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 Comprehensive
Stress Management
fourteenth edition

Jerrold S. Greenberg
Professor Emeritus, University of Maryland
COMPREHENSIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT, FOURTEENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013,
2011, and 2009. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education,
including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for
distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-0-07-802866-3
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Greenberg, Jerrold S., author.

 Comprehensive stress management / Jerrold S. Greenberg, Professor Emeritus,
University of Maryland.
Fourteenth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2017]
LCCN 2016013178 | ISBN 9780078028663 (alk. paper)
 LCSH: Stress (Psychology) | Stress (Physiology) | Stress
(Psychology)—Prevention. | Stress management.
 LCC BF575.S75 G66 2017 | DDC 155.9/042—dc23 LC record available
at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016013178

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
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 brief table of contents
brief table of contents

part 1 Chapter 11
Autogenic Training, Imagery, and Progressive
Relaxation 249
Scientific Foundations 1
Chapter 12
Chapter 1 Other Relaxation Techniques 277
What Is Stress? 2

Chapter 2
Stress Psychophysiology 25 part 4
Chapter 3
General Applications: Physiological
Stress and Illness/Disease 43
Arousal and Behavior Change
Chapter 4 Interventions 305
Stress and the College Student 75
Chapter 13
Physiological Arousal Interventions 306

part 2 Chapter 14
Strategies for Decreasing Stressful Behaviors 331
General Applications: Life-Situation
Chapter 15
and Perception Interventions 107 Diversity and Stress 351
Chapter 5
Intervention 108

Chapter 6 part 5
Life-Situation Interventions: Intrapersonal 123
Specific Applications 377
Chapter 7
Chapter 16
Life-Situation Interventions: Interpersonal 147
Occupational Stress 378
Chapter 8
Chapter 17
Perception Interventions 177
Family Stress 417
Chapter 9
Spirituality and Stress 215

part 3
General Applications: Relaxation
Techniques 235
Chapter 10
Meditation 236
table of contents
table of contents
Preface x

part 1 The Gastrointestinal System 36

The Muscles 37
The Skin 38
Scientific Foundations 1 Symptoms, Stress, and You 38
coping in today’s world 38
CHAPTER 1 summary 39
what is stress? 2 internet resources 39
What Can You Get Out of This Book references 39
and This Course? 3 lab assessment 2.1 how much do you know
The Pioneers 3 about stress psychophysiology? 41
Stress Theory 8 lab assessment 2.2 what are your physiological
Life-Events Theory 8 reactions to stress? 42
Hardiness Theory 8
Social Support Theory 8
The Stressor 9 CHAPTER 3
Stress Reactivity 11
Strain 11
stress and illness/disease 43
Gender Differences in Reactivity 11 Hot Reactors 43
A Definition of Stress 12 Psychosomatic Disease 43
Stress Management Goals 14 Stress and the Immunological System 44
The Way to Use This Book 14 Stress and Serum Cholesterol 47
Your Personal Stress Profile and Activity Specific Conditions 49
Workbook 14 Hypertension 49
The Stress Portfolio 15 Stroke 50
“Getting Involved in Your Community” Coronary Heart Disease 51
Boxes 15 Ulcers 53
Migraine Headaches 54
coping in today’s world 19 Tension Headaches 55
summary 19 Cancer 56
internet resources 19 Allergies, Asthma, and Hay Fever 56
references 20 Rheumatoid Arthritis 58
lab assessment 1.1 what causes you stress? 23 Backache 58
lab assessment 1.2 why do some of your TMJ Syndrome 59
stressors result in a stress response? 24 Obesity 60
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 62
Symptoms of PTSD 62
CHAPTER 2 Treatment of PTSD 62
stress psychophysiology 25 Stress and Other Conditions 64
The Brain 25 coping in today’s world 65
The Endocrine System 29 summary 66
The Autonomic Nervous System 33 internet resources 66
The Cardiovascular System 35 references 66
lab assessment 3.1 do you know what to do for
posttraumatic stress disorder? 71
lab assessment 3.2 why did you get sick as a
part 2
result of stress? 72 General Applications:
lab assessment 3.3 how are my health Life-Situation and Perception
indices? 73 Interventions 107

CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 4
intervention 108
stress and the college student 75 Coping with a Stressor 108
The Younger College Student 76 A Model of Stress 109
Lifestyle Change 76 Feedback Loops in the Stress Model 111
Grades 77 Setting Up Roadblocks 111
Course Overload 78 Comprehensive Stress Management 112
Finances 78 Eustress and the Model 114
Friendship 83 Taking Control 115
Love 83 Making a Commitment 117
Sex 84
HIV/AIDS 86 coping in today’s world 118
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections 86 summary 119
Prevention of Sexually Transmitted internet resources 119
Infections 86 references 119
Acquaintance Rape 87 lab assessment 5.1 what eustressors have
Shyness 89 you experienced? 121
Jealousy 90
Breakups 90
CHAPTER 6
Eating Disorders 91
The Older College Student 93 life-situation interventions:
Career and School 93 intrapersonal 123
Family and School 94 Eliminating Unnecessary Stressors 123
Self-Doubt 94 Nutrition and Stress 125
The Minority College Student 95 Noise and Stress 137
Interventions 97 Life Events and Stress 138
Life-Situation Interventions 97 Hassles and Chronic Stress 140
Perception Interventions 99 Success Analysis 140
Emotional Arousal Interventions 100
Physiological Arousal Interventions 101 coping in today’s world 143
summary 143
coping in today’s world 101 internet resources 143
summary 102 references 144
internet resources 102 lab assessment 6.1 what is your resting
references 102 metabolic rate (rmr)? 145
lab assessment 4.1 budgeting while in school: lab assessment 6.2 what hassles do you
using a worksheet to help manage your encounter? 146
money 105
lab assessment 4.2 how intimate are your
friendships? 106

Table of Contents v
 CHAPTER 7
life-situation interventions:
interpersonal 147
Asserting Yourself 147
Nonverbal Assertiveness 148
Verbal Assertiveness 149
Conflict Resolution 150
Communication 153
Nonverbal Communication 154
Verbal Communication 154
Emotional Intelligence 156
The Importance of Emotional
Intelligence 156
Ways to Develop Emotional Intelligence
Technostress 158
Time Management 159
Assessing How You Spend Time 159
Setting Goals 160
Prioritizing 160
Scheduling 160
Maximizing Your Rewards 160
Saying No 160
Delegating 161
Evaluating Tasks Once 161
Using the Circular File 161
Limiting Interruptions 161
Investing Time 161
Social Support Networking 162
coping in today’s world 165
summary 165
internet resources 165
references 166
lab assessment 7.1 how assertive
are you? 169
lab assessment 7.2 how do you resolve
conflicts? 171
lab assessment 7.3 how is your social
support? 172
lab assessment 7.4 what is your active
listening style? 174
CHAPTER 8
perception interventions 177
Selective Awareness 177
Stop to Smell the Roses 179
Perspective and Selective Awareness 179
An Attitude of Gratitude 180
Humor and Stress 182
Type A Behavior Pattern 183
vi Table of Contents
Self-Esteem 186
Locus of Control 188
Anxiety Management 190
Test Anxiety 190
Trait and State Anxiety 190
Panic Disorder 190
Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder) 191
Specific Phobias 192
Coping Techniques 192
Resiliency 197
Hardiness 198
coping in today’s world 199
summary 199
157 internet resources 200
references 200
lab assessment 8.1 what kind of sense
of humor do you have? 205
lab assessment 8.2 are you a type a? 207
lab assessment 8.3 how is your self–esteem? 208
lab assessment 8.4 how is your physical
self–esteem? 209
lab assessment 8.5 what is your locus of
control? 210
lab assessment 8.6 what is your level
of test anxiety? 211
lab assessment 8.7 do you have irrational
beliefs? 213
CHAPTER 9
spirituality and stress 215
Spiritual Health 215
Religion and Spirituality 216
Spirituality and Health 216
Spirituality and College Students 218
How Spirituality and Religion
Affect Health 218
Control Theory 218
Social Support Theory 219
Spirituality, Social Support,
and Terrorism 219
Placebo Theory 220
Forgiveness and Health 220
Volunteerism as a Spiritual and Healthy
Activity 221
Service-Learning: A Spiritual and Academic
Activity 222
Closing Thoughts on Spirituality, Health,
and Managing Stress 224
coping in today’s world 226
summary 226 summary 268
internet resources 227 internet resources 268
references 227 references 268
lab assessment 9.1 how spiritual are you? 231 lab assessment 11.1 is autogenic training
lab assessment 9.2 how forgiving are you? 233 for you? 273
lab assessment 11.2 is imagery for you? 274

part 3 lab assessment 11.3 is progressive relaxation

for you? 275

General Applications:
Relaxation Techniques 235
CHAPTER 10
meditation 236
What Is Meditation? 236
Types of Meditation 236
Benefits of Meditation 237
Physiological Effects 238
Psychological Effects 239
How to Meditate 240
Other Types of Meditation 242
Making Time for Meditation 242
coping in today’s world 243
summary 244
internet resources 244
references 244
lab assessment 10.1 is meditation for you?
CHAPTER 11
autogenic training, imagery, and
progressive relaxation 249
Autogenic Training 249
Benefits of Autogenic Training 250
Physiological Effects 250
Psychological Effects 250
How to Do Autogenic Training 251
Prerequisites 251
Body Position 251
Six Initial Stages of Autogenic Training 252
An Autogenic Training Experience 253
Imagery 255
Physiological Effects 256
Psychological Effects 257
Progressive Relaxation 257
Bracing 257
What Is Progressive Relaxation? 258
Benefits of Progressive Relaxation 259
How To Do Progressive Relaxation 259
coping in today’s world 267
CHAPTER 12
other relaxation techniques 277
Biofeedback 277
Benefits of Biofeedback 278
How to Relax Using Biofeedback 279
How to Arrange for Biofeedback Training 281
Diaphragmatic Breathing 281
Body Scanning 282
Body Scan Relaxation Exercise 283
Massage and Acupressure 284
Yoga and Stretching 284
Repetitive Prayer 287
Quieting Reflex 288
Instant Calming Sequence 288
Mindfulness 288
Music and Relaxation 290
Tai Chi 291
247 Pets and Stress 292
coping in today’s world 295
summary 296
internet resources 296
references 296
lab assessment 12.1 how do you cause stress,
and what will you do about it? 303
lab assessment 12.2 pets: stress busters in spite
of it all? 304
part 4
General Applications:
Physiological Arousal and Behavior
Change Interventions 305
CHAPTER 13
physiological arousal interventions 306
Exercise and Health 307
Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise 307
Physical Health 307

