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1.1 Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis
İlhami Yıldız and Yu Liu, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 Quantities 2
1.1.2.1 Relationship Between Quantities 3
1.1.2.2 Base Quantities 3
1.1.2.3 Derived Quantities 3
1.1.2.4 Multiples and Submultiples of Quantities 3
1.1.2.5 Types of Quantity Equations 4
1.1.3 Dimensional Analysis 4
1.1.4 Units and Conversions 4
1.1.4.1 Useful Units in Electricity 6
1.1.4.1.1 Coulomb 6
1.1.4.1.2 Volt 6
1.1.4.1.3 Watt 6
1.1.4.1.4 Ohm 6
1.1.5 Rules for Using SI Units 6
1.1.5.1 Capitalization 6
1.1.5.2 Use of Plurals 6
1.1.5.3 Use of Hyphenation and Space 9
1.1.5.4 Use of Numerals and Periods 9
1.1.5.5 Use of Symbols for Mathematical Operations 9
1.1.6 Overall Examples 10
1.1.7 Concluding Remarks 22
References 22
Relevant Websites 23
Nomenclature J Unit of energy and work, joule

a Atto k Kilo
a Index; acceleration, m s2; constant, 2897 mm K k Dimensionless coefficient, thermal
A Unit of electric current, ampere; area, m2 conductivity, W m1 K1 or Btu h1 ft1 1F1
b Index kg Unit of mass, kg
Btu British thermal unit kWh Unit of energy, kilowatt-hour ( ¼3.6 MJ)
c Centi K Unit of thermodynamic temperature
c Index; speed of light, 3 108 m s1 l Length, m or ft
C Unit of electric charge, coulomb; Celsius L Length
C Specific heat, J kg1 K1 or Btu lbm1 1F1 m Milli
cd Luminous intensity unit m Unit of length, m; mass, kg or lbm
d Deci m _ Mass flow rate, kg s1
da Deka M Mega; mass
E Exa mol Unit of amount of substance, mol
E Energy, J or Btu h1 n Nano
f Femto N Unit of force, newton
F Fahrenheit p Pico
F Force, N or lbf p Pressure, Pa or lbf
g Gravitational acceleration, m s2 P Peta
G Giga P Power, W or Btu h1
h Hecto Pa Unit of pressure, pascal
h Height, m; pump head, m; enthalpy, J kg1, r Radius, m
heat transfer coefficient, W m2 K1 or Btu h1 R Thermal resistance, m2 K W1 or h ft2 1F Btu1
ft2 1F1; Planck’s constant, 6.626 1034 J s rad Unit of plane angle, radian
hp Unit of power in I–P, horsepower s Entropy, J g1 or Btu lbm1
I Radiant flux density, W m2 or Btu h1 ft2 sr Unit of solid angle, steradian
Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00101-2 1

2 Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis
T Tera; time, s; temperature, 1C, 1F, K, or R w Width

therm Unit of heat energy, 105.5 MJ or 100,000 Btu W Unit of power, watt
ton Refrigeration ton, 12,000 Btu h1 or 3.52 kW W Work
U Thermal transmittance, W m2 K1 or Btu h1 x Distance, m or ft
ft2 1F1 y Yocto
V Unit of electric potential, potential difference, Y Yotta
and electromotive force, volt z Zepto
V Volume, m3 or ft3 Z Zetta
Greek letters n Kinematic viscosity, m2 s1; specific volume,

D Difference m3 kg1 or ft3 lbm1; frequency, cycles
F Pump power, W or hp s1 ¼ hertz ¼ Hz
Z Conversion efficiency, % y Pump power, W or hp
l Wavelength, mm r Density, kg m3 or lbm ft3
m Micro O Unit of electric resistance, ohm
m Dynamic viscosity, Pa s
Subscripts max Maximum

bk Break power p Pump; constant pressure
fl Fluid power pe Potential energy
ke Kinetic energy v Constant volume
0
Superscripts Minute (angle)
00
1 Degree Second (angle)
1.1.1 Introduction
When dealing with engineering and scientific relationships, in order to appreciate the magnitudes of physical quantities, it is
essential to have a solid grasp of units, and recognize two types of equations, namely, quantity equations and numerical
equations. Both types are found in texts and reference books, and the concept of units and quantities is useful in understanding
their respective features. In this chapter, we cover the main features of quantities and quantity equations, and provide the most
important units and conversions relating to energy. Quantity equations are also called equations between quantities, or physical
equations. And, numerical equations are alternatively called measure equations. We also introduce the technique of dimensional
analysis, which is used to derive basic physical relationships without performing a full analysis of a system.
1.1.2 Quantities
In 1954, the 10th general conference on weights and measures (CGPM) decided that an international system should be derived
from six base units to provide for the measurement of temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and elec-
tromagnetic quantities. Six base units recommended at this conference were the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin
(later renamed kelvin), and candela. In 1960, the 11th CGPM named the system the International System of Units, SI from the
French name, Le Système International d'Unités [1]. Later, the seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM
[2]. SI is the modern form of the metric system, and today is the most widely used measurement system.
Therefore, the International System of Quantities (ISQ) is now a system based on seven base quantities: length, mass, time,
thermodynamic temperature, electric current, luminous intensity, and amount of substance. Other quantities, such as area, pressure,
and electrical resistance are all derived from these base quantities. The ISQ defines quantity as any physical property that can be
measured with the SI units [3]. A quantity may also be a physical constant, such as the gas constant, or the Planck’s constant. Several
hundred quantities are employed to describe and measure the physical world, and a few of these quantities are listed below [4]:
Length Viscosity Area Electromotive force

Time Energy Luminance Entropy
Mass Speed Angle Pressure
Force Power Temperature Momentum
Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis 3
1.1.2.1 Relationship Between Quantities

The study of physics to a great extent can be defined as the study of mathematical relationships among various physical properties.
Physical quantities are defined, as above, when these properties allow a reasonable mathematical description. The relationship of
all other quantities can be established in terms of a few base quantities selected properly, either by definition, by geometry, by
physical law, or by a combination of the base quantities.
For instance, pressure is a quantity that is related, by definition, to a quantity force divided by a quantity area. Area, on the
other hand, is a quantity related, by geometry, to the product of two quantities of length. Moreover, force is a quantity related (by
Newton’s second law) to the quantity mass times the quantity acceleration.
The relationships between quantities are expressed in the form of quantity equations. We can relate even an isolated quantity,
such as temperature to the quantities pressure, volume, and mass. We can further relate the quantities length and time by using the
universal constant and the speed of light. Therefore, if we define our concepts correctly, we can relate any quantity to any other
quantity. Thus the equation area ¼ length width is a quantity equation, which states that the quantity (area of a rectangle) is
equal to the quantity (length) times the quantity (width).
1.1.2.2 Base Quantities

In order to reduce a set of quantity equations, we have to first establish a number of so-called base quantities. Hence, base
quantities are called the building blocks upon which we develop the entire structure and relationships of the physical world. As
mentioned earlier, the international system of units, or SI, makes use of seven base quantities: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
temperature (K), electric current (A), luminous intensity (cd), and amount of substance (mol). The number of base quantities, as
well as their choice, is quite an arbitrary choice; but, generally, we select quantities that are easy to understand and frequently used,
and for which accurate and measurable standards can be established.
1.1.2.3 Derived Quantities

As mentioned in the relationship section earlier, using the selected base quantities as building blocks, derived quantities are
expressed as those that can be deducted by definition, geometry, or physical law. Some derived quantity examples are area (equals
the products of two lengths), velocity (equals length/time), and force (equals mass acceleration), pressure, power, etc. We also
have what are called supplementary units (as a class of derived units), namely, the plane angle (radian ¼rad¼ m m1) and solid
angle (steradian ¼sr ¼m2 m2).
1.1.2.4 Multiples and Submultiples of Quantities

Note that the magnitude of a quantity can have an extremely large range. In an effort to handle such a large range, the SI unit
system generated 20 prefixes shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Multiples and submultiples in SI unit system
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Example
Yotta Y 1024 5 Ym¼5 yottameters¼5 1024 m

Zetta Z 1021 2 Zm¼2 zettameters ¼2 1021 m
Exa E 1018 7 Em¼7 exameters¼7 1018 m
Peta P 1015 6 PJ¼ 6 petajoules¼ 6 1015 J
Tera T 1012 5 TW¼5 terawatts¼5 1012 W
Giga G 109 8 GJ¼8 gigajoules¼8 109 J
Mega M 106 2 MW¼2 megawatts¼2 106 W
Kilo k 103 3 km¼3 kilometers¼3 103 m
Hecto h 100 6 hL¼6 hectoliters¼600 L
Deka da 10 2 dam¼2 decameters¼20 m
Deci d 101 3 dL¼3 deciliters¼0.3 L
Centi c 102 5 cm¼5 centimeters¼0.05 m
Milli m 103 9 mV¼9 millivolts¼9 103 V
Micro m 106 5 mm¼5 micrometers¼5 106 m
Nano n 109 2 ns¼2 nanoseconds¼ 2 109 s
Pico p 1012 3 pJ¼3 picojoules¼3 1012 J
Femto f 1015 6 fm¼6 femtometers ¼6 1015 m
Atto a 1018 5 aJ¼5 attojoules¼5 1018 J
zepto z 1021 6 zJ¼6 zeptojoules¼6 1021 J
yocto y 1024 8 yJ¼8 yoctojoules¼ 8 1024 J
1.1.2.5 Types of Quantity Equations

The energy of wind, the pressure at the bottom of an air or water column, the weight of an object, and the viscosity of a liquid are
all physical quantities of nature. And, whether they are measured or not, these quantities are always there interacting with each
other according to fundamental laws. Physicists often express these laws in terms of quantity equations because quantities
conform to these laws. Quantity equations possess two important features: first, they show the relationship between quantities,
and second, they can be used with any system of units.
There are three basic types of quantity equations:
1. Quantity equations developed from the laws of nature; for instance, Newton’s second law of motion
F¼ma
where F is the magnitude of the force, m is the magnitude of the mass, and a is the magnitude of the acceleration.
2. Quantity equations developed from geometry; for instance, area of a circle
A ¼ p r2
where A is the magnitude of the area, p is the coefficient based on the geometry of a circle, and r is the magnitude of the radius.
3. Quantity equations developed from a definition; for instance, definition of pressure
p ¼ F=A
where p is the magnitude of the pressure, F is the magnitude of the force, and A is the magnitude of the area.
Many quantity equations can be developed as a combination of the basic quantity equations given above, and in all cases, we
can use any units we want to describe the magnitudes of the relevant physical quantities.
1.1.3 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is quite a useful method for deriving an algebraic relationship between different physical quantities, which
relies on good physical intuition in choosing the different appropriate physical variables. The idea behind this analysis is that each
variable is expressed in terms of its fundamental units of mass M, length L, and time T, etc., raised to some arbitrary index a, b, c,
etc. These unknown indices are then determined by equating the indices of like units [5]. One might also choose force, length, and
mass as the base dimensions, with associated dimensions F, L, M, which corresponds to a different basis. It may sometimes be
useful to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for instance, it may be advantageous
to use dimensions of M, L, T, and Q, where Q is used to represent the dimension of electric charge. Another example is that, for
instance, in thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Y.
Let’s now perform a simple dimensional analysis to find an expression for the hydrostatic pressure in a fluid. The hydrostatic
pressure is dependent on the density r, the gravitational acceleration g, and depth h. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic equation
in the form of
r ¼ k ra g b hc
where k is a coefficient (dimensionless), and a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each
symbol by its fundamental physical unit, and have
a b
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ ML3 LT 2 ðLÞc
or
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ Ma L3aþbþc T 2b
M, L, and T are all independent quantities; therefore, we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following equations
1 ¼ a; 1 ¼ 3a þ b þ c; 2 ¼ 2b
Then we can solve for and find that a¼ b¼c ¼ 1; consequently, the expression for hydrostatic pressure can be found
as p¼ k r g h, where the coefficient k cannot be determined from dimensional analysis because it is dimensionless.
More dimensional analysis examples are provided in the examples section later.
1.1.4 Units and Conversions
This section, as modified after ASHRAE [6,7], references the Standard for Metric Practice, ASTM Standard E 380-84 [8], as one of
the basic standards for SI usage [9–13]. Table 2 provides conversion factors rounded to three or four significant figures for
conversion between SI and I–P. And Table 3 provides conversion factors for different physical quantities related to energy further.
Table 2 SI energy related units and conversions
Divide By To obtain Divide By To obtain
ha 0.405 acre J 1.36 ft lbf (work)

