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 ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE,
ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY

Marc A. Rosen
Mohsen Darabi
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY
AND EXERGY

ENHANCED APPROACHES TO
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
MANAGEMENT

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 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING
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 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY
AND EXERGY

ENHANCED APPROACHES TO
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
MANAGEMENT

MARC A. ROSEN
MOHSEN DARABI

New York
. Copyright © 2016 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc

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Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Environment, ecology, and exergy : enhanced approaches to environmental and ecological

management / editor, Marc A. Rosen.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN:  (eBook)
1. Environmental management. 2. Environmental management--Methodology. 3. Ecosystem
management. 4. Exergy. I. Rosen, Marc (Marc A.)
GE300.E556 2016
333.7--dc23
2012013598

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

To Allison, Cassandra, Ryan and Amanda, in hopes of a cleaner world
 CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Notation xiii
Acronyms xvii
Glossary xix
Part I: Introduction and Background
Chapter 1 Motivation 1
Chapter 2 Background: Society, Sustainability, Environment and Energy 9
Chapter 3 An Introduction to the Environment, Ecology and Exergy 27
Chapter 4 History of Exergy and Environmental and Ecological Methods 35
Part II: Concepts and Methods
Chapter 5 Exergy 47
Chapter 6 Suitable Reference Environments for Environmental
and Ecological Assessments 57
Chapter 7 Exergy and the Environment 71
Chapter 8 Exergy and Ecology 81
Chapter 9 Correlations between Exergy and Other Indicators
of Environmental Impact 95
Chapter 10 Exergy-Based Environmental and Ecological Methods 99
Chapter 11 Extending Exergy, Environment and Ecology
Relations to Economics 121
Part III: Applications
Chapter 12 Exergy Applications 135
Chapter 13 Exergy and Environment Applications 143
viii Contents

Chapter 14 Exergy and Ecology Applications 155

Chapter 15 Assessing Earth‘s Resources Using Exergy 161
Chapter 16 Assessing Polluted Materials 165
Chapter 17 Allocating Carbon Dioxide Emissions for Cogeneration
Using Exergy 169
Chapter 18 Assessing Environmental Impacts of Aerospace
Operations with Exergy 191
Chapter 19 Environmental Planning with Exergy 201
Part IV: Case Studies
Chapter 20 Coal-fired Electricity Generation 215
Chapter 21 Smokestack Operations 235
Chapter 22 Cogeneration 241
Chapter 23 Nuclear Electricity Generation 261
Chapter 24 Biofuels Processing 273
Chapter 25 Hydrogen Production 283
Chapter 26 Automotive Operations 297
Chapter 27 Exergy-guided Environmental Management for Countries,
Regions and Sectors 315
Chapter 28 Closure and Future Directions 323
References 327
About the Author 359
Index 361
 PREFACE

Growing concerns about the environmental and ecological implications of industrial and
other systems, as well as the impact of energy resource utilization, are fostering increasing
interest in environmental and ecological protection. Such understanding is crucial to
advancing the quest for a cleaner environment and sustainability. New approaches to ecology
and the environment that provide an engineering perspective and a scientific basis to activities
are of particular interest. The integration of the thermodynamic quantity exergy with the
environment and ecology provides a novel approach that offers significant potential to
improve environmental and ecological management.
In the analysis of environmental impact and improvement of ecological systems,
techniques can be used which combine scientific disciplines (mainly thermodynamics) with
environmental and ecological disciplines. In such analyses, assessments usually consider
thermodynamics via energy quantities. Many researchers recommend, however, that
ecological and environmental factors are better assessed using the thermodynamic quantity
exergy. One rationale for this statement is that exergy, but not energy, can provide, or form
the basis of, a measure of the potential for ecological and environmental impact.
Several exergy-based ecological and environmental methodologies exist (e.g.,
environomics, exergy-based life cycle analysis and exergy-based ecological indicators). A
brief summary is presented here of existing analysis techniques which integrate exergy with
ecological and environmental factors. One approach, for instance, identifies as important the
exergy emitted from smokestacks and assesses the potential impact of that exergy using
exergy-based tolerance measures. The goals of most such analysis techniques include
improving our understanding of the impact on ecological systems and the environment of
processes and the determination of appropriate ecological and environmental improvement
measures. In this book, we focus on the relations linking ecological and environmental
impacts and indicators with exergy.
Several examples are considered, including electricity generation, cogeneration,
transportation and biofuels processing, illustrating the insights provided by integrating
thermodynamics into ecological and environmental management. Thermodynamic, ecological
and environmental data for various devices and systems are examined, and show that
correlations exist between exergy and environmental and ecological parameters. The
existence of such correlations suggests that aspects of exergy factor into environmental
improvement and ecological management.
x Marc A. Rosen