Table of Contents vii

 Psychological Health 309 Professional Help 336
Can Physical Fitness and Exercise Make Application of Behavior Change
You Smarter? 312 Techniques 337
The Healthy Way to Exercise 312 Example: Exercise 338
Principles of Exercise 313 Behavior Change Theories and Stress 338
Intensity, Frequency, and Duration 313 Stages of Change Theory 339
Assessing Your Cardiorespiratory Fitness 314 Health Belief Model 340
Starting an Exercise Program 315 Self-Efficacy Theory 341
How to Exercise 315 Goal-Setting Theory 342
Do’s and Don’ts 315 coping in today’s world 342
Competition and Enjoyment 316 su‌mmary 343
Choosing an Exercise Program 317 internet resources 343
Swimming 317 references 344
Rope Jumping 317 lab assessment 14.1 are your behaviors
Bicycling 318 healthy? 345
Walking 318 lab assessment 14.2 are your lifestyle
Jogging 319 behaviors healthy? 347
Stretching 321 lab assessment 14.3 decreasing stressful
Weight Training 321 behaviors: a guide 348
Exercise Guidelines 321 lab assessment 14.4 can you use behavior
Exercise and the Elderly 323 change theory to change your behavior? 349
Exercise—Keeping It Going 324
coping in today’s world 325 CHAPTER 15
summary 326
diversity and stress 351
internet resources 326
references 326 Diverse Populations 351
lab assessment 13.1 can you overcome Positive Aspects of Minority Status 352
roadblocks to exercise? 329 An Introduction to Problems Faced by
lab assessment 13.2 can you differentiate Minorities 353
between exercise myths and facts? 330 Stressors Challenging Minorities 354
Health Status 356
CHAPTER 14 National Health Objectives and Diversity 356
Infant Mortality 358
strategies for decreasing stressful Life Expectancy 359
behaviors 331 Years of Potential Life Lost 359
Health and Lifestyle Behaviors 331 High Blood Pressure 359
Health-Behavior Assessment 331 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Selected Lifestyle Behaviors 331 (AIDS) 360
Barriers to Action 332 Cancer 361
Locus of Control 332 Mental Health 361
Methods for Decreasing Stressful Behaviors 332 Poverty and Educational Level 362
Self-Monitoring 333 Family Life 362
Tailoring 333 Homelessness 362
Material Reinforcement 334 Family Structure 363
Social Reinforcement 334 Age and Physical Challenges 365
Social Support 335 Elders 365
Self-Contracting 335 People with Physical and Mental Challenges 367
Contracting with a Significant Other 335 Sexual Orientation 367
Shaping 335 coping in today’s world 368
Reminders 336 summary 369
Self-Help Groups 336 internet resources 369

viii Table of Contents

references 370
lab assessment 15.1 how has prejudice
affected your level of stress? 373
lab assessment 15.2 what biases do you
possess? 374
lab assessment 15.3 how well do you know
diverse groups and individuals? 375
lab assessment 16.1 do you have
occupational stress? 411
lab assessment 16.2 how stressful
is your job? 412
lab assessment 16.3 do you have
burnout or brownout? 415
CHAPTER 17

part 5 family stress 417

The Family 417
Specific Applications 377 Needs Satisfied by the Family 417
The Changing Family 418
Marriage 420
CHAPTER 16 Cohabitation 420
occupational stress 378 Divorce 421
What Is Occupational Stress? 378 Single-Parent Families 421
Occupational Stress Cycle 379 Gay and Lesbian Families 422
Why Is Occupational Stress of Concern? 381 Family Stressors 423
Gender and Occupational Stress 385 The Dual-Career Family 423
Disease and Occupational Stress 386 Children 425
Physiological Effects 386 Family Planning 426
Disease States 386 Adoption 428
Psychological Effects 386 Mobility 428
Occupational Stressors 387 Violence: A Family Matter 429
Lack of Participation 387 Financial Stressors 431
Role Problems 387 Other Stressors 432
Job Dissatisfaction 389 A Model of Family Stress 433
The Work Environment 389 Interventions 433
The Workaholic 390 Life-Situation Interventions 433
Burnout 392 Financial Stress Interventions 435
Women and Work Outside the Home 393 Perception Interventions 436
Types of Jobs and Wages 394 Emotional Arousal Interventions 438
Coping with Work Stress 394 Physiological Arousal Interventions 438
Women and Retirement 395 coping in today’s world 439
Family-Friendly Work-Related Policies 396 summary 439
Work-Family Balance 399 internet resources 439
Working in the Home 400 references 440
Interventions 402 lab assessment 17.1 are you ready
Life-Situation Interventions 402 for marriage? 443
Perception Interventions 402 lab assessment 17.2 who is your
Emotional Arousal Interventions 403 ideal mate? 444
Physiological Arousal Interventions 404
Managing Occupational Stress 404
coping in today’s world 405 Epilogue E-1
summary 405 Glossary G-1
internet resources 406 Photo Credits PC-1
references 406 Index I-1

Table of Contents ix
 Preface

T his book evolved out of two needs. The first pertained to the experiences of
my students, colleagues, friends, and relatives who, as I listened to their sto-
ries, seemed to be crying out for help in dealing with the stress of life. Upon
closer scrutiny, I realized that the only cries I was deaf to were my own. I, too,
needed help managing stress.
The second need related to the nature of texts on this subject. I thought they
were informative or interesting but seldom both. Furthermore, I didn’t think stress
management was presented as the complex subject I envision it to be. I thought
books on this subject explored parts of stress management but omitted several key
components. I wrote Comprehensive Stress Management both to address the com-
plexity of the subject and to respond to the very human needs of college students
living highly stressful lives.
This book, then, is written in a more personal, informal manner than most, and
it is organized around situations in life that, when perceived as distressing, result
in the emotional and physiological arousal we know as stress. There is an abun-
dance of scientific and statistical information in this book, but there is also a
healthy dose of anecdote, humor, and personal experience to bring the content to
life. In addition, numerous means of self-evaluation are provided so that content
takes on personal meaning for each student.

Managing Stress in an
Increasingly Stressful World
Comprehensive Stress Management empowers students to—
Learn what stress is—emotionally and physiologically—and how it affects their
health.
•• The science of stress is presented in three chapters covering everything
from the role of the brain in stress to the effects of stress on the body.
•• New or expanded topics include technological addiction and technological
stress, same-sex marriage, multigenerational families, a new occupational
stress scale that measures the various constructs comprising job stress, more
effective ways to manage and maintain one’s weight, numerous instances of
clarification based on student feedback, and many more.
Evaluate their current level of stress and develop a stress profile that identifies
their personal triggers and stressors.
•• Lab Assessments in each chapter help them identify attitudes, behaviors,
and coping skills and target areas for improvement.
•• The Personal Stress Profile and Activity Workbook—available through the
Instructor Resources on Connect—helps students actively create a personal
plan for managing stress in their lives.

x
Apply what they learn to their own lives by using the tools and activities to
become active participants in managing their own stress.
•• A chapter on stress and the college student helps students identify and
understand stressors unique to their current phase of life.
•• Detailed descriptions of stress management and relaxation techniques offer
many different approaches to explore and try, including yoga breathing
techniques, meditation, progressive relaxation, imagery, behavior and anxi-
ety management techniques, and more.
•• “Getting Involved in Your Community” boxes challenge students to partici-
pate in projects designed to decrease stress levels on a broader scale.

Content Revisions by Chapter

We all learn from experience, and I am no exception. This edition of Comprehen-
sive Stress Management incorporates many changes and updates while still retain-
ing the content and features valued by instructors and students over the previous
12 editions.
All statistics, data, and websites are updated. In addition, the most current
research findings are incorporated into the text. There are over 160 new references,
with most of those after 2010. New photos and figures have been added through-
out the text.
Chapter 3: The difference in rates of hypertension between white and African
American men and women is discussed and a hypothesis as to why African
American women have the highest incidence of hypertension is presented.
A more precise and clearer definition of posttraumatic stress disorder is
presented.
Chapter 4: A more recent listing of tasks with which young college students
are confronted is presented.
Figure 4.1, Average Estimated Undergraduate Budgets and Table 4.2, Graduating
College Students’ Loan Debt, have been updated with the latest data.
The Facts About College Student Debt boxed material has been updated with
the latest data, as has statistics pertaining to college students’ sexual behaviors
and older college student enrollment figures.
Table 4.3, Sexually Transmitted Infections: Prevalence, Causes, and Treatment,
has been updated with the most current statistics.
Table 4.5, Enrollment in Degree Granting Institutions by Race and Ethnicity,
has been updated to reflect the latest statistics.
Chapter 5: Recommendations for setting up roadblocks (interventions) to prevent
stress have been clarified as requested by students and instructors.
Chapter 6: Table 6.1, Behaviors That Will Help You Lose Weight and Maintain
It, is replaced with more effective strategies.
Statistics pertaining to eating disorders have been updated.
Chapter 7: A new box on technological addiction is added and its effect on
technological stress discussed.
Based on student and instructor feedback, Lab Assessment 7.5, How Emotion-
ally Intelligent Are You?, is deleted.
Chapter 8: President Jimmy Carter’s reaction to being diagnosed with cancer
is presented as an example of an attitude of gratitude.
Additional ways to decrease Type A behavior are discussed.
Chapter 9: Based on student feedback, clarification regarding the differences
between religion and spirituality is presented.