kPa 100 bar J kg1 2.99 ft lbf lb1 (specific energy)
L 159 barrel (42 US gal, petroleum) W 0.0226 ft lbf min1 (power)
m3 0.159 L 3.79 gallon (US, 231 in3)
kJ 1.055 Btu, IT m3 0.00379 gallon
kJ m3; J L1 37.3 Btu ft3 mL s1 1.05 gph
kJ L1 0.279 Btu gal1 L s1 0.0631 gpm
W (m K)1 1.731 Btu ft h1 ft3 1F mL J1 0.0179 gpm ton1 refrigeration
Btu in (h ft3 1F)1 g 0.0648 grain (1/7000 lb)
W (m K)1 0.144 (thermal conductivity, k) mg L1 17.1 gr gal1
W (m 1C)1 g kg1 0.143 gr lb1
W 0.293 Btu h1 kW 9.81 horsepower (boiler)
kJ m3 11.4 Btu ft2 kW 0.746 horsepower (550 ft-lbf s1)
GJ (y m2)1 0.0000114 Btu (y ft2)1 mm 25.4a inch
To obtain by Multiply To obtain by Multiply
W m2 3.15 Btu (h ft2)1 kPa 3.38 in of mercury (60F)
W (m2 K) 1 5.68 (overall heat transfer coef., U) Pa 249 in of water (60F)
(thermal conductance, C) mm m 1 0.833 in/100 ft, thermal expansion
kJ kg 1 2.33 Btu lb 1 mN m 113 in lbf (torque or moment)
kJ (kg K) 1 4.19 Btu (lb 1F) 1 (specific heat, C) mm2 645 in2
kJ (kg 1C) 1 mL 16.4 in3 (volume)
m3 0.0352 bushel mL s 1 0.273 in3 min 1 (SCIM)
J 4.19 calorie, gram mm3 16,400 in3 (section modulus)
kJ 4.19 calorie, kilogram; kilocalorie mm4 416,000 in4 (section moment)
mPa s 1.00a centipoise, viscosity, m m s1 0.278 km h 1
(absolute, dynamic) MJ 3.60a kWh
mm2 s 1 1.00a centistokes, kinematic viscosity, n GJ (y m2) 1 0.0388 kWh (y ft2)
Pa 0.100a dyne cm 2 J L1 2.12 kWh/100 cfm
W 44.0 EDR hot water (150 Btu h 1) N 9.81 kilopond (kg force)
W 70.3 EDR stream (240 Btu h 1) kN 4.45 kip (1000 lbf)
COP 0.293 EER MPa 6.89 kip in 2 (ksi)
m 0.3048a ft m3 0.001a liter
mm 304.8a ft mPa 133 micron of mercury (60oF)
m s1 0.00508 ft min 1, fpm km 1.61 mile
m s1 0.3048a ft s 1, fps km 1.85 mile/nautical
kPa 2.99 ft of water km h 1 1.61 mph
kPa m 1 0.0981 ft of water per 100 ft pipe m s1 0.44 mph
m2 0.0929 ft2 kPa 0.100a millibar
m2 K W 1 kPa 0.133 mm of mercury (601F)
m2 1C W 1 0.176 ft2 h 1F Btu 1 Pa 9.80 mm of water (601F)
(thermal resistance, R) kPa 9.80 meter of water
mm2 s 1 92 900 ft2 s 1, kinematic viscosity, n g 28.3 ounce (mass, avoirdupois)
L 28.3 ft3 N 0.278 ounce (force or thrust)
m3 0.0283 ft3 mL 29.6 ounce (liquid, US)
mL S 1 7.78 ft3 h 1, cfh mN m 7.06 ounce inch (torque or moment)
1. L s1 0.472 ft3 min 1, cfm g L1 7.49 ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon
L s1 28.3 ft3 s 1, cfs ng (s m2 Pa) 1 57.4 perm (permeance)
Nm 1.36 ft lbf (torque or moment) ng (s m Pa) 1 1.46 perm inch (permeability)
mL 473 pint (liquid, US) kg m 3 16.0 lb ft 3 (density, r)
pound kg m 3 120 lb gallon 1
kg 0.454 lb (mass) mg kg 1 1.00a ppm (by mass)
g 454 lb (mass) kPa 6.89 psi
N 4.45 lbf (force or thrust) EJ 1.055 quad
kg m 1 1.49 lb ft 1 (uniform load) L 0.946 quart (liquid US)
mPa s 0.413 lbm (ft h) 1 viscosity m2 9.29 square (100 sq ft)
(absolute, dynamic, m) mL 15 tablespoon (approximately)
mPa s 1490 lbf (ft s) 1 viscosity mL 5 teaspoon (approximately)
(absolute, dynamic, m) MJ 105.5 therm (US)
g s1 0.126 lb h 1 t (tonne); Mg 1.016 ton, long (2240 lb)
kg s 1 0.00756 lb min 1 t (tonne); Mg 0.907 ton, short (2000 lb)
(Continued )
Table 2 Continued
Divide By To obtain Divide By To obtain
kW 0.284 lb of steam per hour @2121F kW 3.52 ton, refrigeration (12,000 Btu h 1)
(1001C) Pa 133 torr (1 mm Hg@01C)
Pa 47.9 lbf ft 2 W m2 10.8 watt per square foot
mPa s 47900 lbf s ft 2 viscosity m 0.9144a yd
(absolute, dynamic, m) m2 0.836 yd2
kg m 2 4.88 lb ft 2 m3 0.765 yd3
To obtain by Multiply To obtain by Multiply
a
Conversion factor is exact.
Abbreviation: COP, coefficient of performance; EDR, equivalent direct radiation; EER, energy efficiency ratio; SCIM, standard cubic inches per minute.
1.1.4.1 Useful Units in Electricity

1.1.4.1.1 Coulomb
In an electric circuit, the unit of electric charge in SI is the coulomb, and has the symbol C. An ampere, which has the symbol of A,
is defined as the amount of charge transported through any cross-section of a conductor in one second by a constant current of one
ampere, and is equivalent to the amount of charge on about 6,241,510,000,000,000,000 electrons.
1.1.4.1.2 Volt
In an electric circuit, the unit of electric potential, potential difference, and electromotive force in SI is the volt and has the symbol
V. If and when we consider our house wiring as plumbing, volts can then be considered as a measure of the water pressure. One
volt is the potential difference between two points on a conductor when the current flowing is one ampere and the power
dissipated between the points is one watt.
The volt is a derived unit, and in terms of base units it can be expressed as follows:

Volt ¼ watt=ampere ¼ m2 kg = s3 A
1.1.4.1.3 Watt
In an electric circuit, one watt (joules per second) is a current of one ampere at a pressure of one volt. In terms of base units,

Watt ¼ J s1 ¼ m2 kg s3
1.1.4.1.4 Ohm
In an electric circuit, the unit of electrical resistance (a derived unit) in SI is called an ohm and has the symbol of O. One ohm is
defined as the electrical resistance between two points on a conductor when a constant potential difference of one volt, applied to
these points, produces in the conductor a current of one ampere. Ohm is a derived unit, and in terms of base units it can be
expressed as follows:

Ohm ðOÞ ¼ volt=ampere ¼ m2 kg = s3 A 2
1.1.5 Rules for Using SI Units
1.1.5.1 Capitalization
The names of units start with a lowercase letter when writing the units out except for in a title or the beginning of a sentence. The
only exception is “degree Celsius.” Unless they come from an individual's name (in which case the first letter of the symbol is
capitalized), lowercase is used in writing symbols for units. The only exception is L for liter. Symbols for numerical prefixes
(multiples and submultiples) are also lowercase, except for those representing multipliers of 106 or more, for instance, mega (M),
giga (G), tera (T), peta (P), exa (E), zetta (Z), and yotta (Y). It means that all prefixes are written in lowercase when spelled out.
Lowercase units: m, kg, s, mol, etc. Uppercase units: A, K, Hz, Pa, C, etc.
Symbols rather than self-styled abbreviations should always be used to represent units.
Correct usage: A, s. Incorrect usage: amp sec
1.1.5.2 Use of Plurals

Remember that symbols are never expressed as plural. That is, an “s” is never added to the symbol to denote plural. However,
when the names of units are spelled out, they are made plural if the number to which they refer is greater than 1. Fractions, on the
other hand, are always written as singular. Plurals are used as required when writing unit names. For example, henries is plural for
henry. The following exceptions are noted:
Table 3 Conversion factors
Pressure
pascal dyne cm 2 kg cm 2 bar mm Hg atm in Hg psi
1 10 1.0192 105 105 0.00750 9.8692 106 2.953 104 1.45038 104
0.100 1 1.01972 106 106 0.000750 9.8692 107 2.953 105 1.45038 105
98,066 980,665 1 0.98066 735.559 0.96784 28.959 14.223
105 106 1.01972 1 750.062 0.98692 29.530 14.5038
133.32 1333.2 0.0013595 0.0013332 1 0.00131579 0.03937 0.0193368
101,325 1,013,250 1.03323 1.01325 760.0 1 29.921 14.6960
3386.4 33,864 0.034532 0.33864 25.400 0.033421 1 0.491154
6894.8 68,948 0.07030696 0.068948 51.715 0.068046 2.0360 1
Mass kg lb
1¼ 2.20462
0.45359 ¼ 1
Volume metre3 liter gal ft3 in3
1 1000 264.173 35.315 61,023.74

0.001a 1 0.264173 0.035315 61.02374
0.0037854 3.7854 1 0.13368 231.0
0.028317 28.317 7.48055 1 1728a
1.63871 105 0.0163871 4.329 103 5.787 104 1
Energy Watt-sec joule calorie fl lb Btu
Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis

1 1 0.2390 0.73756 9.4845 104
4.184a 4.184a 1 3.08596 3.9683 103
1.3558 1.3558 0.32405 1 1.2859 103
1054.35 1054.35 251.9957 777.65 1
Density kg m 3 (g L 1) g cm 3 lb gal 1 lb ft 3
1 0.001 0.008345 0.0624280

1000 1 8.34538 62.4280
119.827 0.119827 1 7.48055
16.018463 0.016018 0.133680 1
Specific volume m3 kg 1 (L g 1) cm3 g 1 gal lb 1 ft3 lb 1
1 1000 119.827 16.018463

0.001 1 0.119827 0.016018
0.008345 8.34538 1 0.133680
0.0624280 62.4280 7.48055 1
Specific heat J (g K) 1 cal (g K) 1 Btu lb 1 1F
or entropy 1 0.2390 0.2390

4.184a 1 1.0
4.184a 1 1
7
(Continued )
8
Table 3 Continued
Pressure
Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis

pascal dyne cm 2 kg cm 2 bar mm Hg atm in Hg psi
Entropy J g1 cal g 1 Btu lb 1

1 0.2390 0.43021
4.184a 1 1.8a
2.3244 0.5556 1
Thermal W (m K) 1 W (cm 1C) 1 J (s cm 1C) 1 cal (s cm 1C) 1 Btu h 1 ft 1F
conductivity 418.4a 1 1 0.2390 57.816

418.4a 4.184a 4.184a 1 241.91
1.7296 0.017296 0.017296 4.1338 103 1
Viscosity (1 poise¼dyne-sec cm 2 ¼0.1 newton-sec m 2)
lbm (ft s) 1 N s m2 kg (m s) 1 lbf hr ft 2 lbf s ft 2 Poise g (cm s) 1
1 1.4882 1.4882 8.6336 106 3.1081 102 14.8819

0.0671955 1 1 5.8014 106 0.020885 10
115,827 172,369 172,369 1 3600 1,723,689
32.17405 47.88026 47.88026 2.7778 104 1 478.8026
6.71955 102 0.1 0.1 5.8014 107 2.0885 103 1
Coefficient of W (m2 K) 1 kcal (h m2 1C) 1 W (cm2 1C) 1 cal (h cm2 1C) 1 Btu h 1 ft2 1F
heat transfer 1 0.8598 1 104 2.388 105 0.1761

1.630 1 1.1630 104 2.778 105 0.2048
10,000 8598 1 0.2388 1761.1
41,869 36,000 4.1869 1 7373.5
5.6783 4.8823 5.6783 104 1.3562 104 1
International Table Btu, cal, and kcal. Linear temperature difference: 1F or 1R, 1C or K.
a
Singular: lux, hertz, siemens Plural: lux, hertz, Siemens
Example 1: Correct and incorrect usages
Correct usage Incorrect usage
5 kg 5 kgs
5 kilograms 5 kilogram
5.57 kg –
5.57 kilograms 5.57 kilogram
0.57 kilogram 0.57 kilograms
1.1.5.3 Use of Hyphenation and Space

Also remember that a hyphen or a space is not used to separate a prefix from the name of the unit. A space, however, is left
between a symbol and the number to which it refers, with the exception of the symbols for degree, minute, and second of angles,
and for degree Celsius.
In three cases the final vowel in the prefix is omitted: megohm, kilohm, and hectare.
5 kg 5kg
40 450 3000 40 45 0 30 00
30C 30 C
5 km 5km
MJ mF
5s 5s
5 milliseconds 5 milli-seconds
1.1.5.4 Use of Numerals and Periods

Remember that scientific and technical writing is different from any other writings, such as newspaper, magazine, and other
writings. In scientific and technical writing, numerals are used for all numbers expressing physical quantities; however, it is a
common practice to write out the numbers from one to nine and use numerals for other numbers in newspapers. In ordinary
books and magazines, for instance, whole numbers from one through ninety-nine, and any of these followed by “hundred,”
“thousand,” “million,” “billion,” etc., are spelled out. Also, keep in mind that the associated number is written as numerals when
the unit is represented by an abbreviation or symbol.
Periods are never used after SI symbols unless the symbol is at the end of a sentence.
1.1.5.5 Use of Symbols for Mathematical Operations

Units are represented by symbols, not by their spelled-out names, when the units (SI) are used with symbols for mathematical
operations.
Notes to remember
1. When writing unit names as a product, always use a space (preferred) or a hyphen.
Correct usage: newton meter or newton-meter
2. When expressing a quotient using unit names, always use the word per and not a solidus (/). The solidus or slash mark is
reserved for use with symbols.
Correct usage: meter per second Incorrect usage: meter/second
3. When writing a unit name that requires a power, use a modifier, such as squared or cubed, after the unit name. For area or
volume, the modifier can be placed before the unit name.
Correct usage: millimeter squared or square millimeter
4. When denoting a quotient by unit symbols, any of the following are accepted form:
Correct usage: m/s or m s1
In more complicated cases, consider using negative powers or parentheses. For acceleration, use m/s2 or m s2 but not m/s/s.
For electrical potential, use kg.m2/(s3 A) or kg m2 s3 A1 but not kg m2/s3/A.
J kg1
J kg1 joules kg1
joules per kilogram joules/kilogram
N.m newton.meter
newton meter
newton-meter
1.1.6 Overall Examples

Example 4: Area
Find: Show the unit of area in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
Area equation is a quantity equation arising from geometry; for example, the area equation for a pipe is expressed as follows:
AreaðAÞ ¼ p r 2 ¼ pðmÞ2
AreaðAÞ ¼ m2
where A is the magnitude of area in m2, the magnitude of p is 3.14 (dimensionless), and r is the magnitude of radius in m.
Or in another example, the area for a rectangle is expressed as follows:
AreaðAÞ ¼ w l ¼ m m
AreaðAÞ ¼ m2
where A is the magnitude of area in m , w is the magnitude of width in m, and l is the magnitude of length in m.
2
Let’s now perform a simple dimensional analysis to find an expression for the area. The area is dependent on the dimensionless
number p and the radius. So,
A ¼ k ra
where k is a dimensionless number, and a is the number to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its fundamental
physical unit, and have
L2 ¼ L a
L is an independent quantity; therefore we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following equation
a¼2
Consequently, the expression for the area can be found as A¼k ra, where the coefficient k cannot be determined from
dimensional analysis because it is dimensionless; however, from geometry, we know that k¼ p.
Example 5: Volume
Find: Show the unit of volume in SI and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
Volume equation is a quantity equation arising from geometry; for example, the volume equation for a pipe is expressed as follows:
VolumeðV Þ ¼ pr 2 L

¼ p m2 ðmÞ
VolumeðV Þ ¼ m3
where V is the magnitude of volume in m3, the magnitude of p is 3.14 (dimensionless), and r is the magnitude of radius in m.
Or in another example, the volume for a rectangular cross-section is expressed as follows:
VolumeðV Þ ¼ w l h ¼ m m m
VolumeðV Þ ¼ m3
where V is the magnitude of volume in m , w is the magnitude of cross-sectional width in m, l is the magnitude of cross-sectional
3
length in m, and h is the magnitude of height.