This book has four parts. In the first, introductory and background material is presented,
including an explanation of the motivation for the book, a brief review of the disparate but
relevant topics that it combines (e.g., energy, environment, society and sustainability), an
introduction to exergy, the environment and ecology, and a history of exergy-based
environmental and ecological methods.
In the second part, key concepts and methods are described. This includes exergy
analysis, as well as suitable reference environments for environmental and ecological
assessments. Furthermore, exergy and its relations to the environment and ecology are
examined, and correlations between exergy and other indicators of environmental impact are
presented. Finally, exergy-based environmental and ecological methods are identified and
described, and extensions of the relations between exergy, environment and ecology to
economics are examined.
Various applications are presented in third part of the book. These range from
applications of exergy analysis on its own, to applications of the linkages between exergy and
both the environment and ecology. Some specific applications are considered in greater depth,
including assessments using exergy of Earth‘s resources, polluted materials, carbon dioxide
emissions allocations for cogeneration and the environmental impact of aerospace operations.
This section closes by describing environmental planning with exergy.
The final part of the book examines numerous case studies to provide detailed
examinations of the integration of exergy with environmental and ecological management, in
order to clarify the importance and potential benefits of such an approach. The case studies
considered span a range of fields including energy conversion (e.g., coal-fired and nuclear
electricity generation, and cogeneration), fuels processing (e.g., biofuels processing and
hydrogen production, smokestack operations, and transportation (e.g., automotive operations).
A broader case study is also included, which examines exergy-guided environmental
management for countries, regions and sectors. The case studies provide useful information
for practical applications. Finally, closing remarks are provided along with speculations on
future directions and, to help direct the curious and interested reader to appropriate resources,
an extensive list of references is provided.
This book is intended for use by graduate and advanced undergraduate students in
various disciplines ranging from environmental engineering, environmental studies, ecology
and environmental science, to general engineering and science as well as energy studies.
Additionally, the book is intended to provide a useful reference for practicing environmental
and ecological experts, engineers and scientists. Given the fact that the field of exergy,
environment and ecology is in many ways in its infancy, this book is in part oriented towards
research, permitting it to provide practical features often not included in purely academic
books. The coverage is broad, and the amount of information presented, if studied in depth,
can be sufficient for more than one course. This book is expected to be of importance to
students, engineers, and scientists, as well as those who wish to know more about the growing
area of this enhanced approach to environmental and ecological management.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Parts of this book have been derived from research I have carried out with distinguished
collaborators and exceptional students and researchers over three decades, and I am most
appreciative of the contributions and efforts of these colleagues.
I am particularly appreciative of the following individuals for their inspiring ideas,
challenging criticisms and stimulating discussions:

 Professor Frank C. Hooper, University of Toronto, Canada

 Professor David S. Scott, University of Victoria, Canada
 Professors Ibrahim Dincer, Gregory F. Naterer and Bale V. Reddy, University of
Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Canada
 Professors Judith Dimitriu, Liping Fang, Mohamad Y. Jaber and June Wu, Ryerson
University, Toronto, Canada
 Professor Olivier Le Corre, Ecole des Mines de Nantes, France
 Professor Daniel Favrat, Ecole Poytechnique Federal de Lausanne, Switzerland
 Professor Cornelia Aida Bulucea, University of Craiova, Romania
 Professor Arif Hepbasli, Ege University, Turkey
 Professor Mehmet Kanoglu, Gaziantep University, Turkey
 Professor Christian Bouchard, Laval University, Canada

In addition, for their creativity and efforts, I acknowledge with gratitude several of the
many researchers who have worked under my supervision on topics related to this book,
including students Richard Berthiaume, Lowy H. Gunnewiek, Mark A. Lemieux, Jason Etele,
Jason Daniel, Aaron E. Baumal, M. Fatih Orhan, Yongan Ao and Kurtulus Bakan, as well as
research associates Nirmal V. Gnanapragasam and Mikhail Granovskii.
Last, but certainly not least, I thank Margot, Allison and Cassandra for their motivation
and for the joy they bring to everything.
 NOTATION

ROMAN LETTERS
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
c unit economic value; unit cost
cE unit economic value of electrical product of cogeneration
cp specific heat at constant pressure
cQ unit economic value of thermal product of cogeneration
C total CO2 emissions from cogeneration; contaminant concentration
CE CO2 emissions associated with electrical energy produced via cogeneration
CQ CO2 emissions associated with thermal energy produced via cogeneration
CExC cumulative exergy consumption
CNEx net exergy consumption
COP coefficient of performance
Dp depletion factor
E energy; net electrical energy output from cogeneration
ex specific exergy
Ex exergy
ExE net output of electrical exergy from cogeneration
ExFE fuel exergy consumption for generating electricity via cogeneration
ExFQ fuel exergy consumption for producing thermal exergy via cogeneration
ExQ thermal exergy; net output of thermal exergy from cogeneration
ExP product exergy
f fraction
fE fraction of cogeneration emissions allocated to electrical product
fQ fraction of cogeneration emissions allocated to thermal product
F total primary fuel energy consumed in cogeneration
FE fuel consumption attributed to electricity generation
FQ fuel consumption attributed to production of thermal energy
g specific Gibbs function
G Gibbs function
h specific enthalpy
I exergy consumption
Ir renewability indicator
xiv Marc A. Rosen

m mass
M molecular weight
n number of moles
P pressure
Po reference-environment pressure
Poo partial pressure of component in reference state
Q heat; net output of thermal energy from cogeneration
R universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol/K)
s specific entropy
S entropy
SI sustainability index
T temperature
To reference-environment temperature
V volume
W work
WP produced work
WR restoration work
x mole fraction
X variable representing a reference-environment property
Y variable representing either energy or exergy

