Educational research competencies for

analysis and applications Gay

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/educational-research-competencies-for-analysis-and-
applications-gay/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Handbook of Research on Serious Games for Educational

Applications Robert Zheng

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-research-on-serious-
games-for-educational-applications-robert-zheng/

Data Mining and Learning Analytics Applications in

Educational Research 1st Edition Samira Elatia

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-mining-and-learning-
analytics-applications-in-educational-research-1st-edition-
samira-elatia/

Composite Materials Design and Applications 4th Edition

Daniel Gay

https://textbookfull.com/product/composite-materials-design-and-
applications-4th-edition-daniel-gay/

Object Medleys Interpretive Possibilities for

Educational Research 1st Edition Daisy Pillay

https://textbookfull.com/product/object-medleys-interpretive-
possibilities-for-educational-research-1st-edition-daisy-pillay/
Linear and complex analysis for applications D'Angelo

https://textbookfull.com/product/linear-and-complex-analysis-for-
applications-dangelo/

Educational research planning conducting and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research fourth edition
Creswell

https://textbookfull.com/product/educational-research-planning-
conducting-and-evaluating-quantitative-and-qualitative-research-
fourth-edition-creswell/

Competencies in Teaching Learning and Educational

Leadership in the Digital Age Papers from CELDA 2014
1st Edition J. Michael Spector

https://textbookfull.com/product/competencies-in-teaching-
learning-and-educational-leadership-in-the-digital-age-papers-
from-celda-2014-1st-edition-j-michael-spector/

Visual Research Methods in Educational Research 1st

Edition Julianne Moss

https://textbookfull.com/product/visual-research-methods-in-
educational-research-1st-edition-julianne-moss/

Social Network Analysis and Law Enforcement:

Applications for Intelligence Analysis Morgan Burcher

https://textbookfull.com/product/social-network-analysis-and-law-
enforcement-applications-for-intelligence-analysis-morgan-
burcher/
Educational
REsEaRch
This page intentionally left blank
Educational
REsEaRch
Competencies for Analysis and Applications

E l E vE n th E d i ti o n
GloBAl Edition

Geoffrey E. Mills
Southern Oregon University

L. R. Gay
Late of Florida International University

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Amsterdam

Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
vice President and Editorial director: Jeffery W. Johnston
vice President and Publisher: Kevin M. Davis
development Editor: Gail Gottfried
Editorial Assistant: Marisia Styles
Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark
Senior Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Barry
Project Manager: Lauren Carlson
Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghoshal
Senior Project Editor, Global Edition: Daniel Luiz
Manager, Media Production, Global Edition: M. Vikram Kumar
Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber
Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville
Senior Art director: Diane Lorenzo
text designer: Candace Rowley
Cover designer: Lumina Datamatics
Cover Art: Shutterstock/Linda Bucklin
Media Project Manager: Tammy Walters
Full-Service Project Management: Integra
Composition: Integra
Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this
textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.
Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet
and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in
this textbook will change.
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsonglobaleditions.com
© Pearson Education Limited 2016
The rights of Geoffrey E. Mills and Lorraine R. Gay to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by
them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and
Applications, 11th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-385938-6, by Geoffrey E. Mills and Lorraine R. Gay, published by Pearson
Education © 2016.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written
permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not
vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trade-
marks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1292106174
ISBN 13: 9781292106175
British library Cataloguing-in-Publication data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
14 13 12 11 10
Typeset in 10/12 ITC Garamond Std by Integra.
Printed and bound by RR Donnelley Kendallville in the United States of America.
Preface
new to this edition
Like the tenth edition, the eleventh edition reflects
a combination of both unsolicited and solicited
input. Positive feedback suggested aspects of the
text that should not be changed—the writing
style and the focus on ethical practice, for ex-
ample. Those aspects remain. However, for the
first time in many years, the Table of Contents
reflects a new organization for the book. Part I,
Foundational Concepts and Processes retains the
same six chapters from the 10th edition, but Part II,
Research Designs, includes all of the research
design chapters that were previously separated
into quantitative research designs and qualitative
research designs. This reflects our decision to
provide a comprehensive discussion of all the re-
search designs before discussing data analysis and
interpretation. Part III, Working with Quantitative
and Qualitative Data brings together discussions
of descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and
qualitative data collection and analysis. The intent
of this new section is to provide a comprehensive
section on both quantitative and qualitative data
analysis and interpretation that reflects the increas-
ing application of mixed methods designs in edu-
cational research. Part IV, Reporting and Critiquing
Research effectively remains the same.
Content changes reflect the inclusion of new
topics and the expansion or clarification of existing
topics. There are many improvements in this edition,
and we describe the more significant highlights here:
■ All research articles have been annotated and
now include descriptive annotations (what is
the researcher doing) and reflective/evaluative
annotations (how did the researcher’s decisions
support or challenge the chosen research
design). These annotations will scaffold the
readers’ understanding of the content of the
chapters to the sample journal articles.
■ Chapter 1 (and subsequent chapters throughout
the book) include a new “Write Like a
Researcher” Feature that have been designed
specifically with the purpose of encouraging
new researchers to start writing early in the
research process.
■ Chapter 3 has undergone significant revision
because of the way technology has affected the
literature review process. Changes include a
Digital Research Tools feature on Google Book
and Google Scholar, step-by-step directions
for an ERIC EBSCO search that maximizes
the power of university library consortium
agreements to identify fully online journal
articles, a “Write Like a Researcher” feature
that encourages new researchers to start their
writing of the review of related literature very
early in the research process.
■ Chapter 8 on experimental research has been
significantly updated to reflect 21st century
discussions about validity, effect size, power,
and quasi-experimental designs.
■ Chapter 15 on mixed methods designs has been
significantly updated to reflect the expansion of
three basic and three advanced mixed methods
designs currently being used in educational
research settings.
■ The chapters on Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics (now Chapters 17 and 18 in Part III
Working with Quantitative and Qualitative
Data) have been updated to reflect new
versions of SPSS and Excel.
In addition, we have added new tables and
figures throughout the text. Every chapter has been
edited and updated. References have been updated.
Appendix A that historically contained tables related
to random numbers, and so on, has been deleted
and replaced with links throughout the book to on-
line sources that provide the same information.
PhilosoPhy and PurPose
This text is designed primarily for use in the in-
troductory course in educational research that is
a basic requirement for many graduate programs.
5
6 Preface
Because the topic coverage of the text is relatively
comprehensive, it may be easily adapted for use
in either a senior-level undergraduate course or a
more advanced graduate-level course.
The philosophy that guided the development
of the current and previous editions of this text was
the conviction that an introductory research course
should be more oriented toward skill and applica-
tion than toward theory. Thus, the purpose of this
text is for students to become familiar with research
mainly at a “how-to” skill and application level. The
authors do not mystify students with theoretical and
statistical jargon. They strive to provide a down-
to-earth approach that helps students acquire the
skills and knowledge required of a competent con-
sumer and producer of educational research. The
emphasis is not just on what the student knows but
also on what the student can do with what he or
she knows. It is recognized that being a “good” re-
searcher involves more than the acquisition of skills
and knowledge; in any field, important research is
usually produced by those who through experience
have acquired insights, intuitions, and strategies
related to the research process. Research of any
worth, however, is rarely conducted in the absence
of basic research skills and knowledge. A funda-
mental assumption of this text is that the competen-
cies required of a competent consumer of research
overlap considerably with those required of a com-
petent producer of research. A person is in a much
better position to evaluate the work of others after
she or he has performed the major tasks involved in
the research process.
organization and strategy
The overall strategy of the text is to promote stu-
dents’ attainment of a degree of expertise in re-
search through the acquisition of knowledge and
by involvement in the research process.
organization
In the eleventh edition, Part I “Foundational
Concepts and Processes” includes discussion of the
scientific and disciplined inquiry approach and its
application in education. The main steps in the re-
search process and the purpose and methods of the
various research designs are discussed. In Part I,
each student selects and delineates a research
problem of interest that has relevance to his or
her professional area. Throughout the rest of the
text, the student then simulates the procedures
that would be followed in conducting a study de-
signed to investigate the research problem; each
chapter develops a specific skill or set of skills
required for the execution of such a research de-
sign. Specifically, the student learns about the ap-
plication of the scientific method in education and
the ethical considerations that affect the conduct
of any educational research (Chapter 1), identi-
fies a research problem and formulates hypoth-
eses (Chapter 2), conducts a review of the related
literature (Chapter 3), develops a research plan
(Chapter 4), selects and defines samples (Chapter
5), and evaluates and selects measuring instruments
(Chapter 6). Throughout these chapters are parallel
discussions of quantitative and qualitative research
constructs. This organization, with increased em-
phasis on ethical considerations in the conduct
of educational research and the skills needed to
conduct a comprehensive review of related litera-
ture, allows the student to see the similarities and
differences in research designs and to understand
more fully how the nature of the research question
influences the selection of a research design. Part II
“Research Designs” includes description and dis-
cussion of different quantitative research designs,
qualitative research designs, mixed methods re-
search designs, and action research designs. Part III
“Working with Quantitative and Qualitative Data”
includes two chapters devoted to the statistical
approaches and the analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data, and two chapters describing the
collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative
data. Part IV “Reporting and Critiquing Research”
focuses on helping the student prepare a research
report, either for the completion of a degree re-
quirement or for publication in a refereed journal,
and an opportunity for the student to apply the
skills and knowledge acquired in Parts I through
III to critique a research report.
strategy
This text represents more than just a textbook to
be incorporated into a course; it is a total instruc-
tional system that includes stated learning out-
comes, instruction, and procedures for evaluating