Let’s now perform a dimensional analysis to find an expression for the volume having a tubular cross-sectional area. The
volume is dependent on the dimensionless number p, the radius, and length of the tube. So,
V ¼ k r a Lb
where k is a dimensionless number, and a and b are the numbers to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its
fundamental physical unit, and have
L3 ¼ La Lb
L is an independent quantity; we can therefore equate the indices on both sides, and have the following equation
aþb¼3
In the earlier example, it was determined that a¼ 2, so this leaves b ¼ 1. Consequently, the expression for the volume can be
found as V¼k ra Lb, where the coefficient k cannot be determined from dimensional analysis because it is dimensionless; however,
from geometry, we know that k¼ p; therefore, V ¼ k r2 L.
Example 6: Volume
Find: Determine the unit of volume (m3) in SI for a given volume in I–P system.
Solution:
Volume unit in I–P system is ft3 and remember that 1 ft¼ 0.3048 m; then
VolumeðV Þ ¼ ft3 ð0:3048 m=1 ftÞ3
VolumeðV Þ ¼ 0:028317 m3
Example 7: Mass
Find: Determine the unit of mass (kg) in SI for a given mass in I–P system.
Solution:
Mass unit in I–P system is lbm and remember that 1 lbm ¼ 0.45359 kg; then
MassðmÞ ¼ lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ
MassðmÞ ¼ 0:45359 kg
Example 8: Force
Find: Show that the unit of force is newton (N) in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
The unit of force in SI, defined as that force, which applied to a mass of 1 kg, gives it an acceleration of 1 m s1. Newton’s
second law of motion, a quantity equation established from the laws of nature, is expressed as:
ForceðF Þ ¼ mass acceleration ¼ m a

¼ ðkgÞ m s2 ¼ kg m s2
ForceðF Þ ¼ N
where m is the magnitude of mass in kg, a is the magnitude of acceleration in m s2, and F is the magnitude of force in N.
The force is dependent on the mass and the acceleration. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic equation for force in the form of
F ¼ ma a b
where a and b are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its fundamental physical unit, and have
b
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ ðMÞa LT 2
or
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ Ma Lb T 2b
1 ¼ a and 1¼b
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼ b ¼ c¼ 1; consequently, the expression for force can be found as F¼ m a.
Example 9: Force
Find: Show that the unit of force is newton (N) in SI for a given force in I–P system
Solution:
Force unit in I–P system is lbf and remember that 1 lbm ¼ 0.45359 kg, 1 ft¼0.3048 m, and gravitational acceleration g is 32.174
lbm s2; then

Force ðF Þ ¼ 1 lbf ¼ 1 lbm 32:174 ft s2 ¼ 32:174 lbm fts2

¼ 32:174 lbm fts2 0:45359 kglb1
m 0:3048 mft1
ForceðF Þ ¼ 4:45 kg m s2 ¼ 4:45 N

where g is the magnitude of gravitational acceleration, and F is the magnitude of force.
Note that in I–P system, an acceleration of 9.80665 m s2 corresponds exactly to 32.174048 ft s2 as shown below:
g ¼ 9:80665 m s2 ð100 cm=1 mÞ=ð12 in=1 ftÞ=ð2:54 cm=1 inÞ ¼ 32:174048 ft s2
Example 10: Pressure

Find: Show the unit of pressure (pascal) in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
In solids, we deal with stresses; in liquids and gases, however, we deal with pressure, which is defined as the normal component
of force per unit area. Therefore the unit for pressure is a derived unit, and has the symbol Pa (pascal) in SI. One pascal is the
pressure resulting from a force of 1 N acting uniformly over an area of 1 m2. So, the pressure equation is a quantity equation
established from a definition, which is expressed as follows:
PressureðpÞ ¼ force=area ¼ F=A ¼ m g=A

¼ ðkgÞ ms2 m2 ¼ kgms2 m2 ¼ N m2
PressureðpÞ ¼ Pa
where F is the magnitude of force (the mass times the acceleration) in newton (N), and A is the magnitude of area in m2.
The pressure is dependent on the mass, the gravitational acceleration, and the area. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic
equation for pressure in the form of
p ¼ ma g b Ac
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its fundamental physical unit,
and have
b c
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ ðMÞa LT 2 L2
or
M1 L1 T 2 ¼ Ma Lb2c T 2b
1 ¼ a; 1 ¼ b 2c; 2 ¼ 2b
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼ b ¼ c¼1; consequently, the expression for pressure can be found as p¼ (m g)/A.
Example 11: Pressure

Find: Show that the unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) in SI for a given force in I–P system.
Solution:
Pressure unit in I–P system is psi (lbf in2), and remember that 1 lbf ¼ 4.45 kg m s2 ¼ 4.45 N; 1 in¼ 0.0254 m; then
Pressure ¼ force=area ¼ F=A ¼ p

¼ ð1 lbf Þ 4:45 kg m s2 =ð1 lbf Þ = in2 6:452 104 m2 in2

¼ 6894:8ðkgÞ m s2 m2
PressureðpÞ ¼ 6894:8 Pa ¼ 6:89 kPa

where F is the magnitude of force and A is the magnitude of area.
Example 12: Work

Find: Show that the unit of work is joule (J) in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
The unit of work or energy in SI is joule, which has the symbol, J. This is the work done when the point of application of a force
of 1 N is displaced 1 m in the direction of the force. One watt-second is equal to 1 J. The work equation is then a quantity equation
established from a definition, which is expressed as follows:
Work ¼ force distance ¼ ðmass accelerationÞ distance ¼ W ¼ m a Dx
¼ ðkgÞðm s2 ÞðmÞ
¼ ðkg m s2 Þm
Work ¼ N m ¼ J
where W is the magnitude of work in J, m is the magnitude of mass in kg, and a is the magnitude of acceleration in m s2, and Dx is
the distance traveled in m.
The work is dependent on the mass, the acceleration, and the distance traveled, for instance. Let’s now assume that a general
algebraic equation for work is in the form of
W ¼ ma ab Dxc
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can again replace each symbol by its fundamental physical
unit, and have
b
M1 L1 T 2 L1 ¼ ðMÞa LT 2 ðLÞc
or

M1 L2 T 2 ¼ ðMÞa Lb T 2b Lc
1 ¼ a; 1 ¼ b and 1 ¼ c
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼b ¼ c¼ 1; consequently, the expression for force can be found as W¼ m a Dx.
Example 13: Energy

Find: Show that the unit of energy is joule (J) in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work, and as expressed earlier, the unit of energy in SI is joule, which has the symbol,
J. So, the energy equation is a quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed as follows:
Energy ¼ work ¼ force distance ¼ ðmass accelerationÞ distance ¼ E ¼ m a Dx

¼ ðkgÞ m s2 ðmÞ

¼ kg m s2 m
Energy ¼ N m ¼ J
where m is the magnitude of mass in kg, and a is the magnitude of acceleration in m s2, and Dx is the distance traveled in m.
In this case, the energy is dependent on the mass, the acceleration, and the distance traveled. Let’s now assume that a general
algebraic equation for energy is in the form of
E ¼ ma ab Dxc
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can again replace each symbol by its fundamental physical
unit, and have
b
M1 L1 T 2 L1 ¼ ðMÞa LT 2 ðLÞc
or

M1 L2 T 2 ¼ ðMÞa Lb T 2b Lc
1 ¼ a; 1 ¼ b and 1 ¼ c
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼b ¼ c¼ 1; consequently, the expression for energy can be found as E ¼m a Dx.
Example 14: Power

Find: Show that the unit of power is watt (W) in SI, and perform dimensional analysis.
Solution:
The unit of power in SI is watt and has the symbol, W. Power is defined as the rate at which energy is expended or work done.
The watt in thermodynamics is defined as “the power which in 1 s gives rise to energy of one joule.” In mechanical terms, however,
a power of one watt can move a mass of 1 kg in 1 s, through a distance of one meter with such force that the kilogram mass’s
velocity at the end of the meter will be 1 m s1 greater than it was at the beginning. In an electric circuit, on the other hand, one
watt is a current of one ampere at a pressure of one volt. So, the power equation is a quantity equation established from a
definition, which is expressed as follows:
Power ¼ work=time; or energy generation=time; or energy consumption=time
Since the unit of work or energy is J, then
Power ¼ J s1 ¼ W ¼ P ¼ E t 1 ¼ energy=time ¼ m a Dx t 1
where t is the time in seconds. In this case, the power is dependent on the mass, the acceleration, the distance traveled, and the
time taken to travel. Let’s now assume that a general algebraic equation for power is in the form of
P ¼ F a Dxb t c
and have
a
M1 L1 T 2 L1 T 1 ¼ M L T 2 ðLÞb T c
or
M1 L2 T 3 ¼ Ma Laþb T 2ac
1 ¼ a; 2 ¼ a þ b and 3 ¼ 2a c
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼ b ¼ c¼ 1; consequently, the expression for power can be found as P¼ F Dx t1 ¼
m a Dx t1.
Example 15: Volt

Find: Express the unit of volt in terms of base units.
Solution:
As mentioned earlier, in an electric circuit, the unit of electric potential, potential difference, and electromotive force in SI is volt
and has the symbol V. One volt is the potential difference between two points on a conducting wire carrying a constant current of
one ampere, and the power dissipated between the points is one watt.
The volt is a derived unit, and in terms of base units it can be expressed as follows:
E ¼ P=I ¼ electromotive force ¼ power=current
Volt ¼ watt=ampere ¼ V ¼ W=A ¼ W A 1

¼ J s1 A 1
1
¼ JC
¼ ðN mÞ C1
¼A O
¼ A kg m2 s3 A 2
Volt ¼ kg m2 A1 s3
Example 16: Radiant flux density

Find: How many units of radiant flux density I (W m2) in SI are in a given amount of Btu h1 ft2?
Solution:
Radiant flux density is defined as the amount of energy received on a unit surface in unit time.
Radiant flux density ðW m2 Þ ¼ ðBtu h1 ft2 Þ ð1054:35 JBtu1 Þ ðh=3600 sÞ ðft=0:3048 mÞ2
Radiant f lux density ðW m2 Þ ¼ 3:15 W m2
Example 17: Boiler horsepower

Find: How many kilowatts of power in SI are in 1 boiler horsepower (bhp) in I–P?
Solution:
Remember that one boiler horsepower is the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lbm of water at 2121F (1001C) in one hour; therefore,
it is equal to 33,475 Btu h1. A boiler horsepower is approximately 13 times larger than mechanical horsepower (engine output).
Also remember that 1 Btu¼ 1054.35 J, and 1 h ¼ 3600 s; therefore,
Boiler power ¼ 1 bhp ½ð33; 475 Btuh1 Þ=1 bhp ð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ ð1 h=3600 sÞ
Boiler power ¼ 9804 W
Boiler power ¼ 9:8 kW
Example 18: Horsepower

Find: How many kilowatts of power in SI are in 1 horsepower (hp) in I–P?
Solution:
The horsepower (hp) is a unit in I–P system, sometimes used to express the rate at which mechanical energy is expended. It was
originally defined as 550 foot-pounds per second (ft-lbf s1).
Remember that 1 lbf ¼ 4.45 kg m s2 ¼ 4.45 N, and 1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m; then
Power ¼ ð550 ft lbf s1 Þ ½ð0:3048 m= 1ftÞ ð4:45 kg m s2 Þ=1 lbf
Power ¼ 746 W
Power ¼ 0:746 kW
Example 19: Refrigeration ton

Find: How many Btu h1 and kWh of refrigeration is provided by 1 t of refrigeration?
Solution:
Remember that 1 Btu ¼ 1054.35 J, 1 h ¼ 3600 s, 1 lbm ice¼ 1 lbm of liquid water, latent heat of fusion ¼ 144 Btu lbm1, and 1
short ton¼ 2000 lbm.
Refrigeration is commonly rated in tons. 1 t of refrigeration is the latent heat of fusion needed to melt 1 short ton (2000 lbm) of
ice in 24 h. Therefore

1 refrigeration ton ¼ 2000 lbm ice 144 Btu lb1 m =24 h
1 ref rigeration ton ¼ 12; 000 Btu h1

1 refrigeration ton ¼ 12; 000 Btu h1 1054:35 J Btu1 ð1 h=3600 sÞ ð1 kJ=1000 JÞ
1 ref rigeration ton ¼ 3:52 kW

Example 20: Energy
Find: Show how many MJ of energy 1kWh is equal to.
Solution:
Remember that 1 MJ of energy is equal to 106 J of energy, and 1 kWh is equal to 1000 J s1. Therefore,

1 kWh ¼ 1000 J s1 ð1 hÞ ð60 min=1 hÞ ð60 s=1 minÞ ¼ 3;600;000 J
1 kWh ¼ ð3;600;000 JÞ = ð1;000;000 J=1 MJÞ
1 kWh ¼ 3:6 MJ
Example 21: Energy

Find: Show how many MJ and kWh of energy 1 therm (US) has.
Solution:
The therm is a unit of heat energy equal to 100,000 Btu units. It is the energy equivalent of burning approximately 100 ft3 (2.83 m3) of
natural gas. Natural gas meters measure volume rather than energy content; therefore natural gas companies use a therm factor to convert
the volume of gas used to its heat equivalent, and thence calculate the actual energy use. Please remember that natural gas with a higher
than average concentration of butane, ethane, or propane has a higher therm factor, while impurities lower the therm factor.