GREEK LETTERS
 activity coefficient
η energy efficiency
ηb energy efficiency of independent device (e.g., boiler) for thermal energy
ηE energy efficiency of generating electrical energy via cogeneration
ηgen generator efficiency
ηisen turbine isentropic efficiency
ηmech turbine mechanical efficiency
ηpp energy efficiency of independent device for electrical energy
ηQ energy efficiency of producing thermal energy via cogeneration
ηtran transformer efficiency
μ chemical potential
v stoichiometric coefficient
 entropy production
ρ density
 sensitivity
τ exergetic temperature factor
υ CO2 emission coefficient for a fuel
 exergy efficiency
ψE exergy efficiency of generating electricity via cogeneration
ψQ exergy efficiency of producing thermal energy product via cogeneration
 Notation xv

SUBSCRIPTS
C contaminant
C,1 polluted water
C,2 cleaned water
i stream component
j sector j; jth reactant substance
k chemical constituent; kth product substance; exiting stream
min minimum
o reference-environment state
p product; process
ph physical component
w waste treatment

SUPERSCRIPTS
• rate per unit time
ch chemical
 ACRONYMS

AP acidification potential
CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment
CD conventional diesel
CG conventional gasoline
CGV conventional gasoline vehicle
CHP combined heat and power
CIDI compression ignition direct injection
CML Center of Environmental Science of Leiden University
CNG compressed natural gas
CNGV compressed natural gas vehicle
CRFG2 California Phase 2 reformulated gasoline
E85 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline fuel blend by volume
EEA extended exergy accounting (analysis)
EP eutrophication potential
EPC environmental pollution cost
EV dedicated electric vehicle
ExLCA exergetic life cycle assessment
EXCEM exergy, cost, energy and mass
FFV flexible-fuel vehicle
FRFG2 Federal Phase 2 reformulated gasoline
GC grid-connected
GHG greenhouse gas
GI grid-independent
GREET Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation
GWP global warming potential
HEV hybrid electric vehicle
IC internal combustion
ICE internal combustion engine
ISO International Standards of Organization
LCA life cycle assessment
LCI life cycle inventory
LCIA life cycle impact assessment
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
xviii Marc A. Rosen

MTBE methyl tertiary butyl ether

M85 85% methanol and 15% gasoline fuel blend by volume
NRR non-renewable resource
ODP ozone depletion potential
PEM polymer electrolyte membrane
POI point of impingement
RPC removal pollution cost
SI spark ignition
SIDI spark ignition direct injection
SPECO specific exergy costing
TES thermal energy storage
VMT vehicle mile traveled
 GLOSSARY
Descriptions are presented of the terminology related to exergy-based environment and
ecology methods, and to exergy. Most of this terminology has only recently been adopted and
is still evolving. The glossary is based in part on previously developed broader glossaries
(Kotas et al., 1987; Kotas, 1995; Kestin, 1980; Dincer and Rosen, 2010; Tsatsaronis, 2007b).

EXERGY-BASED ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY

Acidification potential. Potential of acidifying pollutants, usually anthropogenic, to acidify
natural or artificial substances (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface waters, biological
organisms, ecosystems, building materials) after deposition on them.
Carbon exergy tax. A tax on carbon use or emissions intended to promote the efficient use of
exergy resources.
Cumulative exergy consumption. An environmental impact measure based on the exergy
used, in raw and other materials, to generate a product.
Depletion factor. The fraction of the input energy for a process that is dissipated rather than
converted to useful products or services, evaluated as the ratio of exergy destruction to
input exergy.
Dissipative function. A function that does not yield a useful output or productive, but instead
is dissipative in nature.
Ecological supply chain. The supply chain for an ecological system.
Emergy. An extension of thermoeconomics aimed at understanding the environmental
implications of an energy system, including the biosphere.
Environmental pollution cost. Environmental costs of pollutant based on quantitative and
qualitative evaluations of the cost to correct or compensate for environmental damage,
and/or to prevent a harmful emission.
Eutrophication potential. Potential of macronutrient emissions, usually anthropogenic, to
cause eutrophication.
EXCEM analysis. An analysis tool that evaluates and tracks flows of exergy, cost, energy and
mass, so as to attain a comprehensive and multi-faceted assessment of performance
(technical, environmental, etc.).
Exergetic life cycle assessment. An exergy-based analysis tool for investigating and reducing
the environmental impacts of a system or process or product, accounting for its full life
xx Marc A. Rosen