each outcome. The instructional strategy of the
system emphasizes the demonstration of skills and
individualization within this structure. Each chap-
ter begins with a list of learning outcomes that de-
scribes the knowledge and skills that the student
should gain from the chapter. In many instances,
learning outcomes may be assessed either as writ-
ten exercises submitted by students or by tests,
whichever the instructor prefers. In most chapters,
a task to be performed is described next. Tasks
require students to demonstrate that they can per-
form particular research skills. Because each stu-
dent works with a different research problem, each
student demonstrates the competency required by
a task as it applies to his or her own problem. With
the exception of Chapter 1, an individual chapter
is directed toward the attainment of only one task
(occasionally, students have a choice between a
quantitative and qualitative task).
Text discussion is intended to be as simple
and straightforward as possible. Whenever fea-
sible, procedures are presented as a series of steps,
and concepts are explained in terms of illustra-
tive examples. In a number of cases, relatively
complex topics or topics beyond the scope of the
text are presented at a very elementary level, and
students are directed to other sources for addi-
tional, in-depth discussion. There is also a degree
of intentional repetition; a number of concepts are
discussed in different contexts and from different
perspectives. Also, at the risk of eliciting more
than a few groans, an attempt has been made to
sprinkle the text with touches of humor—a hall-
mark of this text spanning three decades—and
perhaps best captured by the pictures and quotes
that open each chapter. Each chapter includes a
detailed, often lengthy summary with headings
and subheadings directly parallel to those in the
chapter. The summaries are designed to facilitate
both the review and location of related text discus-
sion. Finally, each chapter (or part) concludes with
suggested criteria for evaluating the associated
task and with an example of the task produced
by a former introductory educational research
Preface 7
student. Full-length articles, reprinted from the
educational research literature, appear at the ends
of all chapters presenting research designs and
serve as illustrations of “real-life” research using
that design. For the 11th edition all of these articles
have been annotated with descriptive and evalua-
tive annotations.
suPPlementary materials
The following resources are available for instructors to
download from www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/
mills. Download the supplement you need. If you
require assistance in downloading any resources,
contact your Pearson representative.
instructor’s Resource Manual
With test Bank
The Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank
is divided into two parts. The Instructor’s Resource
Manual contains, for each chapter, suggested activ-
ities that have been effectively used in Educational
Research courses, strategies for teaching, and
selected resources to supplement the textbook
content. The test bank contains multiple-choice
items covering the content of each chapter, newly
updated for this edition, and can be printed and
edited or used with TestGen®.
testGen®
TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclu-
sively from Pearson Education publishers. You in-
stall TestGen on your personal computer and create
your own tests for classroom testing and for other
specialized delivery options, such as over a local
area network or on the web. A test bank, which is
also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains
a large set of test items, organized by chapter and
ready for your use in creating a test, based on the
associated textbook material. Assessments may be
created for both print and testing online.
8 Preface
PowerPoint® slides
The PowerPoint® slides highlight key concepts and
summarize text content to help students understand,
organize, and remember core concepts and ideas.
They are organized around chapter learning outcomes
to help instructors structure class presentations.
acknowledgments
I sincerely thank everyone who provided input for
the development of this edition. The following in-
dividuals made thoughtful and detailed suggestions
and comments for improving the eleventh edition:
M.H. Clark, University of Central Florida; Anne
Dahlman, Minnesota State University, Mankato;
Dwight R. Gard, Texas Tech University; Jann W.
MacInnes, University of Florida; Lauren Saenz,
Boston College; and Rishi Sriram, Baylor University.
These reviewers contributed greatly to the eleventh
edition and their efforts are very much appreciated.
This edition benefited from the efforts of two
editors: Kevin Davis and Gail Gottfried. A few
words of thanks are in order here. For nearly 20
years I have been fortunate to work with Kevin
Davis, Vice President and Publisher at Pearson.
Kevin gave me my textbook start in 1997 when
he offered me a contract to write Action Research:
A Guide for the Teacher Researcher (now in its
fifth edition). Kevin has taught me a great deal
about writing, and I will always be indebted to
him for trusting me with stewardship of this won-
derful text. I have also been fortunate to work
with my Developmental Editor, Gail Gottfried,
for a number of years spanning both my ac-
tion research and educational research books.
My virtual relationship with Gail is remarkable.
While we have never met face-to-face I trust and
respect all the contributions she has made to my
work over the years. I benefit greatly from Gail’s
creative thinking about how to make an educa-
tional research textbook meaningful and fun. Also
at Pearson, Lauren Carlson ably shepherded the
manuscript through development and production,
responded to my cries for help, and kept me on
track. An author does not take on the task of a
major revision of a text of this magnitude without
the commitment and support of excellent editors.
Kevin and Gail were instrumental in the develop-
ment of this edition and I sincerely thank them
for their professionalism, patience, caring, and
sense of humor.
I believe that I have made a positive contribu-
tion to this text, now my fourth edition, and added
to the wisdom of earlier editions by L. R. Gay and
Peter Airasian. Long-time users of the text will still
“hear” Lorrie Gay’s voice throughout the text, but
increasingly there is an Aussie accent and sense of
humor creeping its way into the pages!
I wish to thank my friend and colleague
Dr. Ken Kempner (Emeritus Professor, Southern
Oregon University) for his thoughtful work on
revising the descriptive and inferential statistics
chapters and feedback on other quantitative chap-
ters in the text.
Finally, I want to thank my best friend and wife,
Dr. Donna Mills (Southern Oregon University), and
my son, Jonathan, for their love, support, and pa-
tience. Their commitment to my work is always
appreciated and never taken for granted. The
completion of this edition signals another new era
in my life as my son Jonathan completes his under-
graduate degree and contemplates work and grad-
uate school, and Donna prepares for retirement
after a very successful university career. I continue
to suggest to Jonathan that one day he may want
to take over my books. While it is safe to say that
he is less than excited by the prospect—his under-
graduate experiences in the Clark Honors College
at the University of Oregon and his study abroad
experiences at the University of Oxford have seen
his interest in research increase dramatically!
Geoff Mills
Southern Oregon University
Brief contents

Part i fouNdatioNal coNcePts chaPtER 12 Narrative research 364

aNd Processes chaPtER 13 ethNograPhic research 390
chaPtER 1 educatioNal research: chaPtER 14 case study research 416
Method, PurPose, aNd ethics 20 chaPtER 15 Mixed Methods research:
chaPtER 2 ideNtifyiNg aNd statiNg iNtegratiNg QuaNtitative aNd
a research ProbleM 88 Qualitative research desigNs 442
chaPtER 3 literature review 106 chaPtER 16 actioN research 474
chaPtER 4 PrePariNg aNd refiNiNg
Part iii data iN research
a research PlaN 136
chaPtER 5 saMPliNg 154 chaPtER 17 orgaNiziNg aNd
graPhiNg data 500
chaPtER 6 coNstructs, variables,
aNd tests 174 chaPtER 18 iNfereNtial statistics 522
chaPtER 19 fieldwork 562
Part ii research desigNs chaPtER 20 aNalyziNg aNd
iNterPretiNg data 580
chaPtER 7 survey research 208
chaPtER 8 correlatioNal research 232 Part iV writiNg aNd evaluatiNg
chaPtER 9 causal–coMParative research rePorts
research 258 chaPtER 21 PrePariNg aNd
chaPtER 10 exPeriMeNtal research 284 PublishiNg a research rePort 596
chaPtER 11 siNgle-subject chaPtER 22 aNalyziNg aNd
exPeriMeNtal research 334 critiQuiNg research 620

9
This page intentionally left blank
contents

Part i fouNdatioNal coNcePts Sources of Research Problems 89

aNd Processes Narrowing the Problem 92
Characteristics of Good Problems 93
Stating the Research Problem 94
chaPter 1 educatioNal research:
Developing Research Questions 95
Method, PurPose, aNd ethics 20
formulating and stating a hypothesis 97
tasks 1a, 1b 21 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses
task 1c 21 in Quantitative Studies 98
welcome! 21 Types of Hypotheses 99
the scientific Method 22 Stating the Hypothesis 100
Limitations of the Scientific Method 23 Testing the Hypothesis 101
Application of the Scientific Method in Education 23 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses
different approaches to educational research 24 in Qualitative Studies 101
The Continuum of Research Philosophies 24 summary 103
Quantitative Research 24
Qualitative Research 25
Mixed Methods Research 26
chaPter 3 literature review 106
Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative task 2a 107
Research Approaches 26 task 2b 107
classification of research by design 28 review of related literature: Purpose and scope 107
Quantitative Approaches 28 Qualitative research and the review
Qualitative Approaches 32 of related literature 108
classification of research by Purpose 34 identifying keywords and subject terms, and identifying,
Basic and Applied Research 34 evaluating, and annotating sources 109
Evaluation Research 35 Identifying Keywords 109
Research and Development (R&D) 35 Identifying Your Sources 110
Action Research 36 Evaluating Your Sources 119
the ethics of educational research 36 Annotating Your Sources 122
Informed Consent and Protection from Harm 38 analyzing, organizing, and reporting the literature 123
Deception 39 Meta-analysis 127
Ethical Issues Unique to Qualitative Research 39 summary 129
Gaining Entry to the Research Site 42 Performance criteria task 2a and 2b 132
summary 47 Task 2 Example 133
Performance criteria task 1 51
Tasks 1A and 1B 51
Task 1C 51
chaPter 4 PrePariNg aNd refiNiNg
Task 1A Quantitative Example 52
a research PlaN 136
Task 1B Qualitative Example 76 task 3a 137
task 3b 137
definition and Purpose of a research Plan 137
chaPter 2 ideNtifyiNg aNd statiNg components of the Quantitative research Plan 138
a research ProbleM 88 Introduction Section 138
the research problem 89 Method Section 139
identifying a research problem 89 Data Analysis 141

11
12 coNteNts

Time Schedule 141 test selection, construction, and administration 195

Budget 141 Selecting a Test 195
components of the Qualitative research Plan 142 Sources of Test Information 195
Prior Fieldwork 142 Selecting from Alternatives 198
Title 142 Constructing Tests 199
Introduction Section 142 Test Administration 200
Research Procedures Section 143 summary 201
Appendixes 147 Performance criteria task 5 205
revising and improving the research Plan 147 Task 5 Example 206
summary 148
Performance criteria task 3 151
Task 3 Example 152
Part ii research desigNs

chaPter 5 saMPliNg 154 chaPter 7 survey research 208

task 4a 155 task 6a 209
task 4b 155 survey research: definition and Purpose 210
sampling in Quantitative research 155 survey research designs 210
Defining a Population 156 Cross-Sectional Surveys 210
Selecting a Random Sample 156 Longitudinal Surveys 211
Determining Sample Size 163 conducting survey research 211
Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias 165 Conducting a Questionnaire Study 212
Selecting a Nonrandom Sample 166 Administering the Questionnaire 216
sampling in Qualitative research 167 summary 222
Selecting Research Participants: Example: Survey Study 225
Purposive Sampling Approaches 168
Determining Sample Size 169
chaPter 8 correlatioNal research 232
summary 170
Performance criteria task 4 172 task 6b 233
Task 4A Example 173 correlational research: definition and Purpose 234
the correlational research Process 235
chaPter 6 coNstructs, variables, Problem Selection 235
aNd tests 174 Participant and Instrument Selection 235
Design and Procedure 235
task 5 175
Data Analysis and Interpretation 235
Vignette: Big Pine School District 175
relationship studies 239
constructs 175
Data Collection 239
variables 176
Data Analysis and Interpretation 239
Measurement Scales and Variables 176
Prediction studies 242
Quantitative and Qualitative Variables 178
Data Collection 242
Dependent and Independent Variables 178
Data Analysis and Interpretation 243
characteristics of Measuring instruments 179
other correlation-based analyses 244
Instrument Terminology 179
Problems to consider in interpreting correlation
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
coefficients 245
Collection Methods 180
summary 246
Interpreting Instrument Data 180
Example: Correlational Study 249
types of Measuring instruments 181
Cognitive Tests 181
Affective Tests 182 chaPter 9 causal–coMParative
Projective Tests 185 research 258
criteria for good Measuring instruments 186 task 6c 259
Validity of Measuring Instruments 186 causal–comparative research: definition
Reliability of Measuring Instruments 190 and Purpose 260
 coNteNts 13

the causal–comparative research Process 263 Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes,