1 therm ¼ ð100;000 BtuÞ ð1054:35 J=BtuÞ MJ=106 J ¼ 105:5 MJ
1 therm ¼ ð105:5 MJÞ ð1 kWh=3:6MJÞ ¼ 29:3 kWh
Example 22: Potential energy

Find: Show that the unit of potential energy is joule (J) in SI.
Solution:
Potential energy ¼ force elevation ¼ ðmass gravitational accelerationÞ elevation
Epe ¼ m g h
¼ ðkgÞ m s2 ðmÞ
2
¼ kg m s m
Epe ¼ N m ¼ J
where m is the magnitude of mass in kg, g is the magnitude of gravitational acceleration in m s2, and h is the elevation from a datum in m.
A dimensional analysis can easily be performed to find an expression for potential energy, as we did for work and energy
examples earlier.
Example 23: Kinetic energy

Find: Show that the unit of kinetic energy is joule (J) in SI.
Solution:

Kinetic energy ¼ 0:5 mass speed2
Eke ¼ 0:5 m u2
2
¼ ðkgÞ m s1

¼ kg m s2 m
Eke ¼ N m ¼ J
where m is the magnitude of mass in kg, and u is the magnitude of speed in m s1.
A dimensional analysis can easily be performed to find an expression for kinetic energy, as we did for work and energy earlier.
Example 24: Pressure energy

Find: Show that the unit of pressure energy is joule (J) in SI.
Solution:
Pressure energy ¼ ðmass pressure differenceÞ=density ¼ m DP=r

¼ ðkgÞðPaÞ= kg m3
¼ ðkgÞ kg m s = kg m3
1 2
2
¼ kg m s m
Pressure energy ¼ N m ¼ J
where m is the magnitude of mass in kg, DP is the magnitude of pressure difference between two points in Pa, and r is the
magnitude of density in kg m3.
Again, a dimensional analysis can easily be performed to find an expression for pressure energy, as we did for work and energy earlier.
Example 25: Kinematic viscosity

Find: Show the units of kinematic viscosity n in SI.
Solution:
The quantity equation for dynamic viscosity is given as follows:
n ¼ dynamic viscosity=density ¼ m=r ¼ F t=r

¼ ðPa sÞ= kg m3 ¼ kg m1 s2 s= kg m3
m ¼ m2 s1
where Pa (pascal) is equal to kg (m s ) , m is the magnitude of dynamic viscosity in Pa s, and r is the magnitude of density in kg m3.
2 1
Kinematic viscosity is dependent on the force F, the time t, and the density r. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic equation in
the form of
n ¼ F a t b =rc
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol in kinematic viscosity by its
fundamental physical unit, and overall, we would have
a c
L2 T 1 ¼ M L T 2 ðT Þb M L3
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its fundamental physical unit, and have
M0 L2 T 1 ¼ Mac Laþ3c T 2aþb
M, L, and T are independent quantities; therefore, we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following equations
0 ¼ a c; 2 ¼ a þ 3c; and 1 ¼ 2a þ b
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼ c ¼ ½, and b¼ 0, which are the indices (numbers); consequently, the expression for
kinematic viscosity can be found as n ¼ F t/r.
Example 26: Dimensionless number

Find: Show that the Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number.
Solution:
The quantity equation for Reynolds number is given as follows:

Re ¼ ru D=m ¼ kg m3 m s1 ðmÞ = kg m1 s2 s ¼ Dimensionless
where r is the magnitude of density of the fluid in kg m3, u is the magnitude of average velocity of the fluid in m s1, D is the
diameter of the pipe in which the fluid flows in m, and m is the magnitude of dynamic viscosity in Pa.s.
Example 27: Pump head

Find: Show that the pump head hp unit is m in SI.
Solution:
hp ¼ ðpumping energyÞ=ðgravitational accelerationÞ ¼ Ep =g

¼ J kg1 = m s2 ¼ N m kg1 = m s2

¼ kg m s2 m kg1 s2 m1
hp ¼ m
where J is the unit of energy joule in SI ( ¼ force distance ¼N m), N is the unit of force newton (¼kg m s2), and g is the
magnitude of gravitational acceleration 9.81 m s2.
Pump head is dependent on the pumping energy Ep and the gravitational acceleration g. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic
equation in the form of:
hp ¼ Eap g b
where a, b, and c are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol in kinematic viscosity by its
fundamental physical unit, and overall, we would have
a b
M0 L1 T 0 ¼ M2 L1 T 2 M1 L1 T 2
where a and b are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol by its fundamental physical unit, and
have
M0 L1 T 0 ¼ Ma Lab T 2aþ2b
M, L, and T are independent quantities; therefore, we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following
equations
0 ¼ a and 1 ¼ a b
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼ 0 and b¼ 1, which are the indices (numbers); consequently, the expression for pump
head can be found as hp ¼ Ep/g.
Example 28: Pump power

Find: Show that the pump power y unit is W in SI.
Solution:

Pump power ðyÞ ¼ Ep ¼ kg s1 J kg1
Pump powerðhÞ ¼ J s1 ¼ W

where m_ is the magnitude of mass flow rate in kg s1, and Ep is the magnitude of pumping energy in J kg1.
If the pump has a conversion efficiency of Z, then the pump input power ybk can be calculated as follows:
Pump input power ¼ pump break power ðybk Þ ¼ pump fluid power=efficiency ¼ yfl =h
where yfl is the pump output (fluid) power, and the efficiency Z is in decimals (i.e., 0.6 is used for 60% conversion efficiency).
A dimensional analysis can easily be performed to find an expression for pump power, as we did for work and energy, and
others earlier.
Example 29: Pump fluid power

Find: Show that the pump fluid power Ffl unit is W in SI.
Solution:

_ g hp ¼ kg s1 m s2 ðmÞ
Pump fluid power ðFfl Þ ¼ m

¼ kg m s2 m s1 ¼ N m s1
Pump f luid powerðFfl Þ ¼ J s1 ¼ W

_ is the magnitude of mass flow rate in kg s1, g is the magnitude of gravitational acceleration in m s2, and hp is the
where m
magnitude of pump head in m.
Ffl ¼ F a Dxb tc
and have
a
M1 L1 T 2 L1 T 1 ¼ M L T 2 ðLÞb T c
or
M1
L2 T 3 ¼ Ma Laþb T 2ac
M, L, and T are all independent quantities; therefore, we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following
equations
1 ¼ a; 2 ¼ a þ b and 3 ¼ 2a c
Then, we can solve for and find that a¼b ¼ c¼1; consequently, the expression for pump fluid power can be found as
Ffl ¼ F Dx t 1 ¼ m
_ g hpump .
Example 30: Pump break power

Find: Show that the pump break power Fbk unit is W in SI.
373.15K 100°C 212°F
Celsius
Fahrenheit
temperature
temperature
Ice point
273.15K 0°C 32°F
255.37K −17.78°C 0°F
0K −273.15°C −459.67°F
Celsius Fahrenheit
Thermodynamic temperature temperature
temperature scale scale
Fig. 1 Relationships between thermodynamic temperature and temperature scales.

Solution:
Pump break power ðFbk Þ ¼ O o

¼ kg m s2 m s1
1
¼Nms
Pump break powerðUbk Þ ¼ J s1 ¼ W

where O is the magnitude of torque in kg m s2, and o is the magnitude of angular velocity of the shaft in m s1.
A dimensional analysis can easily be performed to find an expression for pump break power, as we did in the previous example.
Example 31: Temperature

Find: Show what the temperature is in SI for a thermodynamic temperature of 300K.
Solution:
We know that temperature, a property, is related to hotness or coldness of an object; however, it is difficult to give an exact
definition of temperature. The zeroth law of thermodynamics indicates that when two bodies have temperature equality with a
third body, then in turn they have equal temperatures with each other.
Thermodynamic temperature is, however, defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest
temperature is the zero point. At this point (absolute zero), the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can
become no colder.
By definition, the temperature in degree Celsius is the difference between the thermodynamic temperature and the thermo-
dynamic temperature of 273.15K. Note that, by definition, a temperature interval of 11C is equal to a temperature interval of 1K,
and 01C (a.k.a. the ice point) corresponds to 273.15K (Fig. 1). Then, the temperature in SI (1C) can be expressed as follows:
Temperatureð1CÞ ¼ Thermodynamic temperatureðKÞ2273:15 K
Temperatureð1CÞ ¼ 26:851C
Find: Determine the thermodynamic temperature equivalent of 550oC.
Solution:
Thermodynamic temperature is expressed as follows:
Thermodynamic temperatureðKÞ ¼ Temperatureð1CÞ þ 273:15K
¼ 5501C þ 273:15K
Thermodynamic temperatureðKÞ ¼ 823:15K

Note that K was substituted for 1C because both units are identical as expressed before (Fig. 1).

Find: Determine the temperature in Fahrenheit for a given temperature of 211C.
Solution:
Note that ice point and boiling temperatures 0 and 1001C on the Celsius scale correspond to 32 and 2121F, respectively.
Therefore the Celsius temperature range of (100–01C)¼ 1001C corresponds exactly to the Fahrenheit temperature range of
(212–321F)¼ 1801F (Fig. 1).
(212–321F)¼(100–01C) ¼ (1801F¼ 1001C); therefore, 1.01C ¼1.81F. Furthermore, knowing that 1C¼ K, we obtain K¼ 1.81F.
Then, the relationship between the Celsius temperature (1C) and Fahrenheit temperature (1F) can be defined as follows:
Temperatureð1FÞ ¼ ð1:81F=1CÞð1CÞ þ 321F
where 321F again is the freezing temperature for water in Fahrenheit temperature scale, which is equal to 01C in the Celsius scale
(Fig. 1). Then, the temperature (1F) in this example can be determined as:
Temperatureð1FÞ ¼ ð1:81F=1CÞ ð211CÞ þ 321F
Temperatureð1FÞ ¼ 69:81FB 7011F

The absolute temperature scale related to the Fahrenheit temperature scale is known as the Rankine scale and is designated R.
The relationship between the Rankine and Fahrenheit temperature scales is expressed as follows:
Rankine ¼ 1F 459:67

Find: Determine the temperature in SI for a given temperature of 701F.
Solution:
The relationship between the Celsius temperature and the Fahrenheit temperature is defined as follows:

Temperatureð1CÞ ¼ ð1F2321FÞð5=9Þ 1C 1F1
where 321F is the freezing temperature for water in the Fahrenheit temperature scale, which is equal to 01C in the Celsius scale.
Then, the temperature in SI (1C) can be determined as:

Temperatureð1CÞ ¼ ð701F 321FÞ5=9 1C 1F1
Temperatureð1CÞ ¼ 21:111CB 2111C
Example 35: Density

Find: Determine the unit (kg m3) of density in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the density is defined as the mass m per unit volume V. So, the density equation is a quantity equation
established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
r ¼ m=V ¼ lbm ft3
Remember that: 1 ft ¼ 0:3048 m; and 1 lbm ¼ 0:45359 kg

r ¼ ½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ= ft3 ð0:3048 m=1 ftÞ3
q ¼ 16:0184 kg m3
Density is dependent on the mass m and the volume V. Now, let’s assume a general algebraic equation in the form of
r ¼ ma =V b
where a and b are the indices (numbers) to be determined. Now, we can replace each symbol in density by its fundamental
physical unit, and overall, we would have
b
M L3 ¼ ðMÞa L3
L and T are independent quantities; therefore, we can equate the indices on both sides, and have the following equations
1 ¼ a and 3 ¼ 3b
Then, we can solve for and find that a ¼ b¼ 1, which are the indices (numbers); consequently, the expression for kinematic
viscosity can be found as r¼ma/Vb.
Example 36: Specific volume