cycle, which extends life cycle assessment by accounting for the exergy utilization and
destruction during the life cycle.
Exergy tax. A tax on exergy to promote the efficient use of exergy resources, improved
designs, and reduced resource utilization and environmental damage.
Exergoecology. An environmental application of exergy involving its utilization in evaluating
natural fluxes and resources as well as ecosystems.
Exergoenvironmental analysis. The application of exergy for evaluating environmental
impacts.
Extended exergy accounting. An assessment method of a complex system that involves
determining the cost of a commodity based on its resource-base equivalent value as
opposed to its monetary cost.
Global warming potential. Potential of emissions, usually anthropogenic, to increase the
Earth‘s surface temperature and thus contribute to climate change.
Life cycle assessment. An analysis tool for investigating and reducing the environmental
impacts of a system or process or product, accounting for its full life cycle (i.e., from
cradle to grave).
Net exergy consumption. The net quantity of exergy consumed in generating a product,
including all steps from the extraction of raw materials through to manufacturing.
Ozone depletion potential. Potential of emissions, usually anthropogenic, to deplete ozone in
the stratospheric ozone layer.
Physical hydronomics. A discipline for assessing environmental costs related to water.
Rebound effect. An effect that partially or fully offsets the expected reduction in energy use
associated with an increase in efficiency by inadvertently causing the use of the products
or services to increase.
Removal pollution cost. Cost of removing one or more pollutants from a waste stream prior to
discharge to the environment.
Renewability indicator. A measure of renewability that accounts for relevant factors in terms
of exergy and integrates them in a unified manner.

ENERGY TERMINOLOGY
Heat. A form of energy transfer between systems due to a temperature difference.
State. The condition of a system specified by the values of its properties.
System. A quantity of matter or any region of space (also thermodynamic system).
Work. A form of energy transfer including such forms as mechanical, electrical,
magnetic.

EXERGY TERMINOLOGY
Chemical exergy. The maximum work obtainable from a substance when it is brought from
the environmental state to complete equilibrium with the reference environment by
means of processes involving interaction only with the environment.
 Glossary xxi

Energy analysis. A technique for analyzing processes based solely on energy and the first law
of thermodynamics.
Energy efficiency. An efficiency determined using ratios of energy.
Entropy. A measure of disorder, which always increases for the universe.
Entropy production. The entropy increase of an isolated system consisting of all systems
involved in the process.
Exergoeconomics. A techno-economic method for assessing and designing systems and
processes that combines economics with exergy parameters, including the exergy costing.
Exergy (general). The maximum work potential of a system (non-flow exergy) or flow of
matter, or a heat interaction, in relation to the reference environment as the datum state.
Exergy (matter-based). The maximum amount of shaft work obtainable when a steady stream
of matter is brought from its initial state to the state of the reference environment by
means of processes involving interactions only with the latter.
Exergy analysis. A technique based on the second law of thermodynamics in which process
performance is assessed by examining exergy quantities and balances.
Exergy consumption. The exergy consumed or destroyed during a process due to
irreversibilities within the system boundaries.
Exergy loss. The exergy lost due to the combination of exergy consumption due to
irreversibilities and waste exergy emissions.
Exergy efficiency. A second-law efficiency determined using ratios of exergy.
External irreversibility. The portion of the total irreversibility for a system and its
surroundings occurring outside the system boundary.
Internal irreversibility. The portion of the total irreversibility for a system and its
surroundings occurring within the system boundary.
Irreversibility. An effect which makes a process non-ideal or irreversible.
Irreversible process. A process in which both the system and its surroundings cannot be
returned to their initial state(s) through a subsequent reversible process.
Physical exergy. The maximum amount of shaft work obtainable from a substance when it is
brought from its initial state to the environmental state by means of physical processes
involving interaction only with the environment.
Reference environment. An idealization of the natural environment characterized by a state of
equilibrium (absence of differences in pressure, temperature, chemical potential, kinetic
energy and potential energy), with respect to which exergy is evaluated.
Reversible process. A process in which both the system and its surroundings can be returned
to their initial state(s) with no observable effects.
Thermal exergy. The exergy associated with a heat interaction, i.e., the maximum amount of
shaft work obtainable from a given heat interaction using the environment as a thermal
energy reservoir.
Thermoeconomics. See exergoeconomics.
 PART I:
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Chapter 1

MOTIVATION

OVERVIEW
The motivation is described for this book on environmental and ecological
management and its enhanced approach based on the integration of exergy with the
environment and ecology. Founded on the first and second laws of thermodynamics, the
integrated approach offers a means to improve the environmental characteristics of
processes and systems. The motivation is based in part on the need to understand better
these environmental and ecological implications to support environmental protection and
sustainability. Thermodynamic theories of environmental and ecological impact proposed
in the past have not achieved widespread acceptance, and this book partly aims to
improve acceptance of this idea through its exergy-based approach.

This is a book on environmental and ecological management that describes an enhanced

approach based on the integration of environmental and ecological disciplines with exergy.
The motivation for such a book likely requires an explanation. This chapter introduces the
book and explains its motivation.

1.1. ENERGY, ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Interest in energy has been increasing for several decades for various reasons, including
recognition of the impact of energy on the environment, living standards and economic
development, and their linkages. In addition, concerns have been growing regarding:

 the environmental and ecological implications of energy systems,

 the sustainability of energy systems and the society‘s they serve,
 the adequacy of energy supplies for a planet with an increasing population and
rapidly expanding energy use, particularly in developing countries, and
 the security and affordability of energy resources.