Design and Procedure 263 and Other Artifacts 372
Control Procedures 264 Storytelling 372
Data Analysis and Interpretation 265 Letter Writing 372
summary 267 Autobiographical and Biographical Writing 372
Example: Causal-Comparative Study 269 Other Narrative Data Sources 372
writing the Narrative 373
summary 374
chaPter 10 exPeriMeNtal research 284
task 6d 285 chaPter 13 ethNograPhic research 390
experimental research: definition and Purpose 286 task 7b 391
The Experimental Process 287 ethnographic research: definition and Purpose 392
Manipulation and Control 288 the ethnographic research Process 393
threats to experimental validity 289 key characteristics of ethnographic research 395
Threats to Internal Validity 290 types of ethnographic research 395
Threats to External Validity 293 ethnographic research techniques 396
Control of Extraneous Variables 298 Triangulation 397
group experimental designs 300 Participant Observation 397
Single-Variable Designs 301 Field Notes 399
Factorial Designs 309 Observing and Recording Everything
summary 312 You Possibly Can 401
Looking for Nothing in Particular; Looking
for Bumps and Paradoxes 402
chaPter 11 siNgle-subject summary 404
exPeriMeNtal research 334
task 6e 335
chaPter 14 case study research 416
single-subject experimental designs 336 task 7c 417
Single-Subject versus Group Designs 336 case study research: definition and Purpose 418
The Single-Variable Rule 336 When to Use Case Study Research 419
Types of Single-Subject Designs 336 Characteristics of Case Study Research 419
data analysis and interpretation 342 case study research design 420
threats to validity 342 sample selection in case study research 421
External Validity 342 Data Collection Techniques 422
Internal Validity 343 conducting and analyzing Multiple case studies 422
replication 344 summary 426
summary 345
Performance criteria task 6 348 chaPter 15 Mixed Methods research:
Task 6 Example 349 iNtegratiNg QuaNtitative
Example: Single-Subject Study 351 aNd Qualitative research
desigNs 442
task 7d 443
chaPter 12 Narrative research 364 Mixed Methods research: definition and Purpose 444
task 7a 365 types of Mixed Methods research designs 445
Narrative research: definition and Purpose 366 Basic Mixed Methods Designs 445
Types of Narrative Research 367 Advanced Mixed Methods Research Designs 447
Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative 368 conducting Mixed Methods research 449
the Narrative research Process 368 identifying studies using Mixed Method designs 451
key characteristics of Narrative research 369 evaluating a Mixed Methods study 451
Narrative research techniques 370 summary 453
Restorying 370 Performance Criteria Task 7 455
Oral History 371 Task 7 Example 456
14 coNteNts

chaPter 16 actioN research 474 Measures of Central Tendency 504

task 8 475 Measures of Variability 506
action research: definition and Purpose 476 The Normal Curve 508
key characteristics of action research 476 Skewed Distributions 510
Action Research Is Persuasive and Measures of Relative Position 511
Authoritative 476 Measures of Relationship 514
Action Research Is Relevant 476 graphing data 517
Action Research Is Accessible 477 Postscript 518
Action Research Challenges the Intractability summary 519
of Reform of the Educational System 477
Action Research Is Not a Fad 477
types of action research 477 chaPter 18 iNfereNtial
Critical Action Research 478 statistics 522
Practical Action Research 478 task 9 523
levels of action research 479 concepts underlying inferential statistics 523
the action research Process 480 Standard Error 523
Identifying an Area of Focus 480 Hypothesis Testing 526
Data Collection, Analysis, and Tests of Significance 526
Interpretation 482 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests 527
Action Planning 482 Type I and Type II Errors 529
summary 483 Degrees of Freedom 532
Performance criteria and examples task 8 485 selecting among tests of significance 532
Write an Area-of-Focus Statement 485 The t Test 533
Define the Variables 485 Analysis of Variance 540
Develop Research Questions 485 Multiple Regression 544
Describe the Intervention or Innovation 485 Chi Square 547
Describe the Membership of the Action Other Investigative Techniques: Data Mining,
Research Group 485 Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation
Describe Negotiations That Need Modeling 550
to Be Undertaken 486 Types of Parametric and Nonparametric
Develop a Time Line 486 Statistical Tests 551
Develop a Statement of Resources 486 summary 552
Develop Data Collection Ideas 486 Performance Criteria Task 9 556
Example: Action Research 488 Task 9 Example 557

chaPter 19 fieldwork 562

Part iii data iN research
data collection sources and techniques 563
Observing 563
chaPter 17 orgaNiziNg aNd Interviewing 568
graPhiNg data 500 Questionnaires 570
the language of statistics 501 Examining Records 571
Preparing data for analysis 502 validity and reliability in Qualitative research 572
Scoring Procedures 502 Validity in Qualitative Research 572
Tabulation and Coding Procedures 502 Reliability in Qualitative Research 576
types of descriptive statistics 503 getting started 577
Frequencies 503 summary 578
 coNteNts 15

chaPter 20 aNalyziNg aNd chaPter 22 aNalyziNg aNd

iNterPretiNg data 580 critiQuiNg research 620
data analysis and interpretation: task 11 621
definition and Purpose 581 general evaluation criteria 621
Data Analysis During Data Collection 581 Introduction 622
Data Analysis after Data Collection 582 Method 622
steps in analyzing Qualitative research data 582 Results 623
Reading/Memoing 583 Discussion (Conclusions and
Describing 584 Recommendations) 623
Classifying 584 Abstract or Summary 623
data analysis strategies 584 design-specific evaluation criteria 623
Example of Coding an Interview 586 Survey Research 624
Developing a Concept Map 588 Correlational Research 624
Qualitative Data Analysis: Causal–Comparative Research 624
An Example 589 Experimental Research 624
data interpretation strategies 592 Single-Subject Research 624
ensuring credibility in your study 593 Qualitative Research (in General) 625
summary 594 Evaluating Validity and Reliability
in Qualitative Studies 625
Narrative Research 626
Part iV writiNg aNd evaluatiNg Ethnographic Research 626
research rePorts Case Study Research 626
Mixed Methods Research 626
Action Research 626
chaPter 21 PrePariNg aNd PublishiNg summary 627
a research rePort 596 Performance Criteria Task 11 629
task 10 597 Task 11 Example 630
guidelines for writing a research report 597
format and style 599 appendix a statistical references 645
formatting theses and dissertations 600
Preliminary Pages 601 appendix b suggested responses 667
The Main Body 602
glossary 673
writing for journal Publication 604
summary 606 Name index 685
Performance criteria Task 10 608
Task 10 Example 609 subject index 687
This page intentionally left blank
Research articles

chaPter 1
can instructional and emotional support in the first-grade classroom Make a difference for children
at risk of school failure? 52

developing teacher epistemological sophistication about Multicultural curriculum: a case study 76

chaPter 7
to what extent are literacy initiatives being supported: important Questions for administrators 225

chaPter 8
Parental involvement and its influence on the reading achievement of 6th grade students 249

chaPter 9
comparing longitudinal academic achievement of full-day and half-day kindergarten
students 269

chaPter 10
effects of Mathematical word Problem–solving instruction on Middle school students with learning
Problems 316

chaPter 11
effects of functional Mobility skills training for young students with Physical disabilities 351

chaPter 12
for whom the school bell tolls: conflicting voices inside an alternative high school 376

chaPter 13
Preparing Preservice teachers in a diverse world 406

chaPter 14
using community as a resource for teacher education: a case study 428

chaPter 15
how should Middle-school students with ld approach online Note taking? a Mixed Methods
study 459

chaPter 16
“let’s talk”: discussions in a biology classroom: an action research Project 488

chaPter 22
gender and race as variables in Psychosocial adjustment to Middle and high school 630