Preface xi
 Statistics on the number of Americans who volunteer and the ages at which
they are most likely to volunteer are updated with the latest data.
Chapter 14: Based on student feedback, a further explanation of the Stages
of Change theory and how that theory can be used to better manage stress is
included.
Chapter 15: Figure 15.1 is revised to reflect the most current data regarding
the breakdown of population by race and ethnicity, and 2060 estimates are
provided.
Statistics are updated pertaining to disability, population of gay and bisexual
men and their health status, infant mortality and the anticipated effects on
infant mortality of the Affordable Care Act, and life expectancy by race and
ethnicity.
Table 15.1, Leading Causes of Death by Race and Ethnicity, is updated to
include the most current data.
The latest data pertaining to the incidence and death rate from HIV and AIDS,
mental health, suicide, homicide, and death and accidents from firearms is pre-
sented.
Table 15.2, Persons Below the Poverty Level, is updated with the latest statistics.
The most current data on the extent of homelessness and who is most likely
to be homeless is included.
Statistics regarding family structure—marriage, divorce, single parenthood, and
children living in single-parent households—are presented.
The number of international students enrolled on college campuses is updated.
The latest Federal Bureau of Investigation data on hate crimes stemming from
sexual orientation bias, hate crimes on college campuses, and sexual harassment
in schools is presented.
The Coping in Today’s World box data is updated with the most current statis-
tics regarding death rates by race and ethnicity, and health behaviors and illnesses
experienced by different races and ethnicities.
Chapter 16: Based on student feedback, the constructs comprising occupational
stress are clarified.
Table 16.2, Vacation Days Earned and Used, is updated.
A discussion of the difference between men and women’s perceptions of the
stress they experience is added, and data regarding the difference in men and
women’s wage gap and why women fair worse financially than men in retirement
is presented.
The discussion of telework is expanded, and the latest data regarding the num-
ber of workers who work from their homes is updated.
The benefits cited by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of work-
site health promotion programs is added.
Lab Assessment 16.2, Are You a Workaholic, is replaced with an occupa-
tional stress scale that measures the various components of job stress—the
physical environment, role conflict and role ambiguity, conflict at work, and
job satisfaction.
Chapter 17: The latest statistics on the changing family is provided, including
the increase in multigenerational families.
Statistics on marriage, cohabitation, divorce, and single parenthood are updated.
A discussion of same-sex marriage is added that includes legal issues and
American’s attitudes toward same-sex marriage.
The most current statistics on child abuse, guns in households with children,
and intimate partner violence are presented.
The latest recommendations of financial experts regarding budgeting and allo-
cation of financial resources are discussed.

xii Preface
Resources for Instructors
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Create empowers you to teach your students your way.

Electronic Textbook Option This text is offered through VitalSource for both
instructors and students. VitalSource is an online resource where students can
purchase the complete text online at almost half the cost of a traditional text.
Purchasing the eTextbook allows students to take advantage of VitalSource web
tools for learning, which include full text search, notes and highlighting, and e-mail
tools for sharing notes between classmates. To learn more about VitalSource
options, contact your sales representative or visit www.VitalSource.com.

The Personal Stress Profile and Activity Workbook is available as an accompaniment

to Comprehensive Stress Management. The workbook includes numerous other
scales to help students learn more about the stressors in their lives and how they can
best manage them. How to make the best use of the Personal Stress Profile and
Activity Workbook is described on page 14.
Comprehensive Stress Management is now available online with Connect,
McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect
also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading
experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All
of the title’s website content is also accessible through Connect, including a Course
Integrator Guide, a Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, and the Personal Stress Profile
and Activity Workbook.

Preface xiii
 ®

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Acknowledgments
Many people have helped bring this project to comple- Sharena Bracy Lisa Hilger
tion. They can never be adequately thanked, but perhaps Tidewater Community Western Carolina University
a mention here will let them know that their help has College
Payge Hodapp
been appreciated. Ginger Dae Vasek Jackson College
First were my students, who taught me as much about Baylor University
stress management as I have ever taught them. Not only Christopher John Malone
did I learn from their term papers and other assignments, Debolina Ghosh Penn State University
but also the way in which they lived their lives taught me University of Florida – Brandywine
much about managing stress. Allison Hagood Christopher J. Tetro
Then there were my professional colleagues, who Arapahoe Community Metropolitan State University
encouraged, stimulated, and provoked me to be as com- College of Denver
petent and as qualified as I could—if for no other reason
than to keep pace with them. In particular, I wish to thank
Robert Feldman, who contributed to Chapter 14. I would be remiss not to acknowledge the support of
And, there are the academic reviewers, whose com- the entire McGraw-Hill team and Ashwin Amalraj, Erin
ments sometimes exasperated, bewildered, or angered me Guendelsberger, and the ansrsource team, for helping to
but who also encouraged me and provided important guide the fourteenth edition of Comprehensive Stress
guidance for revision. Because of them, this book is bet- Management. Their support, competence, and encourage-
ter than it otherwise would have been. These reviewers ment are very much appreciated.
include Most important, there is my family. They not only
respect my need for quiet time to write but also provide
much of the inspiration I need. Karen, Keri, and Todd—
Cynthia Austin Andrew Blanchard I don’t tell you often enough how much you contribute
Metropolitan State University Hudson Valley Community to my work and productivity, but you do, and I recognize
– Minneapolis/St. Paul College your support and value it.

This edition is dedicated to Jonah, Zoe, and

Garrett—my three grandchildren. When I am
with them all stress evaporates away. I wish
them that feeling throughout their lives,
although I know that to be unrealistic. So,
when they experience stress, I hope they are
successful employing the numerous stress
management techniques learned from reading
their grandpa’s book and, as a result, achieve
lives of satisfaction and fulfillment.
—Jerrold S. Greenberg

xvi
 part 1

Scientific Foundations
 1 What Is Stress?

I t was a pleasant spring day—about 70 degrees, with the sun shining and a slight
breeze. It was the kind of day I would have enjoyed celebrating by playing tennis,
jogging, and helping my son learn how to ride his bicycle (an aggravating but nec-
essary task). Instead, I was on the shoulder of a country road in upstate New York
with my hands on my knees, vomiting. The story of how I wound up on such a
glorious day in such an inglorious position serves as an important lesson.
At the time, I was an assistant professor, imposing my know-it-all attitude upon
unsuspecting and innocent college students at the State University of New York
at Buffalo. I had become quite successful in each of the three areas the university
established as criteria for promotion and tenure: teaching, research and other
publications, and university and community service. The student evaluations of
my classes were quite flattering. I had published approximately 15 articles in
professional journals and was contracted to write my first book. So much for
teaching and the proverbial “publish or perish” syndrome. It is on the community-
service criteria that I need to elaborate.
To meet the community-service standards of acceptance for promotion and
tenure, I made myself available as a guest speaker to community groups. I soon
found that I was able to motivate groups of people through speeches and work-
shops on numerous topics, both directly and tangentially related to my area of
expertise—health education. I spoke to the local Kiwanis Club on the topic “Drug
Education Techniques” and to the Green Acres Cooperative Nursery School’s
parents and teachers on “Drug Education for Young Children.” I was asked to
present the senior class speech at Medaille College on “Sex Education” and
wound up conducting workshops for local public school districts on such concerns
as “Why Health Education?” “Values and Teaching,” “Group Process,” and “Peer
Training Programs for Cigarette-Smoking Education.” Things started to take
shape, and I expanded my local presentations to state and national workshops and
to presenting papers at various state and national meetings.
My life changed rapidly and repeatedly. I went to Buffalo as an assistant
professor and was promoted twice, leaving as a full professor with tenure and
administrative responsibility for the graduate program in health education.
When I left Buffalo, I had published more than 40 articles in professional
journals, and my second book was soon to come off the presses. During my
tenure at SUNY/Buffalo, I appeared on radio and television programs and was
the subject of numerous newspaper articles. In Buffalo I bought my first house,
fathered my two children, and won my first tennis tournament. In short, I
became a success.
So why the vomiting? I was experiencing too much change in too short a period
of time. I wondered if I was as good as others thought I was or if I was just lucky.
I worried about embarrassing myself in front of other people and became extremely
anxious when due to speak in front of a large group—so anxious that on a nice
spring day, about 70 degrees, with the sun shining and a slight breeze, as I was
on my way to address a group of teachers, school administrators, and parents in
Wheatfield, New York, I became sick to my stomach. I pulled the car off the road,

2
jumped out, vomited, jumped back in, proceeded to Wheatfield, and presented a
one-hour speech that is long since forgotten by everyone who was there.
What I didn’t know then, but know now, is that I was experiencing stress—too
much stress. I also didn’t know what to do. Everything seemed to be going very
well; there seemed to be no reason to become anxious or ill. I think I understand
it all now and want to explain it to you. I want to help you learn about stress and
how to manage it so that your life will be better and you will be healthier.

What Can You Get Out of This Book

and This Course?
What if you were told you could buy a drink and feel less stressful when you
have an exam in class, or are at a social gathering, or when going to the doctor
or dentist? What if this drink also helped you better manage the stress you feel
when having to speak in front of a group of people, or when meeting with your
professor? How much would you pay for such a drink? Well, unfortunately, there
is no such beverage. However, the same benefits can be gained in another way.
That is, if you learn, practice, and employ stress management techniques, you can
achieve all the benefits above. This book and the stress management course in
which you are enrolled will help you become less stressful and, as a result, be
healthier and live a more fulfilling, satisfying life. Now how can you beat that?
So, let’s get started. First we consider how this whole field of stress management
developed and how it has achieved credibility.