Economics has historically been central to the analysis and design of energy systems,
which encompass technologies and processes for energy conversion, distribution, storage and
2 Marc A. Rosen

utilization. Design and optimization methods for such technologies often focus on technical
and economic areas.
In recent decades, environmental and ecological impacts have become important
considerations in the analysis and design of technologies. Analysis, design and optimization
activities now tend to utilize techniques that combine technical disciplines, economics and
other factors with environmental and ecological disciplines.
Understanding and mitigating the environmental and ecological impacts of energy
systems is crucial to advancing society‘s quest for overall sustainability, and to the proper
development and beneficial application of energy technologies and systems, especially those
which are new and advanced.
New approaches to environmental and ecological management that facilitate more
environmentally and ecologically benign uses of energy resources of particular interest. One
such approach is based on the integration of exergy with the environment and ecology. This
novel approach offers significant potential to improve our energy systems and their
sustainability, and that is why it is the focus of this book.
Although the environmental and ecological impacts of systems are important factors in
decisions related to their adoption and development, it is pointed out that the merit of a
system or process is usually based on a range of factors. Conventional parameters normally
take into account not only environmental and ecological protection, but also technical
performance, efficiency, health, safety, economics, resource scarcity and societal acceptance.
The merit of a system or process is best evaluated with methodologies that take into account
holistically the above factors and others. A systems viewpoint is usually advantageous for
evaluating and comparing energy technologies and operations while accounting for all
relevant factors, as such a viewpoint provides context and comprehensiveness.

1.2. WHY A BOOK ON EXERGY, ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT?

Although the merit of a system or process is based on numerous factors, economics
remains central. The environment and ecology are almost always not priorities in the analysis
and design of systems and technologies, although they are receiving increasing recognition.
Analysis, design and optimization activities for such technologies are thus increasingly
utilizing techniques that combine technical disciplines like thermodynamics with the
environment and ecology.
Nonetheless, many experts have called for changes in the manner in which the
environment and ecological systems are managed, in part due to the potentially disruptive
global effects associated with issues like climate change. The environmental fears kindled by
this issue combined with the energy concerns described above leave many people feeling that
present approaches to environmental and ecological management may not be adequate.
A desire thus exists for new and advanced ways of addressing environmental and
ecological management, which can maintain or improve living standards and prosperity,
while maintaining environmental and ecological health. This book aims to satisfy this desire
by elucidating an enhanced approach to environmental and ecological management that
integrates the environment and ecology with the thermodynamic quantity exergy.
 Motivation 3

1.3. DEFINING ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

We consider throughout this book both the environment and ecology, which are distinct
albeit related terms. To provide clarity, these terms and related concepts are explained and
contrasted in this section.

1.3.1. Ecology

Ecology is a scientific discipline, usually considered a subset of biology, which examines

ecosystems and relations between living organisms and the natural environment. Living
organisms can be characterized by such factors as abundance, distribution, composition and
state, as well as changes in these factors. Ecology provides an understanding of life processes
and adaptations, the development and health of ecosystems, the amount and distribution of
biodiversity, and the utilization of materials and energy by communities. Ecology is applied
in many areas, including natural resource management, conservation, wetland management,
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, urban planning, health, economics and engineering.

Ecosystem
Ecosystems are hierarchical natural systems that have parts like species that aggregate
into higher orders of complexity in integrated communities. Ecosystems can be characterized
by their biodiversity, considered from varying perspectives (e.g., genes, species). Ecosystems
sustain various life-supporting functions on Earth (climate regulation, soil formation, water
filtration, food growth, etc.). Biophysical feedback mechanisms exist in ecosystems between
biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components of the Earth. These feedback mechanisms
regulate and sustain processes that are not just local, but also regional global and in extent
(e.g., continental climate systems, biogeochemical cycles).

1.3.2. Environment

The environment generally refers to all living and non-living things that occur naturally
on Earth, i.e., the natural environment.
The environment can also refer, in a more restricted sense, to the surroundings of an
object. This is typical in disciplines such as thermodynamics.