17
This page intentionally left blank
Educational
REsEaRch
 c h a P t E R on E

Educational Research:
Method, Purpose,
and Ethics

Little Heroes 3, 2002

“despite a popular stereotype that depicts researchers as

spectacled, stoop-shouldered, elderly gentlemen who endlessly
add chemicals to test tubes, every day thousands of men and
women of all ages, shapes, and sizes conduct educational research
in a wide variety of settings.” (p. 21)
 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
lEaRninG outcoMEs
After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to do
the following:
1. Briefly describe the reasoning involved in the
scientific method.
2. Explain why researchers would use
quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, or
action research designs to address a specific
research problem.
3. Briefly define and state the major
characteristics of these research designs:
survey, correlational, causal–comparative,
experimental, single-subject, narrative,
ethnographic, case study, mixed methods, and
action research.
4. Explain the purposes of basic research,
applied research, evaluation research,
research and development (R&D), and action
research.
5. Explain the ethical obligations that
educational researchers have and describe
the codes and procedures they must follow to
ensure they adhere to them.
welcome!
If you are taking a research course because it is
required in your program of studies, raise your
right hand. If you are taking a research course
because it seems like it will be a really fun elective,
raise your left hand. We thought you may not be
here of your own free will. Although you may be
required to take this course, you are not the inno-
cent victim of one or more sadists. Your professors
have several legitimate reasons for believing this
research course is an essential component of your
education.
First, educational research findings contrib-
ute significantly to both educational theory and
educational practice. As a professional, you need
to know how to find, understand, and evaluate
these findings. And when you encounter research
findings in professional publications or in the
media, you have a responsibility, as a professional,
to distinguish between legitimate and ill-founded
research claims. Second, although many of you
will be primarily critical consumers of research,
21
Completing Chapter 1 should enable you to per-
form the following tasks:
tasks 1a, 1B
Identify and briefly state the following for both
research studies at the end of this chapter:
1. The research design
2. The rationale for the choice of the research
design
3. The major characteristics of the research
design, including research procedures,
method of analysis, and major
conclusions
4. Ethical issues the authors experienced and
how they were addressed
(See Performance Criteria, p. 51.)
task 1c
Classify given research studies based on their
characteristics and purposes. (See Performance
Criteria, p. 51.)
some of you will decide to become educational
researchers. A career in research opens the door to
a variety of employment opportunities in universi-
ties, research centers, and business and industry.
Despite a popular stereotype that depicts
researchers as spectacled, stoop-shouldered,
elderly gentlemen (a stereotype I am rapidly
approaching!) who endlessly add chemicals to test
tubes, every day thousands of men and women of
all ages and postures conduct educational research
in a wide variety of settings. Every year many mil-
lions of dollars are spent in the quest for knowl-
edge related to teaching and learning. Educational
research has contributed many findings concern-
ing principles of behavior, learning, and retention
of knowledge—many of which can also be applied
to curriculum, instruction, instructional materi-
als, and assessment techniques. Both the quantity
and the quality of research are increasing, partly
because researchers are better trained. Educational
research classes have become core components of
preservice teacher education programs, as well as
the cornerstone of advanced degree programs.
22 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
We recognize that educational research is a rel-
atively unfamiliar discipline for many of you. Our
first goals, then, are to help you acquire a general
understanding of research processes and to help
you develop the perspective of a researcher. We
begin by examining the scientific method.
the scientific method
What is knowledge? And how do we come to
“know” something? Experience is certainly one of
the fundamental ways we come to know about and
understand our world. For example, a child who
touches something hot learns that high heat hurts.
We know other things because a trusted authority,
such as a parent or a teacher, told us about them.
Most likely, much of your knowledge of current
world events comes secondhand, from things you
have read or heard from a source you trust.
Another way we come to know something is
through thinking, through reasoning. Reasoning
refers to the process of using logical thought to
reach a conclusion. We can reason inductively or
deductively. inductive reasoning involves devel-
oping generalizations based on observation of
a limited number of related events or experi-
ences. Consider the following example of induc-
tive reasoning:
Observation: An instructor examines five research
textbooks. Each contains a chapter about
sampling.
Generalization: The instructor concludes that all
research textbooks contain a chapter about
sampling.
deductive reasoning involves essentially the
reverse process—arriving at specific conclusions
based on general principles, observations, or expe-
riences (i.e., generalizations)—as shown in the
next example.
Observations: All research textbooks contain a
chapter on sampling. The book you are reading
is a research text.
Generalization: This book must contain a chapter
on sampling. (Does it?)
Although people commonly use experience,
authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive
reasoning to learn new things and draw new
conclusions from that knowledge, each of these
approaches to understanding has limitations when
used in isolation. Some problems associated with
experience and authority as sources of knowledge
are graphically illustrated in a story told about
Aristotle. According to the story, one day Aristotle
caught a fly and carefully counted and recounted
the legs. He then announced that flies have five
legs. No one questioned the word of Aristotle.
For years his finding was accepted uncritically.
Unfortunately, the fly that Aristotle caught just
happened to be missing a leg! Whether or not you
believe the story, it illustrates the limitations of
relying on personal experience and authority as
sources of knowledge.
The story also points out a potential problem
with inductive reasoning: Generalizing from a
small sample, especially one that is atypical, can
lead to errors. Deductive reasoning, too, is limited
by the evidence in the original observations. If
every research text really does have a chapter on
sampling, and if this book really is a research text,
then it follows that this book must have a chapter
on sampling. However, if one or more of the prem-
ises is false (perhaps some research texts do not
have a chapter on sampling), your conclusion may
also be wrong.
When we rely exclusively on these common
approaches to knowing, the resulting knowl-
edge is susceptible to error and may be of lim-
ited value to understanding the world beyond
our immediate experience. However, experience,
authority, and inductive and deductive reasoning
are very effective when used together as integral
components of the scientific method. The scien-
tific method is an orderly process entailing a
number of steps: recognition and definition of a
problem, formulation of hypotheses, collection
of data, analysis of data, and statement of con-
clusions regarding confirmation or disconfirma-
tion of the hypotheses (i.e., a researcher forms a
hypothesis—an explanation for the occurrence
of certain behaviors, phenomena, or events—as
a way of predicting the results of a research
study and then collects data to test that predic-
tion). These steps can be applied informally
to solve everyday problems such as the most
efficient route to take from home to work or
school, the best time to go to the bank, or the
best kind of computer to purchase. The more
formal application of the scientific method is
standard in research; it is more efficient and more
 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
reliable than relying solely on experience, author-
ity, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning
as sources of knowledge.
limitations of the scientific Method
The steps in the scientific method guide researchers
in planning, conducting, and interpreting research
studies. However, it is important to recognize
some limitations of the method. First, the scientific
method cannot answer all questions. For example,
applying the scientific method will not resolve
the question “Should we legalize euthanasia?” The
answers to questions like this one are influenced
by personal philosophy, values, and ethics.
Second, application of the scientific method
can never capture the full richness of the individu-
als and the environments under study. Although
some applications of the method lead to deeper
understanding of the research context than oth-
ers, no application—and in fact no research
approach—provides full comprehension of a site
and its inhabitants. No matter how many variables
one studies or how long one is immersed in a
research context, other variables and aspects of
context will remain unexamined. Thus, the scien-
tific method and, indeed, all types of inquiry give
us a simplified version of reality.
Third, our measuring instruments always have
some degree of error. The variables we study are
often proxies for the real behavior we seek to exam-
ine. For example, even if we use a very precisely
constructed multiple-choice test to assess a person’s
values, we will likely gather information that gives
us a picture of that person’s beliefs about his or her
values. However, we aren’t likely to have an ade-
quate picture of how that person acts, which may
be the better reflection of the person’s real values.
More broadly, all educational inquiry, not just
the scientific method, is carried out with the
cooperation of participants who agree to pro-
vide researchers with data. Because educational
researchers deal with human beings, they must
consider a number of ethical concerns and respon-
sibilities to the participants. For example, they
must shelter participants from real or potential
harm. They must inform participants about the
nature of the planned research and address the
expectations of the participants. These factors can
limit and skew results. All these limitations will be
addressed in later sections of this book.
23
application of the scientific Method
in Education
Research is the formal, systematic application of
the scientific method to the study of problems;
educational research is the formal, systematic
application of the scientific method to the study
of educational problems. The goal of educational
research is essentially the same as the goal of all
science: to describe, explain, predict, or control
phenomena—in this case, educational phenom-
ena. As we mentioned previously, it can be quite
difficult to describe, explain, predict, and control
situations involving human beings, who are by
far the most complex of all organisms. So many
factors, known and unknown, operate in any edu-
cational environment that it can be extremely dif-
ficult to identify specific causes of behaviors or to
generalize or replicate findings. The kinds of rigid
controls that can be established and maintained in
a biochemistry laboratory, for instance, are impos-
sible in an educational setting. Even describing
behaviors, based on observing people, has limits.
Observers may be subjective in recording behav-
iors, and people who are observed may behave
atypically just because they are being watched.
Chemical reactions, on the other hand, are cer-
tainly not aware of being observed! Nevertheless,
behavioral research should not be viewed as less
scientific than natural science research conducted
in a lab.
Despite the difficulty and complexity of apply-
ing the scientific method in educational settings,
the steps of the scientific method used by edu-
cational researchers are the same as those used
by researchers in other more easily controlled
settings:
1. Selection and definition of a problem. A
problem is a question of interest that can be
tested or answered through the collection
and analysis of data. Upon identifying a
research question, researchers typically
review previously published research on
the same topic and use that information to
hypothesize about the results. In other words,
they make an educated guess about the
answer to the question.
2. Execution of research procedures. The
procedures reflect all the activities involved
in collecting data related to the problem
24 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
(e.g., how data are collected and from whom).
To a great extent, the specific procedures are
dictated by the research question and the
variables involved in the study.
3. Analysis of data. Data are analyzed in a
way that permits the researcher to test
the research hypothesis or answer the
research question. Analysis usually involves
application of one or more statistical
technique. For some studies, data analysis
involves verbal synthesis of narrative data;
these studies typically involve new insights
about the phenomena in question, generate
hypotheses for future research, or both.
4. Drawing and stating conclusions. The
conclusions, which should advance our
general knowledge of the topic in question,
are based on the results of data analysis.
They should be stated in terms of the original
hypothesis or research question. Conclusions
should indicate, for example, whether the
research hypothesis was supported or
not. For studies involving verbal synthesis,
conclusions are much more tentative.
different aPProaches to
educational research
All educational inquiry ultimately involves a deci-
sion to study or describe something—to ask some
question and seek an answer. All educational inquiry
necessitates that data of some kind be collected,
that the data be analyzed in some way, and that the
researcher come to some conclusion or interpreta-
tion. In other words, all educational inquiry shares
the same four basic actions we find in the scientific
method. However, it is not accurate to say that all
educational research is an application of the scien-
tific method. Important differences exist between the
types of problems researchers investigate and the
questions they ask, the types of data they collect, the
form of data analysis, and the conclusions that the
researcher can draw meaningfully and with validity.
the continuum of Research
Philosophies
Historically, educational researchers used
approaches that involved the use of the scientific
method. However, over the last four decades,
researchers have adopted diverse philosophies
toward their research. Now, there are certain
philosophical assumptions that underpin an edu-
cational researcher’s decision to conduct research.
These philosophical assumptions address issues
related to the nature of reality (ontology), how
researchers know what they know (epistemol-
ogy), and the methods used to study a particular
phenomenon (methodology), with an emphasis on
quantitative or qualitative methods. As Creswell1
notes, historically, researchers compared the philo-
sophical assumptions that underpinned qualitative
and quantitative research approaches in order to
establish the legitimacy of qualitative research, but
given the evolution of qualitative and quantitative
research over the past four decades, there is no
longer any need to justify one set of philosophical
assumptions over another set of assumptions.
Quantitative Research
Educational researchers have also followed well-
defined, widely accepted procedures for stating
research topics, carrying out the research process,
analyzing the resulting data, and verifying the
quality of the study and its conclusions. Often,
these research procedures are based on what has
come to be known as a quantitative approach to
conducting and obtaining educational understand-
ings. The quantitative framework in educational
research involves the application of the scientific
method to try to answer questions about edu-
cation. At the end of this chapter you will find
an example of quantitative research published
in Child Development (a refereed journal): “Can
Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-
Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children
at Risk of School Failure?” (Hamre & Pianta, 2005).
As this title suggests, this research investigates the
ways in which children’s risk of school failure may
be moderated by instructional and emotional sup-
port from teachers.
Quantitative research is the collection and
analysis of numerical data to describe, explain,
predict, or control phenomena of interest. Part II
of the text will address in detail specific quantita-
tive research designs that satisfy the assumptions
1
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design:
Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
underpinning a quantitative approach to research.
A quantitative research approach entails more than
just the use of numerical data. At the outset of a
study, quantitative researchers state the hypotheses
to be examined and specify the research proce-
dures that will be used to carry out the study. They
also maintain control over contextual factors that
may interfere with the data collection and identify
a sample of participants large enough to provide
statistically meaningful data. Many quantitative
researchers have little personal interaction with
the participants they study because they frequently
collect data using paper-and-pencil, noninteractive
instruments. The analysis of numerical data can be
complex but addressed systematically and Part III
of the text will provide a detailed description for
how to work with quantitative data.
Underlying quantitative research methods is
the philosophical belief or assumption that we
inhabit a relatively stable, uniform, and coherent
world that we can measure, understand, and gen-
eralize about. This view, adopted from the natural
sciences, implies that the world and the laws that
govern it are somewhat predictable and can be
understood by scientific research and examination.
In this quantitative perspective, claims about the
world are not considered meaningful unless they
can be verified through direct observation.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is the collection, analysis,
and interpretation of comprehensive narrative and
visual (i.e., non-numerical) data to gain insights
into a particular phenomenon of interest. Part II
of the text will address in detail specific qualita-
tive research designs that satisfy the underpinning
assumptions of a qualitative approach to research.
Qualitative research approaches are based on
different beliefs and designed for different pur-
poses than quantitative research approaches. For
example, qualitative researchers do not necessar-
ily accept the view of a stable, coherent, uniform
world. They argue that all meaning is situated in
a particular perspective or context, and because
different people and groups often have different
perspectives and contexts, the world has many
different meanings, none of which is necessarily
more valid or true than another.
Qualitative research approaches tend to evolve
as understanding of the research context and
25
participants deepens (think back to the discus-
sion of inductive reasoning). As a result, qualitative
researchers often avoid stating hypotheses before
data are collected, and they may examine a particu-
lar phenomenon without a guiding statement about
what may or may not be true about that phenome-
non or its context. However, qualitative researchers
do not enter a research setting without any idea of
what they intend to study. Rather, they commence
their research with “foreshadowed problems.”2 This
difference is important—quantitative research usu-
ally tests a specific hypothesis; qualitative research
often does not.
Additionally, in qualitative research, context is
not controlled or manipulated by the researcher.
The effort to understand the participants’ perspec-
tive requires researchers using qualitative meth-
ods to interact extensively and intimately with
participants during the study, using time-intensive
data collection methods such as interviews and
observations. As a result, the number of partici-
pants tends to be small, and qualitative researchers
analyze the data inductively by categorizing and
organizing it into patterns that produce a descrip-
tive, narrative synthesis.
Qualitative research differs from quantitative
research in two additional ways: (1) Qualitative
research often involves the simultaneous collection
of a wealth of narrative and visual data over an
extended period of time, and (2) as much as is pos-
sible, data collection occurs in a naturalistic setting.
In quantitative studies, in contrast, research is most
often conducted in researcher-controlled environ-
ments under researcher-controlled conditions, and
the activities of data collection, analysis, and writ-
ing are separate, discrete activities. Because quali-
tative researchers strive to study people and events
in their naturalistic settings, qualitative research
is sometimes referred to as naturalistic research,
naturalistic inquiry, or field-oriented research.
These two characteristics of qualitative
research, the simultaneous study of many aspects
of a phenomenon and the attempt to study things
as they exist naturally, help in part to explain the
growing enthusiasm for qualitative research in edu-
cation, especially in applied teacher practitioner–
oriented research. Some researchers and educators
2
Argonauts of the Western Pacific (p. 9), by B. Malinowski,
1922. London: Routledge.
26 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics
feel that certain kinds of educational problems and
questions do not lend themselves well to quanti-
tative methods, which use principally numerical
analysis and try to control variables in very com-
plex environments. As qualitative researchers point
out, findings should be derived from research con-
ducted in real-world settings to have relevance to
real-world settings.
At the end of this chapter, you will find
an example of qualitative research published
in Action in Teacher Education (a refereed
journal): “Developing Teacher Epistemological
Sophistication about Multicultural Curriculum: A
Case Study” (Sleeter, 2009). This research inves-
tigates how teachers’ thinking about curriculum
develops during a teacher preparation program
and how the lessons from the case study might
inform teacher education pedagogy. And, of
course, the use of the word epistemological in
the title introduces you to the language of educa-
tional research!
Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research combines quantita-
tive and qualitative approaches by including both
quantitative and qualitative data in a single study.
The purpose of mixed methods research is to build
on the synergy and strength that exists between
quantitative and qualitative research approaches
to understand a phenomenon more fully than
is possible using either quantitative or qualita-
tive approaches alone. Chapter 15 will describe
in detail six mixed methods research designs
(convergent-parallel, explanatory, exploratory,
experimental, social justice, and multistage evalu-
ation). However, the basic differences among the
designs are related to the priority given to the fol-
lowing areas:
■ the type of data collected (i.e., qualitative and
quantitative data are of equal weight, or one
type of data has greater weight than the other)
■ the sequence of data collection (i.e., both types
of data are collected during the same time
period, or one type of data is collected in each
sequential phase of the project)
■ the analysis techniques (i.e., either an analysis
that combines the data or one that keeps the
two types of data separate).
characteristics of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research approaches
Earlier in this chapter, we presented four general,
conceptual research steps used in the scientific
method. In this section we expand the number of
steps to six, which are followed by both quantita-
tive researchers and qualitative researchers. As we
discuss in subsequent chapters in Part II, however,
the application of the steps differs depending on
the research design. For example, the research
procedures in qualitative research are often less
rigid than those in quantitative research. Similarly,
although both quantitative and qualitative research-
ers collect data, the nature of the data differs.
Figure 1.1 compares the six steps of qualitative and
quantitative research approaches and lists traits
that characterize each approach at every step:
1. Identifying a research topic. Often the initial
topic is narrowed to be more manageable.
2. Reviewing the literature. The researcher
examines existing research to identify useful
information and strategies for carrying out
the study.
3. Selecting participants. Participants are
purposefully selected (i.e., not randomly
selected) and are usually fewer in number
than in quantitative samples.
4. Collecting data. Qualitative data tend to be
gathered from interviews, observations, and
artifacts.
5. Analyzing and interpreting data. The
researcher analyzes the themes and general
tendencies and provides interpretations of
the data.
6. Reporting and evaluating the research. The
researcher summarizes and integrates the
qualitative data in narrative and visual
form.
Table 1.1 provides another snapshot of
quantitative and qualitative research character-
istics. Despite the differences between them,
you should not consider quantitative and quali-
tative research approaches to be oppositional.
Taken together, they represent the full range of
educational research designs. The terms quan-
titative and qualitative are used to differentiate
one approach from the other conveniently. If
you see yourself as a positivist—the belief that