The Pioneers
I don’t know about you, but I found that the history courses I was required to
take as an undergraduate were not as interesting as they might have been. On the
other hand, the information included in those classes was important to learn—not
for the facts per se, but for the general concepts. For example, although I long
ago forgot the specific economic factors preceding the World Wars, I have remem-
bered that wars are often the result of economic realities and not just conflicts of
ideology. That is an important concept that I would not have appreciated had I
not enrolled in History 101.
This wordy introduction to the history of stress management somewhat assuages
my conscience but won’t help you much unless I make this discussion interesting.
Accepting this challenge, and with apologies for my failures to meet it, let’s wander
through the past and meet some of the pioneers in the field of stress (see Table 1.1).
The first person we meet is Walter Cannon. In the early part of the twentieth
century, Cannon was a noted physiologist employed at the Harvard Medical School.
It was he who first described the body’s reaction to stress.1 Picture this: You’re
walking down a dark alley at night, all alone, and you forgot your glasses. Halfway
through the alley (at the point of no return) you spot a big, burly figure carrying a
club and straddling your path. Other than thinking “Woe is me,” what else happens
within you? Your heart begins to pound and speed up, you seem unable to catch
your breath, you begin to perspire, your muscles tense, and a whole array of changes
occur within your body. Cannon was the researcher who first identified this stress
reaction as the fight-or-flight response. Your body prepares itself, when confronted fight-or-flight response
by a threat, to either stand ground and fight or run away. In the alley, that response The body’s stress reaction that includes an
is invaluable because you want to be able to mobilize yourself quickly for some increase in heart rate, respiration, blood
kind of action. We’ll soon see, though, that in today’s society the fight-or-flight pressure, and serum cholesterol.
response has become a threat itself—a threat to your health.
Curious about the fight-or-flight response, a young endocrinologist studied it in stressor
detail. Using rats and exposing them to stressors—factors with the potential to Something with the potential to cause a
stress reaction.
cause stress—Hans Selye was able to specify the changes in the body’s physiology.

1 What Is Stress? 3
Table 1.1 Pioneer Date Area of Study/Influence

Pioneers in Stress and Oskar Vogt 1900 Hypnosis

Stress Management Walter Cannon 1932 The fight-or-flight response
Edmund Jacobson 1938 Progressive relaxation
Johannes Schultz 1953 Autogenic training
Stewart Wolf/Harold Wolff 1953 Stress and headaches
George Engel 1955 Stress and ulcerative colitis
Hans Selye 1956 The physiological responses to stress
A. T. W. Simeons 1961 Psychosomatic disease
Stewart Wolf 1965 Stress and the digestive system
Wolfgang Luthe 1965 Autogenic training
Lawrence LeShan 1966 Stress and cancer
Richard Lazarus 1966 Stress and coping/hassles
Thomas Holmes/Richard Rahe 1967 Stress/life change/illness
Robert Keith Wallace 1970 Transcendental meditation
Thomas Budzynski 1970 Stress and headaches
Meyer Friedman/Ray Rosenman 1974 Type A behavior pattern
Carl Simonton 1975 Stress and cancer
Robert Ader 1975 Psychoneuroimmunology
Herbert Benson 1975 The relaxation response/meditation
Daniel Goleman 1976 Meditation
Gary Schwartz 1976 Meditation/biofeedback
Robert Karasek 1979 Job Demand-Control Model
Suzanne Kobasa 1979 Hardiness
Anita DeLongis 1982 Hassles and illness
Dean Ornish 1990 Stress/Nutrition/Coronary Heart
   Disease
Jon Kabat-Zinn 1992 Meditation and Stress Reduction
Christina Maslach 1993 Burnout
J.K. Kiecolt-Glaser 1999 Psychoneuroimmunology
Shelly Taylor 2000 Tend and Befriend/Women’s Coping
   Style
Patch Adams 2002 Humor and Stress and Health
Johan Denollet 2005 Type D Personality
E. L. Worthington 2005 Forgiveness and Health

general adaptation syndrome
The three stages of stress reaction
described by Hans Selye.
Selye concluded that, regardless of the source of the stress, the body reacted in the
same manner. His rats developed a “substantial enlargement of the cortex of the
adrenal glands; shrinkage or atrophy of the thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and other
lymphatic structures; an almost total disappearance of eosinophil cells (a kind of
white blood cell); and bleeding ulcers in the lining of the stomach and duodenum.”2
His research was first published in his classic book The Stress of Life.3 Selye sum-
marized stress reactivity as a three-phase process termed the general adaptation
syndrome (see Figure 1.1):
Phase 1: Alarm reaction. The body shows the changes characteristic of the
first exposure to a stressor. At the same time, its resistance is diminished
and, if the stressor is sufficiently strong (severe burns, extremes of
temperature), death may result.

4 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

 1. Alarm Phase
  For example, being
Figure 1.1
at a party but having The General Adaptation Syndrome
social anxiety.
in Action.

2. Resistance Phase
  For example, when others try to
involve the socially anxious party
guest, he experiences stress
(perspiration, muscle tension,
increased heart rate, etc.).

3. Exhaustion Phase
  For example, if the social
anxiety is experienced
often, and over a long
period of time, it can result
in illness and disease such
as coronary heart disease.

Phase 2: Stage of resistance. Resistance ensues if continued exposure to

the stressor is compatible with adaptation. The bodily signs characteristic
of the alarm reaction have virtually disappeared, and resistance rises
above normal.
Phase 3: Stage of exhaustion. Following long-continued exposure to the
same stressor, to which the body has become adjusted, eventually
adaptation energy is exhausted. The signs of the alarm reaction reappear,
but now they are irreversible, and the individual dies.
Hans Selye defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand
made upon it.”4 That means good things (e.g., a job promotion) to which we must
adapt (termed eustress) and bad things (e.g., the death of a loved one) to which we eustress
must adapt (termed distress); both are experienced the same physiologically. Good things to which one has to adapt
Selye was really onto something. His research proved so interesting and im- and that can lead to a stress reaction.
portant that he drew a large number of followers. One of these was A. T. W.
Simeons, who related evolution to psychosomatic disease in his classic work, distress
Man’s Presumptuous Brain.5 Simeons argued that the human brain (the Bad things to which one has to adapt
diencephalon, in particular) had failed to develop at the pace needed to respond and that can lead to a stress reaction.
to symbolic stressors of twentieth-century life. For example, when our self-esteem
is threatened, Simeons stated, the brain prepares the body with the fight-or-flight
response. If the threat to self-esteem stems from fear of embarrassment during
public speaking, neither fighting nor running away is an appropriate reaction.
Consequently, the body has prepared itself physiologically to do something our
psychology prohibits. The unused stress products break down the body, and
psychosomatic disease may result.
Other researchers have added to the work of Cannon, Selye, Simeons, and
others to shed more light on the relationship of stress to body processes. With
this understanding has come a better appreciation of which illnesses and diseases

1 What Is Stress? 5

relaxation response
A series of bodily changes that are the
opposite of the stress reaction.
autogenic training
A relaxation technique that involves a
sensation of heaviness, warmth, and
tingling in the limbs.
progressive relaxation
A relaxation technique that involves
contracting and relaxing muscle groups
throughout the body.
bracing
The contraction of muscles for no
obvious purpose.
­tension.
neuromuscular relaxation
Another term for progressive relaxation.
6 Part 1 Scientific Foundations
are associated with stress and how to prevent these conditions from developing.
For example, Dr. Harold Wolff became curious why only 1 in 100 prisoners of
war held by the Germans during World War II died before their release, while
33 in 100 held in Japanese camps died before their release. Keeping nutrition and
length of time held captive constant, Wolff found that emotional stress, much
greater in Japanese prisoner-of-war camps than in German ones, was the cause of
much of this difference.6
Others also helped clarify the effects of stress: Stewart Wolf demonstrated its
effects on digestive function;7 Lawrence LeShan studied its effects on the develop-
ment of cancer;8 George Engel studied stress and ulcerative colitis;9 Meyer
Friedman and Ray Rosenman and more recent researchers10–17 identified the
relationship between stress and coronary heart disease; and Wolf and Wolff studied
stress and headaches.18
Others have found ways of successfully treating people with stress-related ill-
nesses. For example, Carl Simonton, believing personality to be related to cancer,
has added a component to the standard cancer therapy: It consists of visualizing
the beneficial effects of the therapy upon the malignancy.19 For some headache
sufferers, Thomas Budzynski has successfully employed biofeedback for relief.20
Herbert Benson, a cardiologist, first became interested in stress when he studied
transcendental meditation (TM) with Robert Keith Wallace.21 Benson then devel-
oped a relaxation technique similar to TM and has used it effectively to treat
people with high blood pressure.22–25
Relaxation techniques have also been studied in some detail. In addition to
Benson’s relaxation response (see p. 243), some of the more noteworthy methods
include autogenic training (see p. 253) and progressive relaxation (see p. 262).
Around 1900, a physiologist, Oskar Vogt, noted that people were capable of hyp-
notizing themselves. A German psychiatrist, Johannes Schultz, combined this
knowledge with specific exercises to bring about heaviness and warmth in the
limbs—that is, a state of relaxation.26 This autohypnotic relaxation method be-
came known as autogenic training and was developed and studied further by
Schultz’s student Wolfgang Luthe.27
Another effective and well-studied relaxation technique involves the tensing
and relaxing of muscles so as to recognize muscle tension and bring about
muscular relaxation when desired. This technique, progressive relaxation, was
developed by Dr. Edmund Jacobson when he noticed his bedridden patients
were still muscularly tense in spite of their restful appearance.28 Their muscular
tenseness (bracing), Jacobson reasoned, was a function of nerve impulses sent
to the muscles, and it was interfering with their recovery. Progressive relaxation
(see p. 262), sometimes termed neuromuscular relaxation, involves a struc-
tured set of exercises that trains people to eliminate unnecessary muscular
Although Benson’s relaxation response, a form of meditation, became popu-
lar in the 1970s, meditation has been around for a long time. In fact, records
of meditation date back 2,000 years. Indian yogis and Zen monks were the first
meditators to be scientifically studied. The results of these studies demonstrated
the slowing-down effect (hypometabolic state) of meditation upon many body
processes: heart rate, breathing, and muscle tension, to name but a few. For
example, Therese Brosse reported Indian yogis able to control their heart rates;29
Anand and colleagues showed changes in brain waves during meditation; 30
Kasamatsu and Hirai confirmed and expounded upon Anand’s findings;31 and
Goleman and Schwartz found meditators more psychologically stable than
nonmeditators.32
Later, a whole area of study regarding life changes to which we must adapt and
their effect upon health has emerged. Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe showed
that the more significant the changes in one’s life, the greater the chance of the
onset of illness.33 Based on these conclusions, researchers are working toward a
better understanding of this relationship. For example, Lazarus,34 DeLongis,35 and
their colleagues have found that everyday hassles (see page 140) are even more
detrimental to one’s health than major life changes.
More recently, researchers have studied the effects of stress on the immuno-
logical system. As a result, a whole new field of research has developed called
psychoneuroimmunology. Robert Ader,36 J. K. Kiecolt-Glaser,37 Candice Pert,38
and others found that stress diminished the effectiveness of the immune system
thereby subjecting one to a range of illnesses and diseases. In addition, Shelly
Taylor’s research39 identified differences in stress coping techniques used by
males and females. Taylor found that females are more likely to use social
connections to cope with stressful events than are males. Other current researchers
have described a Type D personality (depressed, anxious, irritable). Johan
Denollet’s research40 demonstrated that Type D is related to coronary heart
disease. In addition, E. L. Worthington41 showed that forgiveness can be a non-
stressful, healthy behavior.
This brief overview is painted with a broad brush. Subsequent chapters refer
to these pioneers and their work, providing you with an even better understanding
of the significance of managing stress and tension. When we discuss stress-related
illnesses and diseases, for example, you will once again read about Friedman and
Rosenman, Simonton, Wolff, and others. When we discuss life-situation stressors,
reference will be made to Lazarus and to Holmes and Rahe. When we discuss
relaxation techniques, we will elaborate upon the work of Benson, Schultz, Luthe,
Jacobson, and others.
For now, I hope you come away from this brief history of the stress field un-
derstanding that stress may be not just bothersome but downright unhealthy, and
that stress may lead to other negative consequences such as poor relationships
with loved ones or low academic achievement. There are, however, means of
lessening these unhealthy and negative effects. Stress management is serious busi-
ness to which some very fine minds have devoted their time and effort. As you’ll
find out in this book, this study has paid off and is continuing to do so.

