, one slide of each unsieved residue was examined for supplemental
palynofacies identification. Species with well-known stratigraphic ranges (Figs. 1.6
and 1.7) in other contemporaneous basins of West Africa and Egypt were used as
key elements (or index species) for demarcating the palynostratigraphic zones.
16 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

Fig. 1.4 Depth and formation of the samples from the wells
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 17

Fig. 1.5 Flow diagram of palynological and palynofacies analysis

General Features of the Cretaceous to Paleogene Sporo-Pollens from the

Western Slope in B-Z Area of Muglad Basin

A total of 204 samples were processed, and among which 129 samples occupied
sporopollens, which can be categorized into five main palynological groups,
including spores of fungi, algae and ferns, and pollens of angiosperms and gym-
nosperms. In total were found 137 genera and 138 known species of spore and
pollen including 59 genera and 49 known species of fern spores, 16 genera and 25
known species of gymnosperms, and most abundantly, 62 genera and 64 known
species of angiosperms, plus spores of three genera of green algae or other
microphytoplanktons.
According to the range and frequency distribution of palynomorph species, ten
palynozones have been differentiated, corresponding to the ten lithostratigraphic
units in the Muglad Basin (Fig. 1.8). Each zone has its characteristic palynological
assemblage and dominated palynomorphs. They range in age is from Neocomian of
early Cretaceous to Miocene. The ages assigned to these palynozones have been
determined by comparing the microfloral assemblages with those known from
previously dated sequences.
(1) Zone I (Abu Graba Formation): Appendicisporites spp.–Exesipollenites
tumulus–Cycadopites spp. Assemblage Zone (Representative wells Sb-1 and
HW-1, depth 3465–3470 m and 3695–3905 m, respectively). Characteristics
of the assemblage:
18 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

Fig. 1.6 Key Paleogene sporopollens from the Muglad Basin of Sudan

① Dominated by gymnosperms (60.4%), secondarily ferns (33.3%), and few

angiosperms (6.3%). The least abundant was algae spores (1.0%).
② Ferns are with low biodiversity, including Cicatricosisporites (16.7%),
Concavissimisporites punctatus (4.2%), Balmeisporites tridictyus (6.3%), and
Verrucosisporites (4.2%).
③ Among the gymnosperms, only Ephedripites, Classopollis, Exesisporites, and
Araucariacites were found; proportions are 33.3, 10.4, 10.4, and 4.2%,
respectively.
④ Only three angiosperm genera such as Tricolpopollenites, Monocolpites, and
Spinizonocolpites echinatus were found.
1.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Application in Clastic Formation 19

Fig. 1.7 Key Cretaceous sporopollens from the Muglad Basin of Sudan

(2) Zone II (Lower Bentiu Formation): Ephedripites jansonii–Classopollis

torosus–Afropollis zonatus Assemblage Zone (Representitive well Sb-1,
depth 3365–3370 m). Characteristics of the assemblage:
① Dominated by gymnosperms (61.1%); secondarily fern spores, 33.3%;
and small amount of angiosperms (5.6%) and algae (0.6%).
20 1 Comprehensive Practice of Sequence Stratigraphy Techniques …

Fig. 1.8 Lithostratigraphy and palynozones in the western slope of B-Z area

② Fern spores from family Lygodiaceae (24.1%) dominate the assemblage.

Other important forms include Cicatricosisporites microstriatus,
Lygodiumsporites sp., Concavissimisporites punctatus, and
Baculatisporites sp., Leptolepidites reticulates, Deltoidospora sp. et al.
are commonly seen.
③ Among the gymnosperms, the genus Classopollis is the most abundant
(37.0%), which is also the peak abundance of the Cretaceous.
Discovered species include C. annulatus, C. classoides, and C. torosus.
The genus Ephedripites is the second abundant (22.2%), with species
such as E. multicostatus and E. jansonii are discovered. The genus
Araucariacites australis is also present.
④ The only occurrence of angiosperms is Afropollis zonatus (3.7%) and
Afropollis jardinus (1.9%).
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