FiGuRE 1.1 • Characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research
Quantitative
Characteristics
• Description and
explanation-oriented
• Major role
• Justification for the
research problem and
specification for the need
for the study
• Specific and narrow
• Measurable,
observable data
• Predetermined
instruments
• Numeric (numbered) data
• Large number of individuals
• Statistical analysis
• Description of trends,
comparison of groups, or
relationships among variables
• A comparison of results with
predictions and past studies
• Standard and fixed
• Objective and unbiased
Source: Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
(5th ed.), (pp. 20, 464, 504, 541), by creswell, john w., © 2015. reprinted by permission of Pearson
education, inc., upper saddle river, Nj.
qualities of natural phenomena must be veri-
fied by evidence before they can be considered
knowledge—that does not mean you cannot
use or learn from qualitative research methods.
The same holds true for nonpositivist, phenom-
enologist qualitative researchers. Depending on
the nature of the question, topic, or problem to
be investigated, one of these approaches will
chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics 27
Steps in the Process Qualitative
of Research Characteristics
Identifying a
• Exploratory and
Research Problem
understanding-oriented
Reviewing the
• Minor role
Literature
• Justification for the
research problem
Selecting
• General and broad
Participants/Sample
• Participants'
experiences
Collecting
• Emerging protocols
Data
• Text or image data
• Small number of
individuals or sites
Analyzing and
• Text analysis
Interpreting Data
• Description, analysis,
and thematic development
• The larger meaning
of findings
Reporting and
• Flexible and emerging
Evaluating Research
• Reflexive and biased
generally be more appropriate than the other,
although selecting a primary approach does not
preclude borrowing from the other. In fact, both
may be utilized in the same studies, as when the
administration of a (quantitative) questionnaire is
followed by a small number of detailed (qualita-
tive) interviews to obtain deeper explanations for
the numerical data.
28 chaPtER 1 • educatioNal research: Method, PurPose, aNd ethics

taBlE 1.1 • Overview of qualitative and quantitative research characteristics

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Type of data collected Numerical data Non-numerical narrative and visual

Research problem
Manipulation of context
Sample size
Research procedures
Participant interaction
Underlying belief
Hypothesis and research procedures
stated before beginning the study
Yes
Larger
Relies on statistical procedures
Little interaction
We live in a stable and predictable world
that we can measure, understand, and
generalize about.
data
Research problems and methods
evolve as understanding of topic
deepens
No
Smaller
Relies on categorizing and organizing
data into patterns to produce a
descriptive, narrative synthesis
Extensive interaction
Meaning is situated in a particular
perspective or context that is
different for people and groups;
therefore, the world has many
meanings.

classification of research on the behavior change an individual exhibits as a

by design
A research design comprises the overall strategy
followed in collecting and analyzing data. Although
there is some overlap, most research studies fol-
low a readily identifiable design. The largest dis-
tinction we can make in classifying research by
design is the distinction between quantitative and
qualitative approaches. Quantitative and qualita-
tive research approaches, in turn, include several
distinct types or designs with a focus on unique
research problems.
Quantitative approaches
Quantitative research approaches are applied
to describe current conditions, investigate rela-
tions, and study cause–effect phenomena. Survey
research is often designed to describe current
conditions. Studies that investigate the rela-
tions between two or more variables are cor-
relational research. Experimental studies and
causal–comparative studies provide information
about cause–effect outcomes. Studies that focus
result of some intervention fall under the heading
of single-subject research.
Survey Research
Survey research determines and reports the way
things are; it involves collecting numerical data
to test hypotheses or answer questions about the
current status of the subject of study. One com-
mon type of survey research involves assessing
the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns, or
interests of a group of people. A pre-election
political poll and a survey about community mem-
bers’ perception of the quality of the local schools
are examples. Survey research data are mainly
collected through questionnaires, interviews, and
observations.
Although survey research sounds very sim-
ple, there is considerably more to it than just
asking questions and reporting answers. Because
researchers often ask questions that have not been
asked before, they usually have to develop their
own measuring instrument for each survey study.
Constructing questions for the intended respon-
dents requires clarity, consistency, and tact. Other
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Virtutis morem non, set mulieris amorem
Querit, et hoc solo temptat arare solo.
Sic honor ex onere non est, nam fulget honore
Corpore, set corpus non digitabit onus.

Hic loquitur de Simonia prelatorum, et

qualiter hii delicati, dicentes se esse ecclesiam,
aliis grauiora imponunt, et vlterius de censura
horribili laicos pro modico impetuose infestant.