Muscle Tension

As you begin to read this, FREEZE. Don’t move a bit! Now pay attention to your body
sensations and position.
Can you drop your shoulders? If so, your muscles were unnecessarily raising them.
Are your forearm muscles able to relax more? If so, you were unnecessarily tensing them.
Is your body seated in a position in which you appear ready to do something active? If
so, your muscles are probably unnecessarily contracted.
Can your forehead relax more? If so, you were tensing those muscles for no useful
purpose. Check your stomach, buttocks, thigh, and calf muscles. Are they, too,
contracted more than is needed?
Unnecessary muscular contraction is called bracing. Many of us are guilty of bracing
and suffer tension headaches, neck aches, or bad backs as a result.
Take a moment for yourself now. Place this book aside, and concentrate on just letting
as many of your muscles relax as possible. Notice how that feels.
When we discuss deep muscle relaxation, and progressive relaxation in particular, you’ll
learn skills enabling you to bring about this sensation more readily.

1 What Is Stress? 7

allostatic load
The cumulative biological wear and tear
that results from responses to stress that
seek to maintain body equilibrium.
8 Part 1 Scientific Foundations
Stress Theory
Now let’s get down to business. What causes stress? There are several different
theories about what causes stress and its effects on illness and disease.
Life-Events Theory
One theory developed by Holmes and Rahe42 proposes that stress occurs when a
situation requires more resources than are available. For example, if you are taking
a test for which you are unprepared, you might experience stress. To measure this
type of stress, some researchers have compiled lists of major stressful life events
such as the death of a loved one. The rationale is that the more of these events a
person experiences, the greater is his or her stress.
DeLongis and her colleagues43 are supporters of this general approach, but
they consider routine stressful life events more significant than major ones
that happen infrequently. They argue that daily hassles, though appearing less
important by themselves, add up and therefore are more stressful than major
events. Furthermore, when computing the formula for stress, they consider
daily uplifts, such as someone saying something nice about you, as counteract-
ing some hassles.
Another theory of how life events affect health is allostatic load, first defined
by McEwen.44,45 Allostatic load is based on the hypothesis that there is a cumula-
tive physiological risk associated with exposure to psychosocial stressors over
one’s life. There is ample evidence for this view.46–48 Allostatic load proposes
that a key mediator of increasing risk for disease is the dysregulation of systems
designed to balance the organism’s responses to environmental demands. Exposure
to stress elicits adaptive physiological responses in regulatory systems, including
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and the cardiovascular and
immune systems. Allostasis (related to homeostasis) is the adaptive maintenance
of vitality in these systems in response to changing environmental circumstances.
Allostatic load refers to the cumulative biological wear and tear that can result
from excessive cycles of response in these systems as they seek to maintain
allostasis in the face of environmental challenge. According to the theory, as
these systems become taxed and dysregulated, they begin to exhibit imbalances
in the primary mediators of the stress response, such as glucocorticoids, catechol-
amines, and proinflammatory cytokines. Chronic dysregulation is believed to
confer cumulative physiological risk for disease and disability by causing damage
to tissues and major organ systems.49
Hardiness Theory
Other researchers conceive of stress somewhat differently. They focus not on how
many stressful events you experience but on your attitude toward those events.
For example, Kobasa and her colleagues50 argue that if you perceive potentially
stressful events as a challenge instead of as a threat, less stress will result. This
buffering effect—buffering between stress and the development of illness and
disease—is termed hardiness and is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
Social Support Theory
Still other stress experts51 envision stress occurring when there is not enough
social support available to respond to the event effectively. Social support may
take many forms. For example, it could be emotional support to help you feel
better about yourself or about the event as you cope with it, or it could take the
form of financial assistance. In any case, social support helps you cope with the
event and therefore decreases your level of stress. Social support is discussed in
detail in Chapters 7 and 9.
 There are many other ways to conceptualize stress and its effects. Each, though,
consists of at least two components: a stressor and stress reactivity.

The Stressor
A stressor is a stimulus with the potential for triggering the fight-or-flight
response. The stressors for which our bodies were evolutionarily trained were
threats to our safety. The caveman who saw a lion looking for its next meal
needed to react quickly. Cavemen who were not fast enough or strong enough
to respond to this threat didn’t have to worry about the next threat. They became
meals for the lions. The fight-or-flight response was necessary, and its rapidity
was vital for survival.
Modern men and women also find comfort and safety in the fight-or-flight
response. We periodically read of some superhuman feat of strength in response
to a stressor, such as a person lifting a heavy car off another person pinned under
it. We attribute this strength to an increase in adrenaline, and it is true that adrena-
line secretion does increase as part of the fight-or-flight response. However, there
are less dramatic examples of the use the fight-or-flight response has for us. When
you step off a curb not noticing an automobile coming down the street, and you
hear the auto’s horn, you quickly jump back onto the curb. Your heart beats fast,
your breathing changes, and you perspire. These are all manifestations of your
response to a stressor, the threat of being hit by a car. They indicate that your
body has been prepared to do something active and to do it immediately (jump
back onto the curb).
So far, these examples of stressors have all required immediate action to prevent
physical harm. Other stressors you encounter have the potential for eliciting this
same fight-or-flight response, even though it would be inappropriate to respond
immediately or with some action. These stressors are symbolic ones—for example,
loss of status, threats to self-esteem, work overload, or overcrowding. When the
boss overloads you with work, it is dysfunctional to fight with him or her and
equally ridiculous to run away and not tackle the work. When you encounter the
stressors associated with moving to a new town, either fighting with new people
you meet or shying away from meeting new people is an inappropriate means of
adjustment.

Stressors come in many forms.

1 What Is Stress? 9
 We encounter many different types of stressors. Some are environmental
(toxins, heat, cold), some psychological (threats to self-esteem, depression), others
sociological (unemployment, death of a loved one), and still others philosophical
(use of time, purpose in life). One of the most severe stressors is guilt associated
with behaving in ways contrary to one’s belief system or moral framework, for
example, lying, cheating, or behaving sexually irresponsibly. In any case, as Selye
discovered, regardless of the stressor, the body’s reaction will be the same. The
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands, as well as the hypothalamus
and other parts of the brain, are activated by stressors.
The point is, our bodies have evolved to respond to stressors with an immediate
action by altering their physiology for greater speed and strength. When we encounter
symbolic stressors, our bodies are altered in the same manner, although we do not use
the changed physiology by responding with some action. Therefore, we build up stress
products, which include elevated blood pressure and increased muscular contractions,
serum cholesterol, and secretions of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. We do not use
these stress products but rather “grin and bear” the situation. The results are illness
and disease when the stress reaction is chronic, is prolonged, or goes unabated.

How Americans Experience Stress

Following are the most common causes of stress in our society along with the effects
of stressors. Which ones impact you the most?
What Causes Stress?
Money 75% Personal health concerns 53%
The economy 67% Family health problems 53%
Relationships 58% Housing costs 49%
Family responsibilities 57% Job stability 49%
Personal safety 32%
What Are the Effects of Stress?
General Effects:
Lying awake at night 44%
Irritability or anger 42%
Fatigue 37%
Physical Effects:
Headache 32% Tightness in chest 11%
Upset stomach 24% Feeling dizzy 10%
Muscular tension 24% Change in menstrual cycle 5%
Teeth grinding 15% Erectile dysfunction 3%
Change in sex drive 11%
Psychological Effects:
Feeling nervous or anxious 39% Lack of interest/motivation 35%
Feeling depressed or sad 37% Feeling like crying 30%
Source of data: Stress in America, 2011. www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/final-2011.pdf. Copyright © 2011
by the American Psychological Association.