Environmental Impact
Environmental impact is the effect of an action or event on the natural environment. The
effect can positive or negative, although it usually is latter type that receive attention.
Environmental impact can be viewed at a given time, or over the life cycle – from the
harvesting of all required resources through to their ultimate disposal) of a system, product or
process. Environmental impact includes direct effects, as well as indirect effects (e.g., use of
goods and services, production of materials and equipment, additional land use for
manufacturing and industrial operations, mining and harvesting of resources). Indirect
environmental effects sometimes exceed direct effects.
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work, the causes contributing to this reduction in efficiency may be
grouped about the following main factors:
(1) The physical discomfort of the mask arising from causes such
as pressure on the head and face, due to improperly fitting
facepieces and harness, the noseclip, and the mouthpiece.
(2) Abnormal conditions of vision, due to poor optical qualities in
eye pieces and restrictions of vision, both as to total field and
binocular field.
(3) Abnormal conditions of respiration, among them being (a) the
unnatural channels of respiration caused by wearing the box
respirator, (b) increase in dead air space in respiratory circuit, and (c)
the increase in resistance to both inhalation and exhalation, the last
two mentioned being present to a greater or less degree in all types
of mask.
Of these general subdivisions the various phases of the first two
are so evident that no further discussion will be given. The effects of
the changed conditions of respiration are, however, less obvious,
and it may be of interest to present in a general way the results of
the research along this line, particularly as regards the harmful
effects of increasing the resistance and dead air space in the
respiratory tract above the normal.
The function of respiration is to supply oxygen to and remove
carbon dioxide from the blood as it passes through the lungs. This
interchange of gases takes place in the alveoli, a myriad of thin-
walled air sacs at the end of the respiratory tract where the air is
separated by a very thin membrane through which the gases readily
pass. The volume and rate, or in other words, the minute-volume, of
respiration is automatically controlled by the nerve centers in such a
way that a sufficient amount of air is supplied to the lungs to maintain
by means of this interchange a uniform percentage of its various
constituents as it leaves the lungs. It will be readily seen therefore,
that anything which causes a change in the composition of the air
presented to the blood in the alveoli will bring about abnormal
conditions of respiration.
 Inasmuch as the gaseous interchange between the lungs and the
blood takes place only in the terminal air sacs it follows that, at the
end of each respiration, the rest of the respiratory tract is filled with
air low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, which on inspiration is
drawn back into the lungs, diluting the fresh air. The volume of these
passages holding air which must be re-breathed is known as the
anatomical dead air space.
Similarly, when a mask is worn the facepiece chamber and any
other parts of the air passage common to inspiration and expiration
become additional dead air space contributing a further dilution of
oxygen content and contamination by carbon dioxide of the inspired
air in addition to that occasioned by the anatomical dead space,
which of course, is always present and is taken care of by the
functions normally controlling respiration.
Major R. G. Pearce who directed a large amount of the research
along this line, sums up the harmful effects of thus increasing the
dead air space as follows:
1. Interpretation from the physiological standpoint:
(a) A larger minute-volume of air is required when breathing
through dead air space. This, interpreted on physiological grounds,
means that the carbon dioxide content of the arterial blood is higher
than normal. The level to which the content of carbon dioxide in the
arterial blood may rise is limited. Anything which wastefully increases
the carbon dioxide level of the blood decreases the reserve so
necessary to a soldier when he is asked to respond to the demand
for exercise which is a part of his daily life.
(b) A larger minute-volume of air must be pulled through the
canister, which offers resistance proportional to the volume of air
passing through it. If resistance is a factor of harm, dead air space
increases that harm, since dead air space increases the volume of
air passing through the canister.
(c) As will be noted below, the effect of resistance is a tendency
to decrease the minute-volume of air breathed. Dead air space
increases the minute-volume. Accordingly, if breathing is
accomplished against resistance and through a large volume of dead
air space, the volume of air breathed is reduced more in proportion
to the actual needs of the body than when breathing against
resistance without the additional factor of dead space; this, again,
causes the level of carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues to be
raised to a higher level than normal, and thus again there is some
reserve power wasted.
2. Interpretation from the standpoint of the canister.
The life of the canister depends on the volume of the gas-laden
air passed through it. The dead space increases the minute-volume
of air passed through the canister and, therefore, shortens its life.
Physiologically, the reason for the harmful effects of breathing
resistance is more involved:
“The importance of resistance to breathing lies
in: (1) the effect on the circulation of the blood, and
(2) the changes in the lung tissue, which seriously
interfere with the gas exchange between the outside
air and the blood. Data have been presented to
draw attention to the seriousness of resistance to
inspiration. In these reports, it was suggested that
the deleterious effects on the body consist in
changes in the blood pressure, increased work of
the right side of the heart, and an increase in the
blood and lymph content of the lungs. Resistance
also decreases the minute-volume of air breathed
and thereby increases the percentage of carbon
dioxide in the expired air. The foregoing changes
are all deleterious.
“Although the chief problem of resistance in gas
mask design concerns inspiration, nevertheless
resistance to expiration is an important factor. The
expired air of the lungs contains carbon dioxide for
which means of escape must be provided. The
expiratory act is more passive than the inspiratory
act, and resistance to expiration is, therefore, more
keenly felt than resistance to inspiration. It is then
imperative that the exhale valve be so arranged as
to allow for the escape of the entire amount of air
during the time of expiration with the least possible
resistance. The data of the laboratory indicate that
seldom, if ever, do expiratory rates rise above a
velocity of 150 to 175 per minute. The effect of
resistance to exhalation upon the vital organs of the
body is not dissimilar to that of inspiration.”
 CHAPTER XIII
ABSORBENTS[27]