Find: Determine the unit (m3 kg1) of specific volume in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the specific volume is defined as the volume V per unit mass m, and is therefore a reciprocal of density.
So, the specific volume equation is a quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
n ¼ 1=r ¼ ft3 lb1
m
Remember that: 1 ft ¼ 0:3048 m; and 1 lbm ¼ 0:45359 kg

n ¼ ft3 ð0:3048 m=1 ftÞ3 =½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ
m ¼ 0:062428 m3 kg1
Now, we can replace each symbol in specific volume by its fundamental physical unit, and overall we would have

M1 L3 ¼ ðMÞa ðLÞb
where a and b are the indices (numbers), which are determined as a ¼3 and b¼ 1, so specific volume has a dimension of m3
kg1 (in SI).
Example 37: Specific heat or entropy

Find: Determine the unit (J (kg K)1) of specific heat in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
The constant pressure specific heat (Cp) and constant volume specific heat (Cv) are useful functions for particularly gases.
Remember that the specific heat is defined as the heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance one
degree. So, the specific heat equation is a quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as
follows:
C ¼ Btu lb1
m 1F
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; 1 lbm ¼ 0:45359 kg; K ¼ 1:81F
C ¼ ½Btu ð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ1FðK=1:81FÞ
C ¼ 4184 J=ðkg KÞ
So, in SI system, the specific heat is defined as the heat energy (J) required to raise the temperature of 1 kg substance 1K (or 11C).
Example 38: Enthalpy

Find: Determine the unit (J kg1) of enthalpy in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the enthalpy is defined as the heat energy available per unit mass of a substance. So, the enthalpy equation is a
quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
h ¼ Btu lb1
m
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; and 1 lbm ¼ 0:45359 kg
h ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ
h ¼ 2324:5 J kg1
Example 39: Entropy

Find: Determine the unit (J g1) of entropy in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the entropy is defined as a measure of the molecular disorder. The higher the disorder of any system, the greater is
its entropy; conversely a higher order status of a system gives a low entropy status. Boltzmann showed that there existed a simple
relationship between the entropy of a given system of molecules and its probability (thermodynamic) of occurrence. So, the entropy
equation is a quantity equation established form a definition, which has the symbol s, and is expressed in I–P system as follows:
s ¼ Btu lb1
m
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; and 1 lbm ¼ 0:45359 kg
s ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ½ð1000 g=1 kgÞ ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ
s ¼ 2:3244 J g1
Example 40: Thermal conductivity

Find: Determine the unit (W (m K)1) of thermal conductivity in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat that passes through a unit area when the temperature
difference between the two sides is one degree per unit distance. So, the thermal conductivity equation is a quantity equation
established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
k ¼ Btu h1 ft 1F
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; 1 ft ¼ 0:3048 m; K ¼ 1:81F; 1 h ¼ 3600 s
k ¼ ½Btu ð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½hð3600 s=1 hÞ ft ð0:3048 m=1 ftÞ1F ðK=1:81FÞ

k ¼ 1:7296 J s1 =ðm KÞ
k ¼ 1:7296 W ðm KÞ– 1
Example 41: Heat transfer coefficient

Find: Determine the unit (W (m2 K)1) of heat transfer coefficient in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that the heat transfer coefficient is defined as the amount of heat that is transferred from/to a unit area per unit time
when the temperature difference between the surface and the ambient is one degree. So, the heat transfer coefficient equation is a
quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
h ¼ Btu h1 ft2 1F
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; 1 ft2 ¼ 0:0929 m2 ; K ¼ 1:81F; 1 h ¼ 3600 s

h ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ= hð3600 s=1 hÞ ft2 0:0929 m2 =1 ft2 1FðK=1:81FÞ
h ¼ 5:68 Wðm2 KÞ– 1
Example 42: Thermal transmittance

Find: Determine the unit (W (m2 K)1) of thermal transmittance in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that thermal transmittance is the amount of heat that passes through an entire wall, ceiling, etc., section of a unit area
per unit time when the temperature difference between the air on the warm side and the air on the cold side is one degree. So, the
thermal transmittance equation is a quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
U ¼ Btu h1 ft2 1F
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; 1 ft2 ¼ 0:0929 m2 ; K ¼ 1:81F; 1 h ¼ 3600 s

U ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ= hð3600 s=1 hÞ ft2 0:0929 m2 =1 ft2 1FðK=1:81FÞ
U ¼ 5:68 Wðm2 KÞ– 1
Example 43: Thermal resistance

Find: Determine the unit (m2 K W1 or m2 1C W1) of thermal resistance in SI if the unit is given in I–P system.
Solution:
Remember that thermal resistance is the resistance of one unit area to heat flow through a substance per unit time when the
temperature difference between the two sides is one degree, and has the symbol of R. Thermal resistance is an additive quantity;
that is, 200 material has twice the R-value of 100 . And it does not include the boundary layer resistances. So, the heat transfer
coefficient equation is a quantity equation established from a definition, which is expressed in I–P system as follows:
R ¼ h ft2 1F Btu1
Remember that: 1 Btu ¼ 1054:35 J; 1 ft2 ¼ 0:0929 m2 ; K ¼ 1:81C ¼ 1:81F; 1 h ¼ 3600 s

R ¼ hð3600 s=1 hÞ ft2 0:0929 m2 =1 ft2 1FðK=1:81FÞ =½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ
R ¼ 0:176 m2 K W 1
Example 44: Wavelength

Find: Calculate the maximum wavelength lmax for the Sun’s surface radiation.
Solution:
Wien’s displacement law states that the wavelength at which a blackbody emits its maximum amount of radiation is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature in Kelvin, lmax ¼ a/T, where l is in mm, a is 2897 mm K, and T is in K.
Assuming an average surface temperature of approximately 6000K, we would have its maximum emission at
lmax ¼ 2897 mmK=6000K
kmax ¼ 0:48 lm
A wavelength of approximately 0.5 mm lies within the visible spectrum.
Example 45: Frequency

Find: Determine the frequency of a radiational wavelength of 0.5 mm.
Solution:
Wavelength (l) and frequency (n) are related, and this relationship can formally be expressed through the speed of light c, as
c ¼l n, where c is the speed of light, which has a value of 3 108 m s1, l is the wavelength (mm), and n is the frequency (cycles
s1, also known as Hz). Then, if one is known, then the other can easily be determined using the speed of light, which is a
constant.
v ¼ c=l
¼ 3 108 m s1 =ð0:5 mmÞ

¼ 3 1014 mm s1 =ð0:5mmÞ
¼ 6 1014 cycles s1
v ¼ 6 1014 Hz
Example 46: Energy content of a single wavelength solar radiation

Find: Determine the energy content E, of a solar radiation frequency of 6 1014 Hz (or 0.5 mm wavelength).
Solution:
Solar radiation consists of photons, which can be considered as packets of energy, and is related to frequency v as E¼ h v, where
E is the energy content (J), and h is the Planck constant (6.626 1034 J s).
E¼hv

¼ 6:626 1034 J s 6 1014 cycles s1
E ¼ 3:98 1019 J
1.1.7 Concluding Remarks
This chapter provided energy units, conversions, and dimensional analysis. Base and derived quantities, relationships between
quantities, and quantity equations were discussed, also covering the three basic types of quantity equations: the quantity equations
developed from the laws of nature, the equations developed from geometry, and the equations developed from a definition. Then,
the 20 multiples and submultiples in the SI unit system were presented. An introduction was also presented for dimensional
analysis, which is quite a useful method for deriving an algebraic relationship between different physical quantities. And then, the
Standard for Metric Practice, ASTM Standard E 380-84, as one of the basic standards, is referenced for SI usage. Moreover,
conversion factors for energy related units rounded to three or four significant figures for conversion between SI and I–P were
provided, as well as conversion factors for different physical quantities related to energy. And the chapter is concluded with some
illustrative examples of unit conversions and dimensional analyses.
References
[1] CGMP. Comptes Rendus de la 11e CGPM (1960); 1961, p. 87.

[2] CGMP. Comptes Rendus de la 11e CGPM (1971); 1972, p. 78.
[3] BIPM. International vocabulary of metrology – basic and associated terms (VIM). 3rd ed.; 2012.
[4] Wildi T. Metric units and conversion charts. A metrication handbook for engineers, technologists, and scientists. New York, NY: IEEE Press; 1995. p. 65–6.
[5] Andrews J, Jelley N. Energy science: principles, technologies, and impacts 2007;New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc.; 2007. p. 13–4.
[6] ASHRAE. Handbook of fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 1989.
[7] ASHRAE. SI Guide for HVAC & R. 6th ed. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 1984.
[8] Standards for Metric Practice. ASTM Standard E380. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials; 1993.
[9] The International System of Units (SI). National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 330. Superintendent of Documents. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; 2001.
[10] Metric Practice Guide. CSA Standard CAN 3-Z234-1. Rexdale, ON: Canadian Standards Association; 1973.
[11] ASME Guide. ASME orientation and guide for use of metric units. New York, NY: American Society of Mechanical Engineers; 1982.
[12] ISO. SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain other units. Geneva: ISO Standard 1000 International Organization for Standardization;
1992. Available from American National Standards for Metric Institute, New York, NY.
[13] HRAI. Supplementary metric practice guide for the heating, ventilating, refrigeration, air conditioning, plumbing and air pollution equipment manufacturing industries.
Etobicoke, ON: Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Institute of Canada.
Relevant Websites
https://www.britannica.com/science/International-System-of-Units
Brittanica.
www.convertunits.com/SI-units.php
ConvertUnits.com.
https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/mc-mc.nsf/eng/lm00068.html
Government of Canada.
https://www.nasa.gov/offices/oce/functions/standards/isu.html
NASA.
http://www.checklist.org.br/d/internationalsystemofunits.pdf
NIST, U.S. Department of Commerce.
http://www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/
NIST, U.S. Department of Commerce.
https://www.physics.info/system-international/
The Physics Hypertextbook.
1.2 Historical Aspects of Energy
İlhami Yıldız and Craig MacEachern, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1.2.1 Introduction 25
1.2.2 Preindustrial Man 25
1.2.2.1 Fire 25
1.2.2.1.1 Fire and early man 26
1.2.2.1.2 Gunpowder 26
1.2.2.1.3 Metallurgy 26
1.2.2.1.4 Steam boilers 26
1.2.2.2 Animals 27
1.2.2.2.1 Agriculture 27
1.2.2.2.2 Transportation, hunting, and warfare 27
1.2.2.3 Early Wind and Hydro 27
1.2.2.3.1 Sailboats 27
1.2.2.3.2 Windmills 27
1.2.2.3.3 Waterwheels 28
1.2.3 The Industrial Revolution 28
1.2.3.1 Steam Engine 28
1.2.3.1.1 Savery pump 28
1.2.3.1.2 Newcomen atmospheric engine 28
1.2.3.1.3 Watt and Boulton–Watt steam engines 29
1.2.3.1.4 Solar reflector steam engine 29
1.2.3.2 Textiles 29
1.2.3.2.1 The spinning jenny 29
1.2.3.2.2 The cotton gin 29
1.2.3.2.3 The sewing machine 30
1.2.3.3 Mining and Drilling 30
1.2.3.3.1 Natural gas 30
1.2.3.3.2 Coal mining 30
1.2.3.3.3 Blasting caps and dynamite 30
1.2.3.3.4 Oil drilling 31
1.2.3.3.5 Standard oil 31
1.2.3.4 Electricity 31
1.2.3.4.1 Discovery of electricity 31
1.2.3.4.1.1 Thales of Miletus 31
1.2.3.4.1.2 William Gilbert 31
1.2.3.4.1.3 Otto von Guericke and Charles François du Fay 31
1.2.3.4.1.4 Pieter van Musschenbroek 32
1.2.3.4.1.5 Benjamin Franklin 32
1.2.3.4.1.6 Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta 32
1.2.3.4.2 Electromagnetism 32
1.2.3.4.3 Fuel cells 33
1.2.3.4.4 Incandescent bulb 33
1.2.3.4.5 War of the currents 33
1.2.3.5 Transportation and Mass Production 34
1.2.3.5.1 Trains and railroads 34
1.2.3.5.2 Internal combustion engine 34
1.2.3.5.3 Ethanol 34
1.2.3.5.4 Automobiles 35
1.2.3.5.5 Interchangeable parts 35
1.2.3.5.6 The assembly line 35
1.2.3.5.7 Ford’s Model T 35
1.2.3.5.8 Hot air balloons 36
1.2.3.5.9 Powered airplanes 36
1.2.4 Nonrenewables 36
24 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00102-4

Historical Aspects of Energy 25
1.2.4.1 Fossil Fuels and Conventional Energy Sources 36