10 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

 This need not be the case. We can learn to take control of ourselves and our
b­ odies to prevent the fight-or-flight response from developing when we encounter
symbolic threats.52 We can also learn how to use stress products once our physiology
has changed to prevent them from resulting in illness, disease, or other negative
consequences. Remember, stressors are stimuli with the potential for triggering the
fight-or-flight response; they need not lead to such a response. As our computer
programs sometimes need updating, so do our responses to stressors. Reprogramming
ourselves in this way means that we learn to perceive events as less stressful, and
we choose responses that are healthier and more life-enhancing. With this book and
the practice of the skills it describes, you can learn to manage stress better.

Stress Reactivity
The fight-or-flight response is termed stress reactivity. This reaction, described in
more detail in the next chapter, includes increased muscle tension; increased heart
rate, stroke volume, and output; elevated blood pressure; increased neural excitability;
less saliva in the mouth; increased sodium retention; increased perspiration; change
in respiratory rate; increased serum glucose; increased release of hydrochloric acid
in the stomach; changes in brain waves; and increased urination. This reaction pre-
pares us for swift action when such a response is warranted. When we build up
stress products that we don’t use, this stress reaction becomes unhealthy.
The longer our physiology varies from its baseline measures (duration) and the
greater the variance from that baseline (degree), the more likely we are to experience
ill effects from this stress reactivity. Of the two, duration and degree, duration is the
more important. For example, if you awaken to realize your alarm clock didn’t go
off and you’ll be late for work, you become physiologically aroused from that
stressor. If in your haste you accidentally pour too much milk into your cereal, that
stressor will result in further physiological arousal. Next, you get into the car, only
to learn you’re out of gas. Ever have a day like that? Although each of those stressors
will probably result in less arousal than having to jump back from a car bearing
down on you, it is the length of time that these stressors are with you that makes
them more harmful.
People who have learned stress management skills often respond to a greater
degree to a stressor but return to their resting rate sooner than those not trained
in stress management. An analogy can be made to joggers, whose heart rate may
increase tremendously when they exercise but returns to normal sooner than that
of out-of-shape exercisers. Try the exercise in Figure 1.2 to demonstrate the effects
of a stressor upon your physiology.

Strain strain
Strains are the outcomes of stress reactivity and may be physical, psychological, The physical, psychological, and
or behavioral. For example, tension headaches and backache are physical strains behavioral outcomes of stress reactivity.
that result from excess muscle tension. Agoraphobia, the fear of being in crowds,
is an example of a psychological strain that stems from stress reactivity occurring
when contemplating that experience. And strains such as alcohol abuse and getting
into fights are examples of behavioral strains in an attempt to cope with stressors.

Gender Differences in Reactivity

Interestingly, there are some differences between the way males and females cope
with stress. Shelly Taylor and her colleagues53 have found that females tend to
exhibit nurturing activities designed to protect themselves and others in coping
with stress. These activities are termed “tend-and-befriend.” The authors argue
that females use social groups more than do males as a response to stress, and
that males, in contrast, tend to exhibit more of a flight-or-fight response to stress.
This and other gender differences are discussed in detail later in Chapter 16.

1 What Is Stress? 11
Figure 1.2
While seated in a comfortable position, determine how fast your heart beats at rest
Stress reactivity. using one of the following methods. (Use a watch that has a second hand.)
1. Place the first two fingers (pointer and middle finger) of one hand on the underside
of your other wrist, on the thumb side. Feel for your pulse and count the number of
pulses for thirty seconds. (See the drawing.)
2. Place the first two fingers of one hand on your lower neck, just above the
collarbone; move your fingers toward your shoulder until you find your pulse. Count
the pulses for thirty seconds.
3. Place the first two fingers of one hand in front of your ear near your sideburn,
moving your fingers until you find your pulse. Count the pulses for thirty seconds.
Multiply your thirty-second pulse count by two to determine how many times your
heart beats each minute while at rest.
Now close your eyes and think of either someone you really dislike or some situation
you experienced that really frightened you. If you are recalling a person, think of how
that person looks, smells, and what he or she does to incur your dislike. Really feel the
dislike, don’t just think about it. If you recall a frightening situation, try to place yourself
back in that situation. Sense the fright, be scared, vividly recall the situation in all its
detail. Think of the person or situation for one minute, and then count your pulse rate
for thirty seconds, as you did earlier. Multiply the rate by two, and compare your first
total with the second.
Most people find that their heart rate increases when experiencing the stressful
memory. This increase occurs despite a lack of any physical activity; just thoughts
increase heart rate. This fact demonstrates two things: the nature of stressors and the
nature of stress reactivity. The stressor is a stimulus with the potential of eliciting a
stress reaction (physiological arousal).

1.

2. 3.

A Definition of Stress
Now that you know what a stressor is and what stress reactivity is, it is time to
define stress itself.
Although Lazarus offered a definition of stress that encompasses a whole spec-
trum of factors (stimulus, response, cognitive appraisal of threat, coping styles,
psychological defenses, and the social milieu),54 for our purposes that may be too
encompassing. Defining stress becomes a problem even for the experts. Mason aptly
described this problem by citing several different ways the term stress is used:55
1. The stimulus. This is our definition of stressor.
2. The response. This is our definition of stress reactivity and strain.
3. The whole spectrum of interacting factors. This is Lazarus’s definition.
4. The stimulus-response interaction.