The absorbents used in both the British and American gas mask canister, which
afforded a degree of protection far superior to that of any other allied or enemy nation
except Germany, consisted of a mixture of charcoal and soda-lime, as described in the
preceding chapter. In general, a gas mask absorbent must have certain requirements.
These are: absorptive activity, absorptive capacity, versatility, mechanical strength,
chemical stability, low breathing resistance, ease of manufacture and availability of raw
materials.
Absorptive activity, or a very high rate of absorption, is one of the more important
properties of a satisfactory absorbent. A normal man when exercising violently
breathes about 60 liters of air per minute, and since inhalation occupies but slightly
more than half of the breathing cycle, the actual rate at which gas passes through the
canister during inhalation is about 100 liters per minute. Calculated on the basis of the
regular army canister, this corresponds to an average linear air velocity of about 80 cm.
per second. On the average, therefore, a given small portion of the air remains in
contact with the gas absorbent for only about 0.1 second. Besides this, the removal of
the toxic material must be surprisingly complete. Though the concentration entering the
canister may occasionally be as high as one half per cent, even the momentary
leakage of 0.001 per cent (ten parts per million) would cause serious discomfort and
the prolonged leakage of smaller amounts would have serious results in the case of
some gases. The activity of the present gas mask charcoal is shown by the fact that it
will reduce a concentration of 7000 parts per million of chloropicrin to less than 0.5 part
per million in less than 0.03 second.
Of equal importance is the absorptive capacity. That is, the absorbent must be able
to absorb and hold large amounts of gas per unit weight of absorbent. Its life must be
measured in days against ordinary concentrations of gas. It is further necessary that
the gas be held firmly and not in any loose combination which might give up minute
traces of gas when air is, for long periods of time, breathed in through a canister which
has previously been exposed to gas.
The absorbents used must be of a type which can be relied upon to give adequate
protection against practically any kind of toxic gas (versatility). The need of this is
apparent when the difficulty of having separate canisters for various gases is
considered, as well as the difficulty in rapidly and accurately identifying the gases and
the possible introduction of new and unknown gases. Fortunately, practically all of the
toxic gases are very reactive chemically or have relatively high boiling points and can
therefore be absorbed in large amounts by charcoal.
Absorbents must be mechanically strong in order to retain their structure and
porosity under conditions of transport and field use. Further, they must not be subject
to abrasion for the production of a relatively small amount of fines would tend to plug
the canister or to cause channels through which the gas would pass without being
absorbed.
Since the canister is filled several months before it is first used in the trenches, and
since the canister may be used over a period of months before it is discarded, it is
obviously the ultimate activity and capacity (not the initial efficiency) which determines
the value of an absorbent. It must therefore have a very considerable degree of
chemical stability. By this is meant that the absorbent itself is not subject to chemical
deterioration, that it does not react with carbon dioxide, that it does not disintegrate or
become deliquescent even after being used and that it has no corrosive action on the
metal container.
In a good general absorbent there must be a proper balance between its various
essential qualities, and hence the most suitable mixture will probably always be a
compromise.

Charcoal
The fact that charcoal would condense in its pores or adsorb certain gases, holding
them firmly, had been known for a long time.[28] In general, it was known that so-called
animal charcoal was the best for decolorizing sugar solutions, that wood charcoal was
the best for adsorbing gases and that coke had very little adsorbing or decolorizing
power. No one knew the reason for these facts and no one could write a specification
for charcoal. The ordinary charcoal used in the scientific laboratory was cocoanut
charcoal, since Hunter had discovered more than fifty years ago that this was the best
charcoal for adsorbing gases.

Raw Materials[29]
The first charcoal designed to offer protection against chlorine and phosgene was
made by carbonizing red cedar. Since this had little value against chloropicrin, attention
was turned to cocoanut shell as the source of raw material. This charcoal fulfilled the
above conditions for a satisfactory absorbent better than any other form tested. It must
not be supposed, however, that investigation of carbon stopped with these
experiments. In the search for the ideal carbon, practically almost every hard vegetable
substance known was tested. Next to cocoanut shells, the fruit pits, several common
varieties of nuts abundant in the United States, and several tropical nuts (especially
cohune nuts), were found to make the best carbon. Pecan nuts, and all woods ranging
in hardness from iron wood down to ordinary pine and fir, were found to be in the
second class of efficiency. Among other substances tested were almonds, Arabian
acorns, grape seeds, Brazil nut husks, balsa, osage orange, Chinese velvet bean,
synthetic carbons (from coal, lamp-black, etc.), cocoa bean shell, coffee grounds, flint
corn, corn cobs, cotton seed husks, peanut shells and oil shale. While many of these
substances might have been used in an emergency, none of them would produce
carbon as efficient, volume for volume, as that of the cocoanut shell and other hard
nuts.
Some idea of the scale of charcoal production may be seen from the requirement
for cocoanut shells. When we first began to build masks our demands for
carboniferous materials ranged from 40 to 50 tons a day of raw material; by the end of
the war, we were in need of a supply of 400 tons of cocoanut shells per day. This
demand would absorb the entire cocoanut production of tropical America five times
over. (The total production of cocoanuts in Central America, the West Indies and the
Caribbean Coast of South America amounted to 131,000,000 nuts annually, equal to a
supply of 75 tons of shells daily.) It was equal to one-tenth of the total production of the
Orient, which amounted to 7,450,200,000 nuts annually. This large demand always
made a reserve supply of charcoal material practically impossible. The “Eat More
Cocoanut” campaign started by the Gas Defense more than doubled the American
consumption of cocoanut in a brief space of time and in October, 1918, with the help of
importation of shell, we averaged about 150 tons of shells per day, exclusive of the
Orient.
The first heating of cocoanut shells to make charcoal reduces their weight 75 per
cent. It was evident, therefore, that we could more economically ship our oriental
supply in the form of charcoal produced on the other side of the Pacific Ocean. A
charcoal plant was established in the Philippine Islands and agents were sent to all
parts of the Oriental countries to purchase enormous supplies of shells. While the work
was only gaining momentum when the Armistice was signed, the plant actually shipped
300 tons of cocoanut shell carbon to the United States and had over 1000 tons on
hand November 11, 1918.
In the search for other tropical nuts, it was found that the cohune or corozo nut was
the best. These nuts are the fruit of the manaca palm tree. They grow in clusters, like
bananas or dates, one to four clusters to a tree, each cluster yielding from 60 to 75
pounds of nuts. They grow principally on the west coast of Central America in low,
swampy regions from Mexico to Panama but are also found along the Caribbean
coast. The chief virtue of the cohune nut from the charcoal point of view was its
extreme thickness of shell; this nut is 3 inches or more in length and nearly 2 inches in
diameter but the kernel is very small. Four thousand tons per month were being
imported at the time of the Armistice. A disadvantage in the use of cohune nuts was
that their husks contained a considerable amount of acid which rotted the jute bags
and also caused the heaps of nuts to heat in storage.
A third source of tropical material was in the ivory nuts used in considerable
quantities in this country by the makers of buttons. There is a waste of 400-500 tons
per month of this material, which was used after screening out the dust. This material
is rather expensive, because it is normally used in the manufacture of lactic acid.
Another great branch of activity in securing carbon supplies was concerned with the
apricot, peach and cherry pits and walnut shells of the Pacific Coast. A nation-wide
campaign on the part of the American Red Cross was started on September 13, 1918.
Between this time and the Armistice some 4,000 tons of material were collected. Thus
the slogan “Help us to give him the best gas mask” made its appeal to every person in
the United States.