1.2.4.1.1 Coal 37
1.2.4.1.2 Oil 37
1.2.4.1.3 Natural gas 38
1.2.4.1.4 Nuclear fission 38
1.2.5 Renewables 39
1.2.5.1 Renewable Energy Sources 39
1.2.5.1.1 Hydro 39
1.2.5.1.1.1 Small-scale hydro 40
1.2.5.1.1.2 Large-scale hydro 40
1.2.5.1.2 Wind turbines 40
1.2.5.1.3 Geothermal 40
1.2.5.1.4 Solar 41
1.2.5.1.5 Biomass and biofuels 42
1.2.5.1.6 Tidal 43
1.2.5.1.7 Pyrolysis 43
1.2.5.1.8 Heat pumps 44
1.2.6 Near Future Energy 44
1.2.6.1 Potential Future Energy Sources 44
1.2.6.1.1 Space solar power 44
1.2.6.1.2 Generation IV nuclear fission reactors 44
1.2.6.1.3 Fusion power 45
1.2.6.1.4 Artificial photosynthesis and solar fuels 45
1.2.7 Concluding Remarks 45
References 45
Relevant Websites 48
1.2.1 Introduction
The story of man’s success and his eventual downfall is one that rests largely on the shoulders of our creative exploitation and
reimagining of energy and its uses. Throughout history man has been able to utilize energy in ways other species have been unable
to grasp, quickly distinguishing man as the alpha species on planet Earth. Ingenious use of energy has led to increased brain
development, granted us the ability to travel great distances, allowed for the manufacturing of a variety of products at tremendous
speed, and helped to power the machines that influence everything in life from healthcare to communication to science and
research. Despite all that man’s command over energy has given him, the rate at which energy has been exploited has left mankind
in a compromising position. Finite resources are rapidly being depleted and carbon emissions continue to cause large-scale
environmental issues. Once again it will be up to man to overcome these challenges if the species is to survive and thrive.
Renewable energy sources offer one answer to the problem and with increased implementation they may 1 day power the world.
This is the history of how man and society evolved alongside energy and how we’ve arrived at the current situation.
1.2.2 Preindustrial Man
Perhaps the most influential change in the development of modern man was his shift toward the use of energy to complete tasks
on a scale that was previously impossible. Prior to the first use of fire, man was a simple being, similar to many modern apes in
terms of energy use. They ate food and used the calories within the food to perform work. This work generally comprised of
attaining more food, protecting oneself from predators, and reproducing. This all changed once man began to use energy sources
other than simple, raw food. Fire led to cooked food and protection from predators, the use of animals made agriculture and
transportation more efficient; soon sailboats and windmills were taking advantage of wind energy for transportation and milling.
Regardless of how energy was being used and which source it came from, there is one overarching theme linking these tech-
nologies together. They made what were difficult and tedious processes quicker and easier, allowing man more time to perform
other tasks and work toward solutions to more advanced problems. It is undoubtedly this concept that led to man’s rapid
development as a species and drastic technological advance in the years following the first use of energy.
1.2.2.1 Fire
Fire can most accurately be described as a chemical reaction that occurs between oxygen, heat, and a fuel source. Fire is not an
object but rather the visible oxidation that occurs as a result of rapid combustion. This process is not entirely dissimilar from the
26 Historical Aspects of Energy
rusting of metals or the browning of an apple core. However, the crucial difference between these oxidative processes is the rate at
which the reaction takes place. Heat, light, and sound are all the byproducts of this rapid reaction and ones that early man took
great advantage of in developing as a species [1].
1.2.2.1.1 Fire and early man

The earliest known exploitation of the natural environment for energy production by humans comes in the form of fire. Some
estimates state that man may have developed an ability to control and manipulate fire as early as 1.6 million years ago [2].
Stratigraphic evidence goes on to suggest that as early as 1 million years ago, in situ fires were being used by hominins [2]. Fire
offered a variety of advantages to early man including protection from insects and predators, warmth, as well as providing
illumination during the night. With that being said, perhaps the most important advantage fire provided early man was the ability
to cook food [3]. Estimates suggest that prior to the advent of cooking, early man would require between 5.7 and 6.2 h per day
chewing a tough, fibrous diet of plants, and raw meat [4]. This time-consuming process meant that when early man was not
hunting and gathering they would be chewing. This time spent chewing required large teeth and jaw muscles similar to what we
might observe in modern chimpanzees. With a mastery of cooking and genetic evolution, however, these teeth and jaw muscles
began to shrink, leaving more room for the development of early man’s brain [3].
The earliest mainstream use of fire for processes other than cooking comes in the form of “fire-stick farming” [5]. Fire-stick
farming was first observed in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages as a means of clearing large amounts of land [5]. Land was cleared
for a variety of reasons, including clearing ground for permanent or temporary human habitats, regenerating plant-based food
sources, facilitating travel, and even warfare [6]. Fire-stick farming had the effect of replacing larger older growth forests with faster
growing grasses and perennials, drastically reshaping the landscape of the time. The burning process increased nutrient availability,
which resulted in higher plant yields [5]. With the ongoing extinction of megafauna at the time, early man was forced to convert to
a more plant-dependent diet, reinforcing the importance of these newfound perennials [6]. This process may be the earliest known
use of agricultural practices by man.
In modern times slash and burn or swidden agriculture practices continue to be prevalent methods for land clearing in
agriculture. This process involves cutting down vegetation in an area and setting it on fire. The idea is that as the plant material
burns it releases nutrients into the nearby soil resulting in highly fertile land. This land is then used for a number of agricultural
practices until it is deemed no longer acceptable due to soil degradation. Current estimates state that there are over 200 million
people who practice swidden agriculture globally [7].
1.2.2.1.2 Gunpowder
The discovery of gunpowder is most commonly attributed to Chinese alchemists during the 9th century AD. The active ingredients
for gunpowder were discovered when an alchemist accidentally dropped charcoal into a bowl of potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The
combination of the ingredients caused the mixture to deflagrate violently and, thus, gunpowder was born. The first widely used
application of gunpowder came in the form of crude flamethrowers developed by the Chinese in the mid-1000s. These weapons
held gunpowder in a bamboo or paper tube that was attached to an arrow. The arrows were then fired from a bow with devastating
effects [8]. During the same time period a device that in modern times is known as a grenade was also developed. This device was
described as a “bursting fire ball,” which also contained small bits of porcelain to cause further destruction. These two designs
perfectly harnessed the explosive potential of gunpowder and led to many future inventions including rocketry, cannons, and
firearms [9]. From here the knowledge and use of gunpowder spread west, through the Middle East, into Europe and eventually to
England where Franciscan monk Roger Bacon took up the task of improving on the existing formula. Bacon experimented with
various proportions of each ingredient and was the first to note hazel charcoal as the best variety for gunpowder. Bacon also made
the important discovery that gunpowder with higher nitrate content was more explosive [8]. Bacon’s work directly influenced the
implementation of the cannon and, in later years, firearms into the English military.
1.2.2.1.3 Metallurgy
The next major advancement in the exploitation of fire was seen in metallurgy. Wall paintings in the Old Empire of Memphis
suggest that Ancient Egyptians utilized the intense heat generated by fire to melt and cast pure metals. These paintings go on to
suggest that ancient Egyptians also developed blow pipes and bellows to deliver more oxygen to the fires, demonstrating their
knowledge and comfort with this chemical reaction [10].
Metallurgical processes were greatly enhanced following the advent of coke. Coke is a coal-based product obtained through the
destructive distillation of coal. Destructive distillation is a process, whereby a fuel source is heated to high temperatures in the
absence of oxygen. This process has the effect of removing most of the volatile components found in the coal, resulting in a carbon
mass known as coke [11]. Coking coal allowed for much larger furnaces and subsequently greater output [10]. Additionally coke
produces far less smoke than conventional coal, leading to safer work environments [11]. Today, coke is an essential component in
the processing of iron ore. With iron being the primary input in steel and many aluminum alloys, it is difficult to say what modern
manufacturing would look like without the advent of coke.
1.2.2.1.4 Steam boilers

In modern times, fire sees extensive use in electricity and heat generation through the use of steam boilers. Oxygen-fed fires are
used to boil large quantities of water whose steam in turn drives large turbines, generating electricity. Waste heat from this process
can also be captured and used in a variety of heating processes; this is known as cogeneration. These topics will be discussed
further in the following sections [12].
1.2.2.2 Animals
The use of animals for agriculture, transportation, and hunting dates back thousands of years. Animals, such as cattle, horses,
mules, donkeys, camels, elephants, and dogs have all been used for human benefit throughout this time [13]. By exploiting the
energy expenditure of these animals, man developed the ability to perform essential tasks quicker and more efficiently. This led to
greater crop yields, faster, and further distances traveled, as well as more fruitful hunts.
1.2.2.2.1 Agriculture
Some of the earliest uses of animal energy in agriculture occurs in the Mediterranean regions of Egypt and Ethiopia around 6000 to
5000 BC [14]. Egyptian wall paintings and papyrus records show the use of ard plows, towed by oxen as a means of tilling fields
for the planting of crops. The ard plow is composed of a long wooden beam attached to a yoked pair of oxen at one end and an
almost perpendicular metal share at the other. This share would be pulled through the ground by the team of oxen, thereby
breaking up the packed soil allowing for easier planting and superior plant growth [13]. An operator would walk behind the plow
controlling a pair of handles to ensure the share remained upright and in the soil. The entire process enabled the Egyptians to plow
far more land, with far less manpower. Ultimately this meant greater crop yields and more food to feed their growing population.
1.2.2.2.2 Transportation, hunting, and warfare

The use of horses for transportation was first observed around 3500 BC by the Botai people of what is now modern-day
Kazakhstan. The Botai utilized domesticated horses to gain a speed advantage when hunting wild horses for meat. Additionally,
horses were used as a more efficient means of herding sheep. It is estimated that a man can herd around 200 sheep with a good
herding dog, but this number can be increased to 500 if the man is on horseback. Furthermore, it is thought that horses would
have been used as a means of quick entry and escape during tribal raids on enemy encampments [15].
As the use of horses spread across Europe and Asia, we begin to see the implementation of a new form of transport, the chariot.
The earliest known use of the chariot appears in Mesopotamia around 3000 BC [16]. With that being said, it was not until 1800 BC
that the chariot was popularized by the Anatolians, who may have helped in shaping modern transportation [15]. The use of the
chariot was essential in warfare as it offered high maneuverability and a platform for ranged attacks. Essential to the chariots
success was the use of horses or onagers for pulling the carts [16]. This combination of animal labor and drawn carts for
transportation was a concept that extended until the advent of the modern automobile.
Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated by man around the end of the last ice age. At this time, human society was still
largely a hunting and gathering society, and dogs facilitated in this process [17]. Dogs were primarily employed as a means of
tracking wounded prey and delivering the killing blow to potentially dangerous injured animals. This partnership led to greater
hunting efficiency and safety resulting in more productive hunts. By using dogs to track wounded animals, man was able to expend
less energy and time tracking animals and more time hunting further prey [17].
1.2.2.3 Early Wind and Hydro

1.2.2.3.1 Sailboats
The earliest known use of wind energy comes in the form of crude sailboats designed and utilized by the Egyptians between 5000
and 4000 BC. These sailboats comprised of a single sail attached to the mast of what was little more than a hollowed log [18].
These boats helped Egyptians move up and down the Nile River and it has also been suggested that the use of these boats directly
impacted the spread of the Naquda culture to Southern Egypt [18]. The impact of the sailboat continued to increase and with this
came greater technological advancement. Larger sails and crews became common and by 2000 BC, trade in the Mediterranean was
highly dependent on the use of the sailboat [19]. By 500 BC the Phoenicians and Greeks had popularized the trireme, which
combined the benefits of human and wind energy for even greater propulsion through the water [20]. By AD 800 the Vikings were
readily implementing hydrodynamically optimized boats capable of sailing far faster than previous designs [21]. Sailboats,
through continued evolution and design upgrades, become a major part of globalization, world trade, and exploration throughout
the next 1200 years. Trade throughout the Mediterranean, English Channel, Baltic Sea, and Indian and Atlantic Oceans would not
have been possible without the use of wind-powered sailboats. These boats were also essential in the discovery of the Americas and
painting the picture of the globe as a whole.
1.2.2.3.2 Windmills
The earliest known record of windmills dates back to 400 BC when a Hindu book known as the Arthasastra of Kautilya suggests the
use of windmills for pumping water [22]. This, however, is the only mention of such windmills in history and is, therefore, difficult
to confirm. The first confirmed application of wind turbines comes from Heron of Alexandria who implemented a vertical wind
turbine into the design of a pipe organ during the 1st century AD [23]. It has been suggested that Heron’s reversal of conventional
fan blades may have led to the eventual implementation of horizontal wind turbines in midmillennium Europe [24]. The first
known implementation of vertical axis windmills on a large-scale comes from the Persians around AD 800. The Persians utilized
28 Historical Aspects of Energy
these windmills for the purposes of grinding grain, pounding rice, and for irrigation [25]. These same windmill designs have been
found as far east as India suggesting that they were efficient enough to imitate [26]. The first horizontal axis windmills appear in
Europe between AD 1100 and 1200. These windmills were primarily implemented for the purposes of grinding grain, pumping
water, and in the case of the Netherlands, draining flood plains for expansion. At this point, European engineers already had an
advanced knowledge of gearing systems. With this they realized that by utilizing horizontally positioned blades in combination
with a horizontal to vertical shaft transmission gearing system they could make their windmills more efficient. This was a concept
that was clearly already understood by the Europeans based on their implementation of the Vitruvian waterwheel [21]. This design
was popularized in England, Belgium, and Normandy and through its success and efficiency quickly spread to the Netherlands,
Germany, and Denmark [27]. By the end of the 19th century these windmills were achieving efficiencies of as high as 5% [21].
1.2.2.3.3 Waterwheels
The first known implementation of horizontal axis waterwheels comes from the Romans between 700 and 600 BC [28]. This
waterwheel was known as a noria and consisted of buckets that collected water from a surface water source (usually a stream or
river) and poured it into irrigation channels at greater potential [29]. These channels helped to provide water to nearby farmland,
drastically increasing yield and productivity in areas that had conventionally relied on only rain for watering. Waterwheels driven
by camels and oxen have also been employed in Afghanistan and other Middle Eastern countries for the purposes of irrigation. To
this day there are regions in Sudan that continue to employ this method of irrigation [30].
By 100 BC the use of waterwheels for milling begins to gain popularity throughout Greece. Once again this method used
buckets of water that filled up with the flow of the river and subsequently rotated the waterwheel. The change in weight caused by
the filling and emptying of the buckets caused the wheel to rotate more efficiently. This rotation was transferred from the
horizontal axis of the wheel to a vertical shaft, which in turn drove a milling stone. These milling stones were used primarily for
grinding wheat and corn into flours for bread making [29]. This milling technique quickly gained popularity and by the end of the
1st century AD, was employed as far east as China [29]. Around AD 300 the Romans modified the design so that the buckets could
be placed just below the surface of the water. This greatly improved the efficiency of the design [29].
By AD 1086 there were over 5000 watermills in use throughout mainland England and by AD 1800 this number had surpassed
500,000. Mills at this time were no longer simply being used for grinding corn and grain though. These watermills had been
adapted for a variety of processes including powering bellows for iron production, grinding ingredients for paper making, sawing
timber, crushing olives for olive oil, and in powering textile factories [29].
1.2.3 The Industrial Revolution
To this day, the Industrial Revolution remains the greatest time period for technological advancement in the history of mankind.
Even today, many of the processes that allow for mass production, rapid transportation, and that power our lives can be credited to
advancements made during this time in human history. The Industrial Revolution brought mankind into the era of fossil fuels and
a world of cheap and easily attainable energy, more abundant than anything previously dreamed of. Steam engines gave a use for
these fossil fuels and their variety of applications had drastic effects on production and manufacturing. Liquid fuels allowed homes
to be lit at night and for automobiles to begin to pop up and replace traditional, animal-driven forms of transportation. Before
long, electricity was making its way into the homes and offices of millions around the world, forever changing the way humans live
and work. In combination, all of these advancements led to better qualities of life. Products were cheaper, food was more readily
available, and healthcare drastically advanced with new findings and innovations. Regardless of what the effect was, the over-
arching consensus is that the Industrial Revolution sparked this upturn in human life and has had a greater impact on modern life
than any other period in human history.
1.2.3.1 Steam Engine