12 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

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 So I found no difficulty in arranging with Mr. Holley to take a trip
with me, and visit some of my engines in operation, for the purpose
of forming a judgment as to its suitability for the use of his clients.
This he agreed to do as soon as he had finished the report of his trip,
on which he was then engaged. Our inspection took in the engines
running in New York and Brooklyn and vicinity and in New England,
finishing with the engine at the Arlington Mills in Lawrence. They
were all found to be on their best behavior, but Mr. Holley told me
that the engine at Lawrence, which was running there at its intended
speed of 150 revolutions per minute, impressed him more than all
the rest put together; not that it was doing any better, for they all ran
equally well, but solely because it was larger. It made him awake to
the great possibilities of the engine.
On his return Mr. Holley prepared a report on the performance of
the engine, and cordially endorsed it as sure of ultimate general
adoption. But he found capitalists to be absolutely dead. Not even
his great influence could awaken in them the least interest. The time
for the promoter had not yet come. And still my success in winning
Mr. Holley’s support proved to be vital to my subsequent progress.
As a last possible resort I finally thought of Mr. Phillips of Newark.
The firm of Hewes & Phillips had become dissolved by the death of
Mr. Hewes, and so, by purchase of Mr. Hewes’ interest from his
heirs, Mr. Phillips was the sole proprietor of the largest engineering
works in New Jersey. That concern had some time before the death
of Mr. Hewes given up the manufacture of steam-engines, a style
made by them having proved unsuccessful, and confined
themselves to making machine tools. In this line their business was
exceedingly dull, being disastrously affected by the depressed and
stagnant condition of the times.
I found Mr. Phillips ready to listen to me. He said that what he
knew about the engine was favorable, although he had not heard of
it for the last two or three years, but he was willing to consider a
proposition to take up its manufacture. I told him frankly that I had no
proposition of that kind to make. I wished to get the manufacture of
the engine revived, but to retain the business in my own hands, to
carry it on myself in my own name, with the view of gaining for the
engine a reputation that would enable me to command the capital
necessary to establish its manufacture in works that I had long
before planned for that purpose, and in which I could devote myself
to the development and building up of the business; that I hoped to
be able to reach this point in the course of two or three years, when
probably the anticipated financial revival would fill his works with
business in his own line of toolmaking.
He said that my proposal was entirely inadmissible, that he could
not permit any independent business to be carried on in his
establishment, and stated firmly the impossibility of any arrangement
of the kind I suggested, which would be something quite unheard of.
I stood firmly on my own position, but was obliged to leave him
without any sign of yielding on his part. The negotiation was,
however, renewed, exactly how I cannot now recall, but it ended in
my carrying my point. We finally concluded a bargain, in which I held
onto the business, but, of course, had to insure to him pretty much
all the profits. This I did not mind, my object was to obtain a position,
which it will be seen I fully accomplished, but did not know what to
do with it. I was conscious that I could never have made this
arrangement but for the extreme stagnation of the times; but was not
aware of an additional reason which impelled Mr. Phillips to agree to
my terms, when he found he could not do any better. What this
reason was will appear pretty soon.
The arrangement was to go into effect as soon as I got an order.
This was my next job. I learned that Mr. Peters, a manufacturer of
high-grade knit fabrics in Newark, all which, by the way, were sold by
him to importers in New York, was carrying on also a manufacture of
light oilcloths in Newark in temporary quarters, and was building a
large structure for this purpose in East Newark, the building now and
for many years past occupied by the Edison lamp manufactory, and
was in the market for an engine. I called on Mr. Peters, and got from
him the privilege of submitting an estimate for this engine. For this
purpose I went to his then present works, and measured the amount
of power he was using, and found that one of my 8×16 engines
would give him that power with the additional amount he wished to
provide for.
On calling with my estimate early one morning, I found Mr. Peters
ready to bow me out. He told me that he had been informed that the
high-speed engines had proved a failure, and the manufacture of
them had been abandoned three or four years ago. I said to him,
“Mr. Peters, I would like to make you a proposition.” He replied that
he would hear it.
I then said, “Your engineer, Mr. Green, I suppose never saw a
high-speed engine, but he strikes me as a fair-minded, cool-headed
man. I have three engines made by me in Harlem, and which have
been running from four to six years, two in New York and one at the
J. L. Mott Iron Works at Mott Haven. These can all be visited in one
trip. I propose that you send Mr. Green to see them in operation, and
talk with the engineers and owners and learn all about them, and
that you suspend your decision until you get his report.” “That is a
fair offer,” said he. “I will send him to-day.” I called again the next
day, and found Mr. Peters ready to throw the order into my hands.
Mr. Green told me afterwards what his impressions were. In the most
cool manner, entirely free from any excitement, he said: “My only
wonder is that everybody does not use this engine and that all
builders don’t make it. I got the same report everywhere. Would not
have anything else. Costs less money, occupies less space, burns
less coal, needs less attention, never cost a cent for repairs, never
anything the matter, never varies its speed.”
And so I began business in Mr. Phillips’ shop, where I continued
for four years, the most delightful period in my active life. I had Mr.
Goodfellow in his old place as my foreman, and three or four of my
best men back again at the work they loved. Everything went
smoothly and harmoniously, and the business grew steadily until the
orders thrust upon me became larger than I could have filled if I had
had the whole works to myself. In re-introducing the engine to the
public, I determined to change its name. I had been asked
occasionally what I had to do with the Allen engine. It struck me that
I had a good deal to do with it. Starting from Mr. Allen’s single
eccentric link motion, and four-opening equilibrium valve and my
own governor, I had, with the help which I have been happy to
acknowledge, created the high-speed engine, had solved every
problem, theoretical and practical, which it involved, and designed
every part of it. So I felt it to be proper that it should thereafter be
known as the Porter-Allen engine.
 The following incident illustrates the ease with which everything
down to the smallest detail may unconsciously be prepared to insure
a disaster at some time.
Mr. Peters’ engine-room was a long, narrow room on one side of
the boiler-room, from which was the only entrance to it directly
opposite the guide-bars of the engine. The door opened inward, and
the latch was not very secure. They burned soft coal, which was
wheeled in on an elevated plank and dumped into a heap in front of
the furnace.
One day, about a year after the engine was put in, there was a
great wind blowing. A gust of unusual force blew the engine-room
door open at the instant when a barrowful of coal was being
dumped, and carried a cloud of its dust over the guide-bars. The
engine was soon brought to a standstill. All the faces of cross-head
and guide-bars were deeply scored. It was found, however, that
when these were cleaned up and scraped over to remove all
projections that they ran as well as ever, the grooves proving good
oil distributors, but they were not so pretty to look at.
One day, two or three weeks after we commenced work on this
engine, Mr. Phillips’ bookkeeper came to me and said: “Mr. Peters’
engine is contracted to be running on the first of May, is it not?”
“Yes.” “Do you think it will be ready?” I replied that the work was in a
good state of forwardness, and I thought most likely it would be
running before that time. I should say that was a size for which I had
made the revised drawings already, and the old cylinder pattern had
been readily altered to the new style. “Well,” said he, “Mr. Phillips is a
little short to-day, and he would be much obliged if you would give
him your note for a thousand dollars to come due, say, the fifteenth
of May.” So I gave him the note, the engine was ready on time,
accepted and paid for, and the note met at maturity.
This was the beginning of a uniform process, which continued for
four years. It was disclosed that Mr. Phillips’ financial position was
the same as my own, neither of us had a cent of money. The way we
managed was this. I always afterwards required payments in
instalments, one quarter with the order, one quarter when the engine
was ready for shipment, and the balance when running satisfactorily.
Thus with my notes we got along famously. My orders were always
from first-class parties, engines always ready on time, always gave
satisfaction, and promptly paid for. I had many thousands in notes
out all the time, and never had to renew a note. Mr. James Moore of
Philadelphia, the celebrated builder of rolling mill machinery, once
long after remarked to me, “I keep my bank account in the shop.” It
occurred to me that I had always done the same thing.
Directly after we got running I received a letter from William R.
Jones, superintendent of the Edgar Thompson Steel Company,
running a rail mill recently started at Braddocks by Carnegie
Brothers, saying that they were in need of an engine to drive a
circular saw at a very high rate of speed to cut off steel rails cold.
They had been recommended by Mr. Holley to get one of mine, and
if I could furnish a suitable engine immediately he would order it.
Fortunately I could. While I was building engines in Harlem, the city
of Washington, D. C., went into the system of wooden pavements,
and the contractor obtained an engine from me for sawing up the
blocks. About the very time I received Mr. Jones’ letter I had learned
that the wooden pavement system was being abandoned in
Washington for asphalt and the sawing-mill was closed. I at once
wrote to the contractor making him an offer for the engine. I received
by return mail a reply accepting my offer, and adding most
complimentary words concerning the engine. These I remember
closed by saying that his admiration of it was such that if he were
able he would put the engine in a glass case and keep it there as
long as he lived.
The engine proved just right for Mr. Jones’ use. I went myself to
Braddocks to see it started. All were much interested in the governor
action, I as much as any one, for I had never before seen this
particular application of it. In sawing through the head and web and
bottom flange of the rail, the width of section being cut varied
continually, and the gentle rising and falling of the counterpoise,
adjusting the power to the resistance, while the engine kept, so far
as the eye could detect, a uniform motion, had about it a continual
fascination. The success of this engine brought me several orders
for governors, the most important of which was one from Mr. Jones
himself for governors and throttle valves for his blooming mill and
rail-mill engines. I got up for him balanced piston valves which
operated perfectly. In iron valves and seats of this character it had
been found, where the steam contained primed water, that their
edges wore rounded, and their action in regulating the motion
became less and less satisfactory. I knew that these boilers primed
badly, and avoided this defect by setting brass rings in the edges.
The following illustrations show this regulating valve which I
designed and made in two sizes.

Mr. Porter’s Regulating Valve.

The brass liner for the lower seat was passed through the upper
seat by being made thinner than the upper liner. Those for the valve
were made ¹⁄₈ inch too long, and guttered in the lower edge. They
were then driven down by a set and sledge on an anvil. By going
around them three times the lower edges were spread out to fill the
chamfer, and the flanges brought down to their seats. Those for the
lower valve were put in in halves.
William R. Jones
 CHAPTER XXIII

Experience as Member of the Board of Judges At the Philadelphia Centennial

Exhibition.

ne day in April I was surprised to receive by mail a

commission as a member of the Board of Judges in
Group Twenty of the Philadelphia International
Exhibition. I was at a loss to know how I got it, but
learned afterwards that I had been appointed on the
recommendation of Mr. Holley, who was consulted by
the commissioners about the judges in several groups. The
exhibition was opened on May 1, but the judges were not to
assemble until the 24th, and on that day we had quite a ceremony in
the judges’ hall. The American judges were seated at one side of the
hall and rose to receive the foreign judges who filed in from some
place where they had been corralled, while a fine band played the
national airs of all nations that had any airs. After a time spent in
welcoming and responsive addresses, we were marched to a large
café and given luncheon, after which the different groups were
organized. There I had the pleasure of first meeting Mr. James
Moore, also Professor Reuleaux of Berlin and Colonel Petroff of St.
Petersburg; and Emil Brugsch the interesting Egyptian
commissioner, also serving as a judge in our group. I observed that
these foreigners used the English language more accurately than I
did. We organized by the election as president of Horatio Allen,
formerly president of the Novelty Iron Works (then extinct), he being
the oldest and the biggest man among us. Under Mr. Allen’s
administration we had a fine illustration of how not to do anything—of
endless preparation and never getting to work. He had an
interminable series of subjects for discussion and was accustomed
to say: “These questions must be all settled before we can enter
upon the discharge of our duties, gentlemen.” This had the effect
upon our foreign judges that they absented themselves from our
meetings. I remember Mr. Moore saying to me: “Porter, if you and I
had had this work to do we would have had it half done by this time.”
Directly after that Mr. Moore resigned, ostensibly pleading want of
time to attend to it, but really disgusted at the waste of time. Our
work was in a state of chaos. The field was very extensive, as it
embraced all exhibits pertaining to steam and water except
locomotives. One morning I came to the meeting with a copy of the
catalogue on which I had divided the exhibits into three classes,
lettered A, B, and C: class A embraced steam-engines and their
accessories, class B boilers and their accessories and class C
pumps and their accessories; I had prefixed these letters to the
names of all our exhibits according to their class. At this meeting, at
which I had procured the attendance of the foreign judges, this
classification was unanimously adopted, and the judges formed
themselves into these classes accordingly. Our work was then
undertaken in earnest; it was found to be really too extensive to be
accomplished otherwise.
Mr. Charles E. Emery was appointed a judge to fill the vacant
place made by Mr. Moore’s resignation, and he proved most efficient.
As is well known, medals were not awarded, but brief written reports
were made on those exhibits which were deemed most deserving;
these reports were signed by all the judges.
 Professor Francis Reuleaux