Ecce, deo teste, vir qui non intrat ouile

Capm. xii.
Per portam, latro furque notatur eo.
Sic et in ecclesiam promotus per Simoniam
Clerus, furtiuo se gerit inde modo;
Nec bona de furto conferre placencia Cristo
1010 Quis valet, immo deus pellit ab inde manus.
Ergo valet fiscus que non vult carpere Cristus;
Sunt quia mundana, mundus habebit ea:
Namque suo iure dum clerus abutitur, inde
Priuari dignum iura fatentur eum.
Se vocat ecclesiam clerus, quasi diceret, illam
Non tanget laicus, est honor immo suus:
Sic fastus cleri communi iustificari
Non vult iusticia, set latitante via.
Se leuat et reliquos subdit predatque subactos
1020 Legis composite de nouitate sue:
Sic modo sub specie diuina cerno latere
Has pompas mundi, stant neque iura dei.
Sancta quid ecclesia est hominum nisi turma
fidelis?
Sic patet vt laicus, quem colit ipsa fides,
Est pars ecclesie, melior nec clericus ipse,
Ni melius viuat. Quis michi tale negat?
Vna fides, vnum baptisma, deus manet vnus,
Sic nos ecclesia iungit et vna tenet;
Et veluti multa tegit vna cortice grana,
1030 Sic populos plures colligit vna fides.
Ecclesie sancte cur tunc sibi nomen habere
Vult tantum clerus, alter vt ipse deus?
Appendit legis pondus collis alienis,
Set non vult humeris quid graue ferre suis
Omnia dat licita sibimet, michi set prohibenda;
Ille quiescit, ego sudo labore meo.
Sic iter ex factis viciis prebet faciendis,
Verba set econtra dicet in aure tua:
Hinc plebs attonita dubitat, si credere dictis,
1040 An cleri factis debeat ipsa prius.
Set prohibens michi rem, dum sit culpandus
eadem,
Vix credo verba, sunt quia facta rea:
Tollere sicque nouos de clero cerno superbos,
Per veteres humiles quod d e d i t ipsa fides.
Precipiunt isti maxillam percucienti
Subdere, sic vt eo stet pacienter homo:
Intuleris set eis si quid graue, mox tibi mortis
Censuris anime dant maledicta tue.
Qui necat hic animam sub pena mortis, eadem,
1050 Si posset, corpus perderet ipse prius.
Sic magis ipse lupo fert pastor dampna maligno
In iugulando suas, quas medicaret, oues.
Hii gestant celi claues, intrant nec et ipsi,
Nos nec inire sinunt, quos sine lege regunt:
Nec populi mentes doctrine vomere sulcant,
Nec faciunt operis id quod oportet opus.
Ad dextram Cristi vellent residere beati,
Set nollent calicem sumere, Criste, tuam.
Hii piscatores laxant sua recia lucris,
1060 Vt capiant mundum, non animabus opem.
Sic male viuentes laicis exempla ministrant,
Qui velut instructi more sequntur eos:
Sic ouis ex maculis pastoris fit maculosa,
Et cadit in foueam cecus vterque simul.
 Hic loquitur qualiter prelatus non solum
doctrina set eciam bonis actibus populo sibi
commisso lucere deberet.

In tenebris pergens nescit quo vadat, vt ille

Capm. xiii.
Qui non discernit que sit habenda via;
Cumque caret populus doctrina, nec videt ipsum
Qui suus est presul iura tenere dei,
Cum neque scripta docet, neque facta facit
pietatis,
1070 Immo sui vicii dedita culpa patet,
Cum de nocte sua pereat sine luce lucerna,
Et virtutis habent presulis acta nichil,
Tunc errare facit plebem, sine luceque cecus
Cecum consequitur, vnde ruina venit.
Ergo suas luces accendant clarius illi
Qui sunt ductores, vt videamus iter.
Igne lucerna micans tria dat, splendet, calet, vrit;
Hec tria presul habet sub racione trium:
Vita splendorem demons t r a t , a m o r e calorem,
1080 Et quia peccantes arguit, vrit eos.
Cum populum sibi corde ligat, precibusque beatis
Seruat et auget oues, tunc placet ipse deo.
Vt sit sollicitus quicumque pauore tenetur,
Ne lupus ille Sathan intret ouile suum:
Pascat oues presul exemplaque sancta ministret,
Vt sapiant dulces mellis in ore fauos.
Sepius assueuit Tubicen prodesse, suosque
Dux bene pugnantes concitat ore viros:
Te magis, o presul, qui dux es spiritualis,
1090 Promere lege dei consona verba decet.
Solue tuam vocem sicut tuba ductilis altam,
Osque tuum verbis instruat acta gregis:
Clama, ne cesses, populo dic crimen eorum,
Preuius exemplis tu tamen esto bonus.
Dum sapor assidua remanens sit dulcis in vnda,
Gracius ex ipso fonte bibuntur aque:
 Cum magis in Cristo sit cleri vita beata,
Quem docet ille magis, sermo beatus erit.
Sermo dei numquam vacuus redit, immo lucrata
1100 Conferet emissus dupla talenta lucri:
Sermo dei purus, mens quem sincera ministrat,
Claustra poli penetrans dona reportat humo.
Curatos anima tales que possidet egra,
Inueniet, si vult, sana salutis iter.
Qui nil terrenum sapiunt, set celica querunt,
Et solum siciunt esuriuntque deum;
Quos non librarum pascit nitor, immo librorum,
Non facies auri, set cibat ara dei;
Hii, cum sint propria digni mercede laboris,
1110 Permansura serunt que sine fine metunt.
Sic qui recta docet, facit et super hoc quod
oportet,
Expedit vt facias quod tibi dictat opus:
Tunc bene fortis equs reserato carcere currit,
Cum quos pretereat quosque sequetur habet.
Legis enim veteris scripture sunt memorande,
Quo bonus exemplum pastor habere queat.
Commemoranda satis fuit hec sapiencia, quando
Ante gregem virgas ordinat ille Iacob:
Partim nudat eas ablato cortice, partim
1120 Corticis indutas veste relinquit eas.
In virgis splendet sublato cortice candor,
Cum de scripturis splendida verba trahit;
Cortex saluatur, cum litera sola tenetur,
Et pastor sensu simplice pascit oues.393
Set quid pastores dicent exempla negantes?
Vt sibi proficiant ista nec illa tenent.
Cuius nec vita bona seu doctrina iuuabit,
Instruat vt populum, nil reputamus eum.
Indiscreta tamen sunt qui documenta parantes
1130 Scismatis in plebem magna pericla mouent.
Indocti causa doctoris sepe scolares
Virtutis capiunt commoda nulla scole:
 Sic importuni prelati, quamuis habundent
Dogmata, si desint acta, vigore carent.
Quidam corripiunt magis ignibus impetuosi,
Et velut vrsus oues de feritate premunt;
Talis enim doctor, cum durius increpat vllum,
Ledit eum cuius debuit esse salus;
Vulnerat ipse reos, set vulnera nulla medetur;
1140 Prouocat in peius quod fuit ante malum:
Sic nos prelati nequit os curare superbi,
Cum viciosus homo moribus auctor erit.
Est et prelatus, qui corripiens quasi blando
De sermone fauet, nec reus inde cauet:
Corripiebat Hely pueros dulcedine patris,
Non vice pastoris, non grauitate soni;
Pro quorum culpa dampnatur Hely, quia valde
Impius in pueris per pia verba fuit.
Sic pastor qui subiectos non corripit, iram394
1150 Summi patris emens carcere dignus erit.
Ista solent scribi, ‘Medium tenuere beati,
Non nimis alta petas, nec nimis yma geras.’
Non nimis ex duro presul nos iure fatiget,
Nec nimis ex molli simplicitate sinat.
Si non leua manus equitis moderacior extet,
Oppositis frenis sepe repugnat equs.
Eripit interdum, modo dat medicina salutem,
Nil prodest quod non ledere possit idem.
Set qui frena tenet, prouiso tempore, presul,
1160 Quo magis est sanum ducet honestus iter:
Sepius ex dulci peccans sermone reviuit,
Qui magis impaciens verba per acra foret.
Expedit interdum tamen absque fauore rebelles
Equa quod inuitos presulis ira premat:
Sepe ferus morbus herbis mitescit amaris,
Namque feret molles aspera spina rosas:
Dura vides quod humus stimulantibus obruta
sulcis
Sepius ad placitum molle cacumen habet.
 Vnctus erit presul oleo, quod plura figurat,
1170 Precipueque sibi conuenit illa sequi:
Quatuor ista facit, penetrat, lucet, cibat, vngit,
Que sibi mitratus debet habere bonus.
Nil penetrare potest nisi cum virtute vigoris,
Ista tamen virtus in penetrando iuuat;
Nam cum mollicies fuerit coniuncta vigori,
Mitis et austerus presulis actus erit.
Fermento careat, oleo spergatur, vt absit
Culpa nocens, et eum sanctus inungat amor:
Vox ita doctoris, quanto sublimius intus
1180 Corda ferit, tanto forcius illa mouet:
Sic olei virtus virtutes ponderat eque,
Forcia dum penetrat, micius acta regit.
Lux cecis, cibus est ieiunis, vnccio morbis;
Hiis iubar infundit, hos cibat, hosque fouet:
Lux est exemplo, cibus est dum pascit egenos,
Vnccio dum populis dulcia verba serit.
Hoc oleo, testante Dauid, Cristus fuit vnctus,
Vnguine leticie cum pater vnxit eum:
Non vnguntur eo qui culpam Simonis equant,
1190 Qui vendunt vel emunt, nec sacra gratis habent:
Exulat hic de plebe dei qui peccat in istis,
Tales nam pellit Cristus ab ede sua.

Hic loquitur qualiter signa Anticristi in Curia

Romana precipue ex auaricia secundum
quosdam apparuerunt.

Capm. xiiii. Plura locutura mens deficit ipsa timore,

Labitur exanguis et tremefacta silet;
Huius enim vicii michi tangere si licet vlla,
Testis erit Cristus Romaque tota simul.
Roma manus rodit non dantes, spernit et odit,
Donum pro dono sic capit omnis homo.
Non est acceptor personarum deus, immo
1200 Gracior intendit actibus ipse viri;
Gracia set nostra tantum quos mundus in auro
Ditat, non alios accipit illa viros.
Qui precium ponit diues preciata reportat
Munera, nam tali curia tota fauet:
Assumens oleum secum non intrat ibidem,
Aurea ni valeat vngere gutta manum:
Copia nil morum confert vbi deficit aurum,
Nam virtus inopum nulla meretur opem.
Auro si pulses, intrabis, et illud habebis
1210 Quod petis, et donum fert tibi dona tuum:
Si tibi vis detur large, da munera larga,
Nam si pauca seras, premia pauca metes.
Quid faciet sapiens? stultus de munere gaudet.
Dicat ad hec clerus, qui sapit ista magis.395
Munera, crede michi, capiunt hominesque
deosque,
Placatur donis maior in orbe datis:
Set cum pro mundo tribuat sua munera Simon,
Promotus Cristi non erit inde sui.
Vt veniant ad aquas sicientes sponte citauit
1220 Cristus, et ecce suo fonte cibauit eos;
Fontibus et nostris siciens non hauriet vllus
Absque lucri pretio, quod dabit ipse prius.
Vendere quid pro quo modus est quem curia
nostra
Seruat, et auxilio Simonis ipsa viget:
Curia nostra virum nouit sine munere nullum,
Set redit in vacuis euacuata manus.
Dum dare vult laicus, precellit Theologiam;
Si des dona michi, dona rependo tibi:
Marcus, Matheus, Lucas, si nulla, Iohannes,
1230 Dona ferant, perdunt que sibi dona petunt:
Si veniat famulus mundi, viget ipse receptus,
Si famulus Cristi, nemo ministrat ei.
Si veniat pauper, musis comitatus Homeri,
Et nichil attulerit, pauper vt ante redit:
 Si nouus Augustinus ibi peteret, nec haberet
Quod daret ipse prius, transiet ipse vagus.
Construit atque legit laicus, bene cantat, in auro;
Si dare sufficiat, stat bene quicquid agit.
Qualis enim pietas hec est discernite vosmet,
1240 Aut si iusticia iura tenebit ita.
Si labat ecclesia declinans forte per istos,
Summus eam releuet de pietate sua,
Confundens hereses et que sunt scismata tollat,
Ne quis Cristicolas perdere possit oues:
Vnanimes redeant tibi, te miserante, redemptor,
Quos pax, quos pietas, quos liget vna fides.
Anticristus aget que sunt contraria Cristo,
Mores subuertens et viciosa fouens:
Nescio si forte mundo iam venerat iste,
1250 Eius enim video plurima signa modo.
Petri que titubat nauem prius erige, Criste,
Quam pereat, nec eam fastus in orbe voret.