1.2.3.1.1 Savery pump
Perhaps the single most critical invention leading to industrialization was the advent of the steam engine. The first steam engine
was built by Thomas Savery in 1698 for the purpose of removing water from mines. In Savery’s words, his machine was “an engine
to raise water by fire.” Savery’s pump operated by vaporizing water to generate steam and using this steam to fill a secondary tank.
Then by isolating the steam from its source and allowing the steam to condense a vacuum would be created, which would draw
water from within the mines. This design worked well but was extremely limited in the depth at which it was effective. The main
issue with this design was that it could only draw water at around 80 ft below the surface [31]. With the mines of the time aiming
to go deeper and deeper, a better pump needed to be developed.
1.2.3.1.2 Newcomen atmospheric engine

The year 1712 saw the invention of the atmospheric engine by Thomas Newcomen [32]. Newcomen’s engine improved on Savery’s
design in that it did not rely on a steam vacuum. Newcomen’s design used a horizontal beam with a pivot in the middle weighted
on one side and incorporated with a boiler and piston on the other. The weighted side would drop, driving the piston upward, at
this point, steam at near atmospheric pressure would fill the void in the cylinder left by the rising piston. Cool water would then be
sprayed into the cylinder, quickly condensing the steam and thereby changing the pressure, which would pull the piston back
down. This had the effect of raising the weighted side, which through another piston mechanism drove water to the surface. This
automated engine drastically improved water removal efficiency and had a far greater operating depth than Savery’s design.
Newcomen’s design was so revolutionary that it would be another 63 years before a better design was popularized [31].
1.2.3.1.3 Watt and Boulton–Watt steam engines

In 1776, James Watt was able to improve on Newcomen’s design following a critical observation. Watt noted that the repeated
heating and cooling of the cylinder was wasting energy and would lead to the more rapid deterioration of the materials. Based on
this observation he developed his own design in which the piston and cylinder remained hot at all times by incorporating an
external condenser. By alternating the open and closed phases at the top and bottom of the cylinder, steam is able to enter the
cylinder in alternate succession, therefore, driving the piston up and down. As new steam enters from the bottom, exhaust steam
exits through the top, as the piston travels upward. The process then repeats itself in the other direction. The exhausted steam
makes its way from the cylinder to the condenser where the steam is condensed back into water. The newly condensed water is
then pumped to a hot water tank and recirculated back through the boiler. By keeping the piston and cylinder hot at all times, less
energy was wasted in reheating and the thermal stress on the material was reduced [31]. In 1782 W modified his engine to
incorporate a sun and planet gearing system that drove a flywheel. This flywheel had the advantage of providing smooth and
constant output as opposed to the pulsating nature of earlier designs [33]. This crucial design change is what eventually led to
steam engines becoming viable for the newly constructed factories that would come to drive the Industrial Revolution.
The final major advancements in the steam engine came with the Boulton–Watt double acting engine. The greatest
improvement in this design came in the form of a parallel motion mechanism that assured perfect alignment of the piston
throughout its cycle. Additionally, this mechanism allowed for work to be generated on the upward stroke, where before the
upstroke simply served to reset the piston. Watt was famously noted as saying that he was more proud of this invention than he
was of the engine itself [31]. This design also incorporated a governor that could be used to throttle back the engine should less
output be required. Both of these design changes greatly improved the viability of these engines for factories and made them more
attractive as indoor options [31].
1.2.3.1.4 Solar reflector steam engine

In 1860, French inventor Augustine Mouchot became fascinated with the world of solar energy. Mouchot had read and heard
stories of “burning mirrors” capable of lighting fire at far greater speed than any of the conventional methods. Mouchot recognized
the potential of such energy and set out to find a more practical use for it. The design Mouchot came up with is not entirely
dissimilar from modern-day solar dish concentrating collectors. Mouchot’s design oriented mirrors on a concave disk toward a
central absorber tube. This heat generated on the tube was then used to boil water and the steam in turn drove a turbine. While
there were some who felt that Mouchot’s invention would mean unlimited free energy the reality was that the energy produced
was not on par with the steam engines available at the time. France’s climate simply did not lend itself well to solar energy;
however, Mouchot demonstrated that the prospect for implementation in hotter regions was certainly there [34].
1.2.3.2 Textiles
1.2.3.2.1 The spinning jenny
In the mid-1700s, spinning was a long and arduous task, performed by individuals known as spinners. Spinners used a spinning
wheel to wind a single strand of cotton fiber into a yarn. This process involved manually twisting the yarn and ensuring the yarn
remained taut until it was wound onto the spindle. Enter James Hargreaves, a British carpenter and weaver who was attempting to
find a way in which to optimize this time-consuming process. Hargreaves had been attempting to utilize multiple spinners at once
by holding all of the threads in this left hand, however, he quickly ran into difficulties when it came to twisting the yarn. This was
due to the horizontal positioning of the spindles, which Hargreaves ingeniously remarked following the observation of a toppled
spinning wheel, which continued to spin and operate. In 1764, Hargreaves used this observation to develop his spinning
jenny, which utilized vertically positioned spindles to wind eight cotton threads at once. The position of the spindles allowed
for the thread to be twisted automatically as well as ensuring the threads remained taut. This clever design could be operated
by a single person, drastically reducing time and energy input. Hargreaves went on to develop a 16-thread version of the jenny
and later inventors modified the design to be driven by an external engine. The spinning jenny drastically changed the textile
industry by reducing labor demands, while increasing output, and is often considered as the machine that began the Industrial
Revolution [35].
1.2.3.2.2 The cotton gin

During the late 1700s, cotton was a valued product, however, not in the same way it is today. The main issue with cotton was that
seeds embedded in the cotton fibers required separating, a process that at this time could only be done by hand. American Eli
Whitney recognized that if a better method for separating the seeds from the fibers could be developed then cotton could see a
global upturn in value. With the American South being one of the major global producers of cotton, any production advantage
would be massive for the region. In 1794, Whitney developed and patented a machine he called the cotton gin, which was capable
of removing embedded seed from raw cotton fibers. The cotton gin operated by loading raw cotton fibers into a hopper where they
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Title: Perttunen kiinni!

1-näytöksinen ilveily
Author: Sakari Ruotsalo
Release date: December 2, 2023 [eBook #72284]
Language: Finnish
Original publication: Jyväskylä: K. J. Gummerus Oy, 1925
Credits: Tapio Riikonen
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PERTTUNEN

KIINNI! ***
PERTTUNEN KIINNI!
1-näytöksinen ilveily
Kirj.
S. A. RUOTSALO
Jyväskylässä, K. J. Gummerus Oy, 1925.

HENKILÖT:
SOINISKA, Amerikan leski.

SELMA, hänen tyttärensä.
PERTTUNEN, aikanaan kuulu suurrosvo.
ERVINKI, maallikkosaarnaaja.
ALAPEREEN AUKUSTA, elähtänyt neiti, matkustajakodin pitäjä.
3 vahtimiestä.
HUONE:
Tupa, jossa on leivinuuni keskellä peräseinää; uunin etupuolessa

hella. Huone on seinällä jaettu kahtia: isompi oikea puoli on keittiö,
vasempi kamari, johon tuo ovi hellan edestä. Keittiön oikeassa
seinässä ulko-ovi liki yleisöä, sen vieressä sänky vuoteineen;
peräseinässä ikkuna verhoineen ja sen alla kaappipöytä
tavaroineen. Kamarin peräseinässä ikkuna verhoineen ja alla olevine
pöytineen; vasemmalla piironki peileineen, oikealla sänkysohva
vuoteineen. Tuoleja siellä täällä ja meriltä tuotuja tauluja ja koruja.
Kamarin lattiassa kynnyksen alla avattava luukku, josta mennään
kellariin. On syyskuun iltapuhde; tuli hellassa, ei lampussa.
SELMA (hellan edessä pyyhkii juuri valmistunutta kahvipannua ja
laulaa)
Jo lienet kuullut, veikkonen,

Tuon mainittavan Perttusen?
Hän oli aina hurja mies
Ja metsäpolut tarkoin ties!
Ei työhön ollut tottunut,

Vaan varastamaan oppinut;
Siihen vain taipui luontonsa —
Ja harjautui jo lapsena.
PERTTUNEN (on ilmestynyt ovelle ja kuunnellut)
Mistäs se Selmakin on tuon uuden arkkiveisun oppinut?
SELMA
Kas! Eera Manninen Kalajoelta! (kättelee) Tervetuloa! Istumaan!
PERTTUNEN (ympärilleen pälyillen)
Oletko yksin kotona?
SELMA
Olen. Äiti on vieraansa kanssa hihhulien seuroissa. Mutta mikäs

suden saareen saatti, minkä sinutkin meille, ja miten sinä mökkimme
löysit, vaikket ennen olekaan sisälle poikennut?
PERTTUNEN
Vaikeatapa tänne olikin osata, kun vastaantulijat lensivät kuin
hullut sen suuren varkaan perässä, josta juuri lauloit, eivätkä
joutaneet neuvomaan. (Istuu keinutuolissa.)
SELMA
Muistatkos vielä, miten tutustuimme? (Panee kuppeja ja pannun

tarjottimelle.)
PERTTUNEN
Muistanpa tietenkin. Sinä olit menossa tuohon naapurikylään

laulamaan Sivistysseurain kuvaelmassa. Kun tulin vastaan,
virvoittelit sinä maantielle tuupertunutta ukkoa. Minä autoin sinua, ja
meistä tuli heti ystävät, avomielisiä kun ollaan. Vai pidätkö minua
vielä ystävänäsi?
SELMA (on nostanut tuolin P:n viereen hellan suun eteen ja istuu
vastatessaan)
Totta kai! Sinä olet minusta nuoren maamiehen perikuva harmaine

nuttuinesi ja pieksusaappainesi, pestyine poskinesi ja kammattuine
hiuksinesi olet minun miesihanteeni (silittelee P:n poskea). Mutta
kauan sinä olet ollut poissa näkyvistäni. Missä?
PERTTUNEN
Kotona Kalajoella. Heinänteko ja elonkorjuu pidättävät

isäntämiestä. (kaivaa taskuaan) Minä olen tuonut sinulle muistoksi
tämän äitivainajani kellon perineen. (Ylös.) Huolitkos? (Pistää tytön
kaulaan.)
SELMA
Kiitos, kiitos! Tämä on kuin äidiltäni varastettu kello, mutta siinä ei

ollut periä. Isäntämiesten lahjat ovat suuria. (Selman epäluulo on
herännyt, ovelle koputetaan.)
PERTTUNEN (säikähtäen)
Joko äitisi tulee?
SELMA
Jaa! Manninenpa taisi panna porstuan oven lukkoon? Mutta ei se