The firm of E. P. Allis & Co. of Milwaukee, exhibited a sawmill. This

exhibit consisted of two large circular saws, each driven by a
horizontal engine. The two engines were united by a common shaft
on the ends of which the cranks were set at right angles with each
other. The center lines of these engines were nearly 20 feet apart;
the shaft carried two belt drums 8 or 10 feet in diameter, one of them
near to the bed of each engine; at the middle of the shaft was a fly-
wheel about 16 feet in diameter. The rim of this fly-wheel was in
eight or ten segments, with an arm attached to the middle of each
segment; the segments were bolted together and the arms were
bolted to a hub on the shaft. The saws were set behind the cylinders,
and the belts were carried from the drums on the shaft past the
cylinders to smaller drums on the saw arbors. On starting these
engines the two bearings of the main shaft heated so badly that the
engines had to be stopped. The gentleman in charge of the exhibit
applied to me for advice. I told him that although his shaft was large
it was long, and the weight of the fly-wheel bent it so much that the
two journals ran on the inner edges of their bottom boxes, which
caused the heating. I told him he did not need the fly-wheel at all; the
cranks being quartering, the momentum of the belt-drums was amply
sufficient to maintain uniform motion, and I advised him to take off
the fly-wheel. This he did at once, leaving only the hub on the shaft;
the engines then ran with cold bearings and uniform motion
throughout the exhibition. They had made a cut-off gear for these
engines, but it was found not to suit the purpose and was taken off.
This firm then did a great stroke of business: they came to the
sensible conclusion that they could do a great deal better than to
attempt to work out a new system of engineering for themselves, so
they offered to Mr. Edwin Reynolds, the manager of Mr. Corliss’
works, and to his head draftsman, inducements sufficient for them to
leave Mr. Corliss’ employment and take the same positions in the
Allis works at Milwaukee for the manufacture of the Corliss engine
there. With the magnificent result of this action the engineering world
is familiar.
 We had all sorts of queer experiences. One day I was demanded
by Mr. Jerome Wheelock to tell him why the engine exhibited by him
was not a perfect engine. I glanced over the long slender bed, a
copy of the Corliss bed without its rigidity, and declined to answer his
question. Mr. Emery was more compliant; on receiving the same
demand, he kindly pointed out to Mr. Wheelock one respect in which
his engine could hardly be considered perfect; the steam was
exhausted into a large chamber embracing the lower half of the
cylinder from end to end. This comparatively cold bath produced the
condensation of a large quantity of the entering steam. From the
middle of this chamber a pipe took away the exhaust from the
opposite ends of the cylinder alternately. Mr. Wheelock admitted the
defect, and said in future he would avoid it, so, as I learned, having
two exhaust pipes instead of one, he gave to each pipe one half the
area of the single one.
I had the pleasure of renewing my acquaintance with Professor
Sweet, who was superintending the exhibit of the mechanical work of
his boys at Cornell; this was very creditable and included quite a
show of surface plates.
The Corliss engine in this exhibition was far the most imposing,
and to the multitude the most attractive single exhibit ever shown
anywhere. It consisted of two distinct engines, each having a
cylinder 40 inches in diameter, with 10 feet stroke of piston, the
motion of which was transmitted through cast-iron walking beams to
cranks set at right angles with each other on the opposite ends of a
common shaft. This shaft made 36 revolutions per minute and
carried a gear-wheel 30 feet in diameter; this wheel engaged with a
pinion 10 feet in diameter on the line of shaft under the floor, giving
to this shaft a speed of 108 revolutions per minute.
One day I said to Professor Sweet: “Do you know, Professor, that
an engine with a single cylinder of the same bore as these and 5 feet
stroke directly connected with a line shaft and making 150
revolutions per minute, with a fly-wheel 10 or 12 feet in diameter,
would exert more power than is afforded by this monster and would
run with far greater economy, because the internal surfaces to be
heated by the condensation of the entering steam would be one
piston instead of two, two heads instead of four, and 5 feet length of
exposed cylinder instead of 20 feet?” He replied: “That is all very
true, but how would you get the steam in and out of the cylinder
properly with a piston travel of 1500 feet per minute?” I was not
prepared to answer that question on the instant, but I afterwards
found no difficulty about it.
The accompanying figures illustrate this engine and my high-
speed equivalent drawn to the same scale; it will be seen that the
small engine occupies about one tenth of the floor space needed for
the large one, and would cost less than ten per cent. of the money. It
would also have a more nearly uniform motion, the impulses
received by the crank being 300 per minute, against only 144 per
minute received by both cranks of the large engine, besides which in
the latter the full force of the steam is exerted at the commencement
of each stroke and falls to nothing at the end, while in the smaller
engine, by the inertia of the reciprocating parts, the forces exerted at
the opposite ends of the stroke would be practically equalized. The
reader will doubtless inquire, as Mr. Green did why, with these
enormous advantages, does not everybody use the high-speed
engines and every builder make them?
 The Corliss Engine Exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition.

Porter-Allen Engine Equal in Power to the Exhibited Corliss Engine.

At this exhibition the Bell telephone was first shown to a select

company, among which were President Grant and Dom Pedro, the
last emperor of Brazil. This exhibition was given on Sunday, that
being the only day when silence could be had. Human speech, both
in talking and singing, was transmitted through the whole length of
the main building, about 1800 feet; it has since been transmitted
somewhat further.
The exhibitors of hand pumps all talked about the ease with which
their own pumps could be worked; one man touched bottom in this
respect. He had set his pump so that the spout was nearly on a level
with the surface of the pool from which it drew its water; he boldly
claimed that his pumps required no power at all. I was invited, as I
suppose multitudes were, to take hold of the handle and see for
myself that his claim was true. I never heard of but one man who I
think would be satisfied with this demonstration; that was the
engineering editor of the New York Tribune. Shortly before this he
had published an account of a wonderful pump invented by a Mr.
George, which he concluded by saying that the superiority of Mr.
George’s pump lay in the fact that at each stroke not the whole
column of water had to be lifted, but only that which was to be
discharged. We had a waterfall maintained by a centrifugal pump,
which received its water on one side only; the maker evidently
knowing nothing about the method of balancing these pumps by
admitting the water equally on the opposite sides.
The boiler-makers abounded. My old acquaintance, the Harrison
boiler, turned up. Mr. Allen urged a favorable award to Mr. Harrison
because of the motives of humanity by which he knew Mr. Harrison
was actuated in designing that boiler. A Mr. Pierce invited all the
judges to visit his boiler and hear him explain it. He informed us that
this boiler had been the subject of three scientific tests by Professor
Thurston, but he did not tell us the results of those tests.
As we were coming away Professor Reuleaux said to me: “That is
foolishness, isn’t it?”
An inventor named Smith came several times to our judges’ room
to urge upon us the merits of his boiler. He had two on exhibition,
one in use in the boiler-house and the other in Machinery Hall; these
were quite different from each other. One day not long after the close
of the exhibition I received a note from a stranger requesting me to
call upon him at the Astor House. I thought, “This man doubtless
wants an engine, but his time is too precious to come out to
Newark,” so at the hour appointed I was there. When I entered the
room the first object I saw was a sectional model of this Smith boiler,
and I found that the gentleman wanted to know our reasons for
overlooking that boiler. I replied to him that I had a question to which
I would like an answer at his earliest convenience; we observed that
the two boilers exhibited by Mr. Smith were quite different from each
other, and I saw that this model differed in essential details from both
of them, and I would like to know which one he wished us to approve
of and bade him good afternoon.
One day afterwards I happened to be in Mr. Holley’s office in New
York when a man came in with a drawing of a boiler which he wished
Mr. Holley to recommend. Mr. Holley turned him over to me, and he
explained to me that the great novel feature of his boiler was that the
feed-water was admitted by spraying it into the steam space, thus
avoiding the cooling of any part of the boiler by its admission at one
point; so I found one freak boiler that was not at the exhibition.
We had a fine exhibit of steam fire-engines. I think every maker in
this country was represented, and we had a trial of these engines
lasting three or four days. The committee desired to make a
thorough comparative test of their performance, but the man (a
lieutenant in the navy) appointed to keep the record put down so few
items that we found we had no record at all. We could only guess
how he came to do this.
An exhibitor from Canada brought an engine that presented a very
fine appearance; it was made up of a collection of what he believed
to be the best features of every steam-engine made in the United
States. The experts looked his machine over and saw where he had
got every one of them, but his different appropriations did not work
well together; his engine broke down every day and he worked all
night to be ready for the next day’s trial. It afforded a good
commentary on the narrow-minded laws of Canada, which forbade a
citizen of the United States from taking out a patent there.
The show of steam-engines was not large, and the indicator was
not applied to any engines, so I had no use for the indicators I had
imported from England. If I remember rightly, we had only two
engines from abroad, one of these sent by the Government of Brazil.
This was what was called a “table” engine, in which the cylinder
stands on a table in a vertical position and two connecting-rods
extend down from the cross-head and connect with the crank under
the table. It was copied from a Scotch elementary drawing-book from
which I learned mechanical drawing. One of these engines had been
made by Mr. Hoe to drive the press of the New York Daily Times
when that paper was started in 1851 or 1852. The other foreign
engine was made by a Brussels manufacturer with the assistance of
the Belgian Government. It had an American cut-off which was used
by Mr. Delamater on his engines, and it had the eccentric between
the main bearing and the crank, giving to the latter therefore three or
four inches of unnecessary overhang; it had my condenser, which I
learned was then coming into considerable use on the Continent.
Col. Alexis Petroff
 The only American engines I now recall besides the Corliss were
the Buckeye and the Brown engines, and our awards to these
engines did not do them any harm; the Corliss engines were not
within our jurisdiction and we were not permitted to say anything
about them; Mr. Corliss was not a competitor but a patron of the
exhibition.
Mr. Frederick E. Sickels made an extensive exhibit of his various
inventions, the models of which had been loaned to him for that
purpose by the Patent Office. Only two of these inventions came
within our province: the first was what is known as the celebrated trip
cut-off, patented by him in the year 1842; the latter an arrangement
patented in 1848. The former invention was an improvement on the
Stevens cut-off, already in general use in steamboats on our Eastern
waters. The Stevens invention was applied to equilibrium valves,
rising and falling in a direction vertical to their seats. It enlarged the
opening movement of the valve in a degree increasing as the speed
of the piston increased, by means of the device known as the wiper
cam; but the closing motion of the valve, being the reverse of the
opening movement, grew slower and slower, until the valve was
gently brought to its seat. It was found that during the closing of the
port a great deal of steam blew into the cylinder through the
contracting openings, with very little addition to the useful effect. Mr.
Sickels conceived the idea of liberating the valve just before the
opening movement was completed and letting it fall instantly to its
seat, which would effect a sharp cut-off and a great economy in the
consumption of steam. This action involved the difficulty that the
valves would strike their seats with a violent blow, which would soon
destroy both. This difficulty Mr. Sickels met by the invention of the
dash-pot. This apparatus performed two functions: when its piston
was lifted above the water it left a vacuum under it, so the pressure
of the atmosphere on this piston was added to the weight of the
valve and the pressure of the steam on it to accelerate its fall. This
was arrested by the piston striking the surface of the water just in
time to prevent the valve from striking its seat, but not soon enough
to prevent the complete closure of the port. This nice point was
determined by the ear. The engineer first let water out of the dash-
pot gradually, until he heard the valve strike its seat faintly; then he