Hic loquitur secundum commune dictum,

qualiter honores et non onera prelacie plures
affectant, quo magis in ecclesia cessant
virtutes, et vicia multipliciter accrescunt.

O deus, omne patet tibi cor loquiturque voluntas,

Capm. xv.
Et secreta tuo lumine nulla latent:
Tu nosti, domine, quod quantum distat ab ortu
Solis in occasum regula prima fugit.
Ipsa fides operans, quam tu plantare volebas
Est quasi de clero preuaricata modo:
Ius quod erat Cristi mundus sine iure resoluit,
1260 Prelatosque nouos vendicat ipse suos.
Nomen enim sancti sanctum non efficit, immo
Efficitur sanctus quem probat ipse deus.
Nos tamen a plebe si nomine glorificemur,
Et laudet mundus, laus placet illa satis:
 Laruata facie sic fallitur ordo paternus,396
Quo furtiuus honor expoliauit onus.
Vox populi cum voce dei concordat, vt ipsa
In rebus dubiis sit metuenda magis:
Hec ego que dicam dictum commune docebat,
1270 Nec mea verba sibi quid nouitatis habent.
In cathedram Moysi nunc ascendunt Pharisei,
Et scribe scribunt dogma, nec illud agunt.
Nam constans, humilis, largus, castus que
modestus,
Fit quibus ecclesiis regula culta prius,
Nunc vanos, cupidos, elatos, luxuriosos,
Raptoresque suo substituere loco.
Pacificos ira mitesque superbia vicit,
Nummus habet iustos et Venus illa sacros.
Sic non iusticia causas regit, immo voluntas
1280 Obfuscata malis que racione carent:
Sic modo terra deos colit et laceratur ab ipsis,
Est dum lex cleri nescia lege dei.
Nudis iam verbis vani tua iura figurant,
Et nichil aut modicum pondere iuris agunt;
Exemplis operum te raro, Criste, sequntur,
Perfectumque tue legis inane tenent.
Que tua precepta ponunt, deponere curant
A propriis humeris, que michi ferre iubent;
Hec precepta tamen que gloria ponit inanis,
1290 A me tollentes propria ferre volunt.
De fundamento non curant, immo columpne
Effigiem laruant, se quoque templa vocant.
Nuper erat celum corruptum, sicque superbus
Corruit ex altis, lapsus et yma tenet;
Proque suo vicio sic Adam de paradiso,
Sic Iudasque suum perdidit ipse gradum:
Non faciunt hominem status aut locus esse
beatum,
Quin magis hos sternunt qui superesse volunt.
O deus, ecclesiam fecisti quam tibi sanctam,
 1300 Sanctos prelatos fac simul inde tuos:
Corrigat, oro, deus, tua iam clemencia tales,
Nos quibus vt sanctis subdere colla iubes:
Esse duces nostros quos lege tua statuisti,
Fac magis vt recta semita ducat eos;
Et licet instabilis vanus sit et actus eorum,
Da populo stabilem semper habere fidem:
Da, deus, et clero, verbo quod possit et actu
Sic reuocare malum, nos vt in orbe iuuet.
Exoptata diu dulcis medicina dolorum,
1310 Sero licet veniat, grata venire solet:
Sique boni fiant de clero, nos meliores
Tunc erimus, que dei laus ita maior erit.

Postquam dictum est de illis qui errant in

statu prelacie, dicendum est de errore
curatorum, qui sub prelatis constituti,
parochiarum curas in animarum suarum
periculo admittentes negligenter omittunt: et
primo intendit dicere de curatis illis qui suas
curas omittentes ad seruiendum magnatum
curiis adherent.

Presulis incauti, sicut de voce recepi,

Capm. xvi.
Errores scripsi, pennaque cessat ibi.
Sunt tamen, in curis anime qui iura ministrant,
Rectores alii non sine labe doli.
Quo status ille modo se tendit scribere tendo,
Si sit ibi mundus vel magis ipse deus.
Ad tempus presens rectorum facta reuoluens,
1320 Inuenio mundi quod solet esse dei.
Presulis errore, curarum qui caput extat,
Errat curatus, presulis ipse manus.
Iam sine prebenda de Simonis arte creata
Nil putat ecclesiam quomodocumque bonam:
Hec prebenda tamen inopem non, set meretricem
 Pascit, sicque deum non colit, immo deam.
Tales nec caste curant neque viuere caute,
De quibus exempla sunt modo sepe mala:
Vestis habet pompam, cibus vsum deliciarum,
1330 Et thorus incestum clamat habere suum.
Ex Cristi poteris nuper cognoscere verbis
Discipulos tunicas non habuisse duas;
Set quia discipuli non sunt, in talibus isti
Nolunt impositum sic retinere modum.
Non tantum vestes geminant set condiciones,
Quas magis errantes regula nulla sapit:
En venit incastos aurum precingere lumbos,
Denotet vt vanos comptus inanis eos;
Militis effigie, nisi solum calcar abesse,
1340 Cernimus hos pompis degenerare suis.
Cuius honor, sit onus; qui lucris participare
Vult, sic de dampnis participaret eis:
Sic iubet equa fides, sic lex decreuit ad omnes,
Set modo qui curant ipsa statuta negant.
Curas admittunt pingues et pinguia sumunt,
Set nolunt cure pondera ferre sue.
Si viciis residere nequit curatus in ista
Cura, tunc aliam querit habere nouam;
Inficiens primam, post polluit ipse secundam,
1350 Sic loca non vicia mutat et ipse sua.
Litera dispensat curato presulis empta,
Et sic curati cura relicta manet;
Presbiterum laicum retinet sibi substituendum,
Curia magnatum dum retinebit eum.
Est vt apes ibi sollicitus dum spirat honores,
Set piger in cura tardat agenda sua.
Quicquid habet mundus fictum, tunc fingit et ille,
Curia quo dignum credere possit eum:
Verba dabit blanda, set nec canis aptus ad arcum,
1360 Sic humili vultu flectit ad yma genu.
Alter vt ille Iacob socios supplantat, et omne
Quo poterit mundi lucra tenere facit.
 Absit eum quicquam tamen absque iuuamine docti
Simonis incipere, qui suus actor erit:
Ostia si clausa fuerint, sic intrat ouile,
Ac aliunde suum carpit auarus iter.
De curis anime nil curat, dummodo terre
Curia magnatis sit sibi culta lucris:
Fert sibi nil virtus anime set corporis actus,
1370 Munus non meritum dat sibi ferre statum.
Qui nichil est per se, nec habet quo tendat in
altum,
Expedit alterius vt releuetur ope:
Est tamen absurdum, cum quilibet ex alieno
Intumet vlterius quam tumuisse decet.397
Littera dum Regis Papales supplicat aures,
Simon et est medius, vngat vt ipse manus,398
En l a i c u s noster fit clericus aptus vt omnes
Simone consultus scandat in orbe gradus.
Hic qui pauper heri fuerat quasi nudus et omni
1380 Laude carens, nec eum patris habebat honor,
Cuius erat tunica vilis, non larga set arta,
Vix sibi que tetigit simplicitate genu,
Hunc polimita modo vestis circumdat, et eius
Alludens pedibus fimbria lambit humum:
Vestis que medium non nouit poplicis olim,
Iam colit hec talos oscula dando pedi.
Si mundi speculum scruteris in huius amictu,
Plurima rectoris cernere vana potes.
Presulis ipse gradum si non dum scandere
possit,
1390 Ecce tamen vestes comparat ipse pares.
Cuius erat solus nuper catulus domicellus,
En sequitur totus nunc quasi mundus eum;
Cuius erat baculus nuper palfridus, ad eius
Sellam cum loris subditur altus equs.
Sic viget in curis diues, set moribus expers
Indiget, et vano more gubernat opes.
Compotus in mundi rebus quod fiat habunde
 Perstudet, vt domino det sua iura suo:
Computet vt Cristo set de curis animarum,
1400 Turpiter absque lucro fossa talenta latent.
Curia sic Cristi tollit mundana clientem,
Qui venit ad laqueum, dum sitit ipse lucrum.

Hic loquitur de rectoribus illis, qui ab

episcopo licenciati se fingunt ire scolas, vt sub
nomine virtutis vicia corporalia frequentent.