äiti vielä ole, sillä hänellä on avain. Vieras se on. Manninen istuu
tuolla kamarissa ja juo kahvia. (Vie pannun tarjottimella ynnä kupit
kamarin pöydälle ja käskee Perttusen istumaan ja juomaan.) Juopas
nyt! Minä tulen pian. (Menee, avaa porstuan oven, josta Alapereen
Aukusta tulee.)
AUKUSTA
Iltaa!
SELMA
Iltaa! Tapasitteko äitiä?
AUKUSTA
Tapasin. Hän käski sanoa, ettei sinun tarvitse varata kahvia eikä
ruokaa. Soiniska syö saarnamiehineen siellä.
SELMA
Jokos seurat sitten loppuivat näin aikaisin?
AUKUSTA
Vasta ovat puhuneet Pere, Penttilä ja Soiniskan pappi, vielä

puhuvat Rahikka, Rasi, Runtti ja Rappi, niinkuin pojat veisaavat.
Mutta minä luulen, ettei äitisi ole loppuun asti, kun Pennaska on
aamupäivällä leiponut ja seuratupa on kuuma kuin pätsi. Voi Antti ja
Taavetti, kuinka kauheasti ne pääuskovaiset olivat riemussa!
Nenolaiskakin konttasi neulansilmän läpi. Arvaapas, miten se kävi.
SELMA
En arvaa.
AUKUSTA
Hän ryömi tuolinjalkojen välitse, se lihava tyllerö. Kun tuolilla

sylitysten istuvat pojat eivät liikahtaneet, tarttui eukko kiinni. Lopulta
hän rupesi nipistelemään poikia, ja pojat kiljumaan. Lysti sitä oli
suruttoman katsella. Mutta kun meidän vieraskodissamme on
kortteeria muiden muassa se konsulin vararouva kaupungista, se
Noppa-Katti hyväkäs, täytyi siksikin lähteä jo, sillä se pakana on
pitkäkynsinen. (Tekee lähtöä, panee huivin päähänsä, saalin
hartioille lattialta.) Kuule. Tiedätkö, mitä tuo ulkoa kuuluva huuto on?
SELMA
Siellä kuuluu ajettavan Perttusta takaa.
AUKUSTA
Niin, sitä suurta voroa. Ihmiset juoksevat pitkin kujia ja lääviä. Hän
on viime yönä kierrellyt kirkonkylällä ja ammuskellut nimismiehen
akkunoita. Aamulla hän kuuluu Punaisesta mökistä vaimonpuolen
puvussa tulleen tännepäin. (Kaivaa povestaan kuvan) Tässä on
hänen kuvansa, että tietäisit juosta pakoon, jos eteesi sattuu.
Leikkasin tämän Oulun lehdestä. Hän on sievä mies. Branderin
mamselli sanoikin: »Minä ottaisin tuon miehekseni, jos ei häntä
odottaisi ikuinen kakola».
PERTTUNEN (on Selman ja Aukustan puhellessa avaimillaan

aukonut piirongin laatikot, tukkinut taskuunsa lusikoita ja sormuksia
sanoen samalla):
Tämä on minun työtäni, tähän minä olen jo lapsena tottunut, kuten

veisussa sanotaankin. Varas varastaa morsiameltaankin. (Istuu
kahvia juomaan.)
SELMA (katselee kuvaa, kalpenee)
Hiljaa. (Vetää Aukustan ovelle.) Minä luulen, että juuri tämä mies,
tämä Perttunen, istuu perikamarissa ja juo kahvia. Menkää ja
ilmoittakaa pyytäjille! Minä narraan hänet, koska hän on pettänyt
minut, narraan kellariin muka äitiä piiloon.
AUKUSTA
Vai on siellä joku. (Kovasti.) Ei, nyt minä juoksen kotiin. Hyvästi.
(Menee porstuaan, palaa takaisin.) Kuule! Kun tulet kaupunkiin, niin
soita sieltä uutisia.
SELMA
Ei sitä viitsi, kun se keskuksen akka kaikki kuuntelee ja kaikki
kertoo koko kylälle.
AUKUSTA
Ei se enää uskalla. Rouva Setälä paransi hänestä sen taudin. Hän

soitti Ouluun ja kertoi salaisuutena muka, että yhtiön johtokunta on
tarjonnut hänen hoidettavakseen kaupungin keskuksen, kun tämä
Mareliuksen Fiinu kaikki kuuntelee ja kertoo. Se auttoi. Fiinulla on
siitä asti ollut pikilappu suulla. Ei. Hyvästi! (Lyö mennessään
porstuan oven kiinni.)
SELMA (yksin)
Oletkos siis todellakin sinä Eera Manninen tuo katala Perttunen!

Ja tämä kello on varastettu tämäkin. Hyi! (Viskaa uunille.) Malta,
malta! Miehet sinä olet aina ja kaikkialla kekuloinut, mutta nainen on
heitä ovelampi. Saatpas kokea. (Menee kamariin, kuuluu kolinaa.)
Nyt äiti tulee ja Ervinki, se meillä asuva saarnamies. Manninen istuu
vain täällä ja juo kahvia, tulen heti. (Menee keittiöön, Perttunen
kuuntelee).
SOINISKA
Terveisiä seuroista! Istu Ervinki ja riisu! Hullu se on tuo Pennaska,

kun korventaa saarnatuvan kuin saunan. Huhui! (Pyyhkii silmiään.)
Ei sinun tarvitse kahvia eikä ruokaa tuoda. Mene maata, tyttö. (Istuu
pöydän päähän, nostaa 2 pikaria ja pullon kaapista.) Tuossa
Ervingillekin vähän sydämen vahvistusta. (Juovat molemmat,
Soiniska riisuu kengät ja hameet.) Juo pullo tyhjäksi, muuten vilustut
hikeiltyäsi hirveästi. Mutta ei sinun tarvitse tästä seuroissa saarnata.
Minulla on tilkka takana alituisen koliikini vuoksi. Pahe sinä maata
tuohon sänkyyn. Minä menen tuonne uunille. (Kiivetessään.) On
täällä tilaa sinullekin. Jos rupeaa vilustamaan täi haluttamaan, niin
kämmi tänne, kuten ennenkin eräillä kerroilla.
ERVINKI
Kyllä, kyllä, jahka Selma nukkuu. (Panee maata.)
SELMA (on kuunnellut oven raosta, Perttuselle)
Uskooko Manninen, että tuo Ervinki rietas tulee tänne

reistailemaan heti, kun äiti nukkuu. Se kiusaa minua.
PERTTUNEN (kattelee)
Mutta pääseekös sieltä varmasti ulos?
SELMA
Vielä häntä kysyy. Pian nyt! (Perttusen laskeuduttua alas Selma

vetää portaat ylös, mutta jättää luukun auki) Ei saa ennen ovea
survoa, kuin äiti nukkuu, minä ilmoitan. (Vähentää vaatteita, vetää
ikkunaverhot kiinni.)
ERVINKI (nousee ylös, riisuu alusvaatteilleen ja hiipii kamariin

kääry kädessä)
Sst! Hiljaa, Selma! Tässä sinulle tuon pienen — — — (Putoo

samassa luukusta kellariin.) Mitä pirun vehkeitä tämä?
SELMA (sulkiessaan luukun)

Olkaa siellä, mokomat sulhaset, älkääkä huutako, ettei äiti herää.
Minä lähetän vahtimiehet Perttusta kiinni ottamaan. (Kuuluu
kolkutusta ulko-ovelta.) Nyt ne tulevat! (Menee avaamaan)
PERTTUNEN (paiskaa luukun auki, putkahtaa permannolle,

sieppaa Selman vaatteita ylleen, hiipii Selman puhellessa sängyn
päähän piiloon.)
SELMA
Menkää kellarin oven eteen kaikki, minä viskaan kamarin

akkunasta avaimen, se on pöytälaatikossa siellä. (Menee kamariin,
mutta putoo hänkin kellariin.)
PERTTUNEN (huutaa uunille)
Laskekaa portaat kellariin, jotta Selma sulhasineen pääsee pois.

(Juoksee ulos varastettuaan Ervingin puvun.)
SOINISKA
Mitä, mitä tämä melu on? Ja mistä tämä minun varastettu kelloni
on uunille ilmestynyt? (Kuuluu kolkutusta kellarista ja huutoja
ikkunan alta, Soiniska paitasillaan permannolla huutaa akkunasta.)
Mitä siellä elämöidään? Tulkaa sisälle!
ERÄS VAHTIMIES (tulee)
Mihin se sinun tyttölintusi katosi, kun kellarin avainta ei

kuulukaan?
SOINISKA
Mitä te sitten minun kellarissani tekisitte?
VAHTIMIES.
Sinne on kätketty Perttunen.
SOINISKA
Valehtelet! Minä en ole mikään rosvojen huoltaja. Että uskoisitte,

niin menkää katsomaan. Täältä luukusta sinne pääsette ilman
avainta. (Menevät kamariin.) Tuossa on luukku ja tuossa portaat!
Hakekaa tarkoin! Minä puen päälleni riepuja.
VAHTIMIES (asettaa portaat alas; kun toisetkin ovat tulleet,

huutaa)
Jos siellä joku on, niin ylös ja äkkiä!
SELMA
Putosin pimeässä kellariin, kun Perttunen karkasi luukusta. Äiti,

viskatkaa sängystä hameeni!
SOINISKA
Ei täällä sinun hameitasi näy.
ERVINKI
Anna, Soiniska, takkini ja housuni tuvan tuolilta.
PERTTUNEN (lyö ruudun rikki kamarista, pistää päänsä näkyviin)

Ei niitä siellä ole. Tuossa on morsiameni vaatteet. (Viskaa kääryn
ikkunasta.) Perttunen herrastelee saarnasaksan puvussa. Hyvästi!
Ottakaa Perttunen kiinni!
15
VAHTIMIEHET (hölmistyneinä hyökkäävät ulos)
Ottakaa Perttunen kiinni! Ottakaa Perttunen kiinni!
SOINISKA (kellarista kömpivälle Ervingille)
Pahuusko sinut sinne viskasi?
ERVINKI
Minä kävelin unissani.
SOINISKA
Unissasi!
ERVINKI
Se oli seuraus sinun sydämenvahvistuksestasi.
SOINISKA (Selmalle)
Entä sinä?
SELMA (lattialla jo)
Minä läksin viskaamaan avainta tuosta ikkunasta vahtimiehille,

mutta putosinkin kellariin.
SOINISKA
Miksi luukku oli auki?
ERVINKI
Siellä kellarissa oli todella toinen mies. Se kiepsahti kuin orava

olkapäilleni, paiskasi luukun auki ja pakeni, mutta ei auttanutkaan
minua ylös, vaikka lupasi. Olikohan se pahuus se Perttunen?
SELMA
Oli se. Tunsin hänet kuvasta, jonka Alapereen Aukusta antoi.

Kahvittelin häntä kamarissa ja olin olevinani morsian, että Aukusta
ennättäisi hakea vahtimiehiä. Hän se antoi minulle tuon kellon, joka
on äidin kädessä.
SOINISKA
Ja jonka Noppa-Katti varasti minulta.
ERVINKI
Ja Perttunen Noppa-Katilta.
SELMA
Varas varkaan varasti. Perttunen olikin ovelampi minua. Minä
menen katsomaan, saadaanko se kytketyksi. (Pois.)
SOINISKA
Minä en usko, että Ervinki unissa käveli. Selmaa sinä ahdistit.

Mutta menetitpä vaatteesi! Kutti! Mutta tuon luukun, jota Selman isä
sanoo hentunsilmäksi, kun tahtoo mustasukkaisuudessaan minua
kiusata, minä naulaan huomispäivänä umpeen ja iäksi.
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Comprehensive Energy Systems 1st

Edition Canan Acar

Energy Storage: Systems and Components 1st Edition

Advances in Energy Systems Engineering 1st Edition

Smart Energy Control Systems for Sustainable Buildings

Handbook of Energy Systems in Green Buildings 1st

Modular Systems for Energy Usage Management 1st Edition

Low Carbon Energy Supply Technologies and Systems 1st

Energy Efficient Computing Electronics Devices to

Simulation Approach Towards Energy Flexible

Nomenclature J Unit of energy and work, joule

Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00101-2 1

T Tera; time, s; temperature, 1C, 1F, K, or R w Width

Greek letters n Kinematic viscosity, m2 s1; speciﬁc volume,

Subscripts max Maximum

Length Viscosity Area Electromotive force

1.1.2.1 Relationship Between Quantities

1.1.2.2 Base Quantities

1.1.2.3 Derived Quantities

1.1.2.4 Multiples and Submultiples of Quantities

Table 1 Multiples and submultiples in SI unit system

Preﬁx Symbol Multiplier Example

Yotta Y 1024 5 Ym¼5 yottameters¼5 1024 m

1.1.2.5 Types of Quantity Equations

1.1.3 Dimensional Analysis

M1 L1 T 2 ¼ Ma L3aþbþc T 2b

1.1.4 Units and Conversions

Table 2 SI energy related units and conversions

Divide By To obtain Divide By To obtain

ha 0.405 acre J 1.36 ft lbf (work)

Divide By To obtain Divide By To obtain

1.1.4.1 Useful Units in Electricity

1.1.5 Rules for Using SI Units

1.1.5.2 Use of Plurals

1 1000 264.173 35.315 61,023.74

Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis

1 0.001 0.008345 0.0624280

1 1000 119.827 16.018463

or entropy 1 0.2390 0.2390

Energy Units, Conversions, and Dimensional Analysis

Entropy J g1 cal g 1 Btu lb 1

conductivity 418.4a 1 1 0.2390 57.816

1 1.4882 1.4882 8.6336 106 3.1081 102 14.8819

heat transfer 1 0.8598 1 104 2.388 105 0.1761

Singular: lux, hertz, siemens Plural: lux, hertz, Siemens

Example 1: Correct and incorrect usages

Correct usage Incorrect usage

1.1.5.3 Use of Hyphenation and Space

Example 2: Correct and incorrect usages

Correct usage Incorrect usage

1.1.5.4 Use of Numerals and Periods

1.1.5.5 Use of Symbols for Mathematical Operations

Example 3: Correct and incorrect usages

Correct usage Incorrect usage

1.1.6 Overall Examples

length in m, and h is the magnitude of height.

ForceðF Þ ¼ 4:45 kg m s2 ¼ 4:45 N

Example 10: Pressure

Example 11: Pressure

PressureðpÞ ¼ 6894:8 Pa ¼ 6:89 kPa

Example 12: Work

Example 13: Energy

Example 14: Power

C ¼ ½Btu ð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ1FðK=1:81FÞ

h ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ

s ¼ ½Btuð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½lbm ½ð1000 g=1 kgÞ ð0:45359 kg=1 lbm Þ

k ¼ ½Btu ð1054:35 J=1 BtuÞ=½hð3600 s=1 hÞ ft ð0:3048 m=1 ftÞ1F ðK=1:81FÞ