Alter adest rector, causam designat et ipse,

Capm. xvii.
Dicit enim sacras quod cupit ire scolas:
Vt vagus astet ibi prece ruffi presul et albi
Annuit, vt dominis quos a m a t i p s e n i m i s.
Sic rector sibi sub specie virtutis adoptat,
Vt queat in viciis rite studere vagus.
Nil decreta placent sibi nec sacra theologia,
1410 Ars sibi nature sufficit immo sue:
Ipsa magistra docet res plures, discit et ille,
Scribit et in nocte que studet ipse die.
Et propter formam tandem petit ipse cathedram,
Vt sit ad hoc ductus, plura dat ipse prius:
Sic est curatus doctoris sede locatus,
Datque legenda suis mistica iura scolis.
‘Ve soli,’ legimus ex scripturis Salomonis,
Namque virum solum nemo requirit eum:
Qua racione scole mos est, quod quisque studere
1420 Debet cum socia doctus in arte sua.
Ipse deus sociam fecit per secula primam,
Vt iuuet hec hominem, sicque creauit eam:
Masculus in primo factus fuit, atque secundo
Femina, sic vt in hiis det deus esse genus:
Istaque principia discretus rector agenda
Perstudet, et vota prebet in arte pia.
Quis laterisque sui costam quam sentit abesse
Non cuperet, per quam perficeretur homo?
 Prima viri costa mulier fuit ipsa creata,
1430 Vult igitur costam rector habere suam.
Nam deus humanam precepit crescere gentem,
Cuius precepto multiplicabit homo:
Sic sibi multiplicat rector, dum semen habundat,
Vt sit mandati non reus ipse dei.
Causas per tales rector probat et raciones,
Quod sibi sint socie, dum stat in arte scole.
Primo materiam conceptus tractat, et illam,
Vt veniat partus, stat repetendo magis;
Sic legit et textum, legit et glosam super illum,
1440 Vt scola discipulis sit patefacta suis:
Verberat ipse regens pro forma sepe scolares,
Vt vigili virga sit vigil ipsa scola.
Quanto formalis magis extat in arte legendo,
Est opus in tanto materiale minus.
Non labor excusat, doceat quin nocte dieque,
Quo sibi dat vacuum sollicitudo caput:
Questio namque sua, quam disputat esse
profundam,
Sentit et in casu plura profunda mouet.
Responsalis ei respondet ad omnia, quare,
1450 Nec sinit a logica quicquid abire sua;
Sepeque doctori concluditur, ipseque tantum
Confusus cathedra linquit inesse sua.
Leccio lecta nocet, decies repetita nocebit;
Dum legit inde magis, p l u s s i b i s e n s u s
h e b e s e s t.399
Et sic ars nostrum curatum reddit inertem,
De longo studio fert nichil ipse domum:
Stultus ibi venit, set stulcior inde redibit,
Dum repetendo scolis sit magis ipse frequens.
Hec est illa scola, studet in qua clerus, vt yma
1460 Nature iura scribat in arte sua:
Practica discipulo bene conuenit atque magistro,
Vt speculatiuum construat ipse suum.
Hec est illa scola super omnes labe colenda,
 Qua socius sociam g a u d e t habere suam:
Attamen illa scola, dum sit socie sociata,
Fine dabit socium plangere gesta reum.
Sic scola cum socia confirmat in arte scolarem,
Fiet quod laicus, quando magister erit.
Heu! grauis est socia, grauis est scola iuncta
sodali,
1470 Ista vorat corpus, illaque tollit opes:
Est inhonesta deo res, et mirabile plebi,
Quando magister erit atque ribaldus idem.
Ecclesia sponsa nuda, vestitur amica;
Sponsa relicta perit, altera cara viget:
Sic desponsata clamare fide sibi fracta
Nunc venit ecclesia iura petendo sua.
Set quia lux periit, perit hinc ius, sicque recedit
Curati sponsa stans quasi tota vaga.
Sic rector viciis studium non moribus aptans,
1480 Dat decimam Veneri, que solet esse dei:
Sic sibi consimilem generat curatus, vt artem
Nature solitam compleat ipse suam:
Sic viget in studio laici curatus ad instar
Corporis, vt sexum multiplicare queat:
Sic scola, que morum mater magis esse solebat,
Efficitur viciis stulta nouerca suis.

Hic loquitur de rectoribus illis, qui in curis

residentes, curas tamen negligentes,
venacionibus precipue et voluptatibus penitus
intendunt.
Capm. xviii. Tercius est rector, animum qui tendit ad orbem,
In cura residens dum manet ipse domi:
Nuda sue folia cure sine fructibus affert,
1490 Dum sine luce regens stultus obumbrat eam.
Predicat ipse nichil animas saluare, nec egros
Visitat, aut inopes tactus amore iuuat:
Est sibi crassus equs, restatque sciencia macra,
Sella decora que mens feda perornat eum.
Ad latus et cornu sufflans gerit, vnde redundant
Mons, nemus, vnde lepus visa pericla fugit;
Oris in ecclesia set vox sua muta quiescit,
Ne fugat a viciis sordida corda gregis.400
Sic canis, ad questum qui clamat in ore fideli,
1500 Certus habebit eo quicquid habere velit;
Set miser, ad portas qui clamat et indiget escis,
Heu! neque mica datur nec liquor vllus ei.
O deus, in quanta talis tibi laude meretur,
Dans alimenta cani, que negat ipse viro!
Vix sibi festa dies sacra vel ieiunia tollunt,
Quin nemus in canibus circuit ipse suis:
Clamor in ore canum, dum vociferantur in vnum,
Est sibi campana, psallitur vnde deo.
Stat sibi missa breuis, deuocio longaque campis,
1510 Quo sibi cantores deputat esse canes:
Sic lepus et vulpis sunt quos magis ipse requirit;
Dum sonat ore deum, stat sibi mente lepus.
Sic agitat vulpis vulpem similis similemque
Querit, dum iuuenem deuorat ipse gregem;
Nam vagus explorat vbi sunt pulchre mulieres
Etatis tenere, pascat vt inde famem:
Talis enim rector mulieribus insidiatur,
More lupi clausas circuientis oues.401
Dum videt ipse senem sponsum sponsam
iuuenemque,
1520 Tales sub cura visitat ipse sua;
Suplet ibi rector regimen sponsi, que decore
 Persoluit sponse debita iura sue.
Sic capit in cura rector sibi corpora pulcra,
Et fedas animas linquit abire vagas.

Hic loquitur de rectoribus in curis

residentibus, qui tamen curas animarum
omittentes, quasi seculi mercatores singula
temporalia de die in diem ementes et
vendentes, mundi diuicias adquirunt.

Quartus adhuc rector curam residendo sinistrat,

Capm. xix.
Ipseque mercator circuit omne genus.
Est sibi missa: forum meditatur et inde tabernam,
Ad socii dampnum dum petit ipse lucrum.
Ecclesie meritum perdit, lucratur et aurum;
1530 Vt teneat mundum, deserit ipse deum.
Computat ipse diem cassam, qua vel sibi lucrum,
Corporis aut luxum non capit ipse nouum:
Est et auaricia sibi custos, sic vt in illis402
Partem diuiciis pauper habere nequit.
Masculus in nullo casu partitur egenus,
Dupplice nam claui cista resistit ei;
Set pietas aliter se continet ad mulierem,
Vt iubet ipsa Venus, est ibi larga manus.
Expansis genibus expanditur aurea cista;
1540 Femina si veniat, dat sibi clauis iter:
Durior est ferro, quem nullus mollificabit,403
Vincit feminea set caro mollis eum.
Dans ita quid pro quo merces mercede locabit
Rector, in impropriis dum vacat ipse lucris.
Omne quod vna manus sibi congregat, altera
spergit,
Dum sua dat cribro balsama stultus homo:
Stultaque sic stultum predat, quod fine dierum
Nil nisi sit rasa barba manebit ei.
O si curatis nati succedere possent,
 1550 Ecclesie titulo ferreque iura patrum,
Tunc sibi Romipetas, mortis quibus est aliene
Spes, nichil aut modicum posse valere puto.404
Talis in ecclesia nunc est deuocio mota
Curatis nostris: iudicet inde deus.

Postquam405 dictum est de errore illorum

qui in ecclesia beneficiati existunt, iam406
dicendum est de presbiteris stipendiariis; de
talibus saltem, qui non propter mundiciam et
ordinis honestatem, set propter mundi ocia,
gradum presbiteratus appetunt et assumunt.

Si de presbiteris dicam qui sunt sine curis,

Capm. xx.
Hos viciis aliis cernimus esse pares.
Si tamen ecclesiam non optinet iste sacerdos,
Annua servicia sunt velut ecclesia:
Plus quam tres dudum nunc exigit vnus
habendum,
1560 Strictus auaricia plus cupit ipse quia.
Hos velut artifices cerno peditare per vrbes,
Conductos precio sicut asella foro.
Dignus mercede tamen est operarius omnis,
Iuxta condignum quod labor ille petit:
Set tamen vt vendat nulli diuina licebit,
Sic poterit vendi missa nec vlla tibi.
Credimus vt sancta Cristus sacratus in ara
Non plus vult vendi venditus ipse semel.
Se sine dat precio, dare qui iussit sacra gratis:
1570 Presbiter, ergo tibi quid petis inde lucri?
Cum tibi vestitus, aptus fuerit quoque victus,
Vnde deo viuas, cur tibi plura petis?
Si tibi plus superest de lucro, nil tibi prodest,
Nam male quesitum nescit habere modum.
Aut Romam perges mercatum Simonis auro,
Qui te promotum reddet, et inde tuum
 Argentum tollet collectum per prius, et sic
Quod tibi missa dedit Simon habere petit;
Aut meretrix bursam, te luxuriante, repletam
1580 Sugget, et in vacuam quam cito reddet eam.
Quod dedit ecclesia tollit meretrix que taberna:
Hec tria dum iungunt, turpia plura gerunt.
Hec ita cum videam, mundi noua monstra
putarem,
Si foret hoc raro quod speculamur eo;
Set quia cotidie potero predicta videre,
Sepe michi visa nil modo miror ea.
Mergulus inmergit fluuio sua membra frequenter,
Et longas gignit in latitando moras;
Isteque signat eos quos carnis fluxa voluptas
1590 Funditus exercet et retinendo premit.
Est apud antiquos ‘hic et hec’ dixisse ‘sacerdos,’
Dicere sic et nos possumus ‘has et eos:’
Hii modo namque sua mundum replent genitura;
Si pietas sit ibi, sunt modo valde pii.
Nox et amor, vinum, nullum moderabile suadent,
Que tria presbiteris sunt modo nota satis.
Stat breuis ordo precum, dum postulat ipse
vicissim
Oscula per longas iungere pressa moras,
‘O sacer,’ hec dicens, ‘quam longum tempus ad
illud
1600 Vt tua sint collo brachia nexa meo?’
Qui vult vxorem seruare sibi modo castam,
Et mundas cameras querit habere suas,
Longius a camera sit presbiter atque columba,
Stercora fundit ea, fundit et ipse stupra.
Sobrius a mensa, de lecto siue pudicus
Consurgit raro presbiter ipse deo:
Cantat in excelsis sua vox agitata tabernis,
Est set in ecclesiis vox tac i t u r n a nimis:
Doctus et a vino colit ipse lupanar, et illuc
1610 Exorando diu flectit vtrumque genu.
 Sic vetus expurgat fermentum, dum noua spergit,
Non tamen vt Paulus iusserat ipse prius:
Sic altare Baal modo thurificare sacerdos
Vult, per quem viui feda fit ara dei.
Sufficit vna michi mulier, bis sex tamen ipsi,
Vt iuueni gallo, cerno subire modo.
Sic sacra presbiteri celebrant solempnia Bachi,407
Ebrietasque magis sanctificatur eis.
Gentilis ritus vetus incipit esse modernus,
1620 Talibus et Cristi lex perit ipsa quasi:
Sic modo templorum cultores suntque deorum,
Plus in honore quibus stat dea summa Venus.

Hic loquitur de consueta presbiterorum

voluptate, et qualiter hii stipendia plebis ex
conuencione sumentes, indeuote pro mortuis
orando non se debite ad suffragia mortuorum
exonerant.

Ignis edax terram vorat et nascencia terre;

Capm. xxi.
Quo furit illius impetus, omne terit;
Sic et in incastis exemplis presbiterorum
Indoctis laicis feda libido nocet.
Nil commune gerunt luxus sibi cum racione,
Corporeos sensus quinque libido cremat:
Quos talis maculat nota talis pena sequetur,
1630 Illorum pene sulphur et ignis erunt.
Consuetudo tamen solet attenuare pudorem,
Reddit et audacem quem mora longa trahit.
Non peccare putant quod sepius oscula iungant,
Oscula nam pacis signa parare solent;
Estque parare piam pacem meritoria causa,
Nec sine pace diu stat pietatis amor:
Sic in presbiteris amor est de pace creatus,
Oscula nam solito more frequenter agunt.
Altera natura solitus reputabitur vsus,