A Theory of Charcoal Action

It has been pointed out that the first charcoal was made from red cedar. While this
was very satisfactory when tested against chlorine, it was of no value against
chloropicrin. In order to improve the charcoal still further it was desirable to have some
theory as to the way charcoal acted. It was generally agreed that fine pores were
essential. The functioning of charcoal depends upon its adsorptive power and this in
turn upon its porosity. The greater the ratio of its surface to its mass, that is, the more
highly developed and fine grained its porosity, the greater its value. Another factor,
however, seemed to play a rôle. As a pure hypothesis, at first, Chaney assumed that
an active charcoal could only be secured by removing the hydrocarbon which he
assumed to be present after carbonization. Being difficultly volatile, these
hydrocarbons prevent the adsorption of other gases or vapors on the active material.
To prove this, red cedar charcoal was heated in a bomb connected with a pump which
drew air through the bomb. Although the charcoal had been carbonized at 800°,
various gases and vapor began to come off at 300°, and when cooled, condensed to
crystalline plates.
This experiment not only proved the existence of components containing hydrogen
in the charcoal, but also showed that one way of removing the hydrocarbon film on the
active carbon was to treat with an oxidizing agent.
In the light of the later experimental work Chaney feels that there are two forms of
elementary carbon—“active” and “inactive”; the active form is characterized by a high
specific adsorptive capacity for gas while the inactive form lacks this property. In
general the temperature of formation of the active form is below 500-600° C. The form
is easily attacked by oxidizing agents—while the latter is relatively stable. The
combination of active carbon with an adsorbed layer or layers of hydrocarbon is known
as “primary” carbon. Anthracite and bituminous coal are native primary carbons, while
coke contains a considerable amount of inactive carbon, resulting from the
decomposition of hydrocarbon during its preparation.

Preparation of Active Charcoal

“On the basis of the above discussion, the preparation of active charcoal will
evidently involve two steps:
“First.—The formation of a porous, amorphous base carbon at a relatively low
temperature.
“Second.—The removal of the adsorbed hydrocarbons from the primary carbon,
and the increase of its porosity.
“The first step presents no very serious difficulties. It involves, in the case of woods
and similar materials, a process of destructive distillation at relatively low temperatures.
The deposition of inactive carbon, resulting from the cracking of hydrocarbons at high
temperatures, must be avoided. The material is therefore charged into the retorts in
thin layers, so that the contact of the hydrocarbon vapors with hot charcoal is avoided
as much as possible. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbon is removed before
dangerous temperatures are reached. A slight suction is maintained to prevent outward
leaks, but no activation by oxidation is attempted, as this can be carried on under
better control and with less loss of material in a separate treatment.

Fig. 67. Dorsey Reactor

for Activating Cocoanut Charcoal with Steam.

“The second step, that is, the removal of the absorbed hydrocarbons from the
primary carbon, is a much more difficult matter. Prolonged heating, at sufficiently high
temperatures, is required to remove or break up the hydrocarbon residues. On the
other hand, volatilization and cracking of the hydrocarbons at high temperatures is
certain to produce an inactive form of carbon more or less like graphite in its visible
characteristics, which is not only inert and non-adsorbent, but is also highly resistant to
oxidation. The general method of procedure which has yielded the best results, is to
remove the adsorbed hydrocarbons by various processes of combined oxidation and
distillation, whereby the hydrocarbons of high boiling points are broken down into more
volatile substances and removed at lower temperatures, or under conditions less likely
to result in subsequent deposition of inactive carbon. Thin layers of charcoal and rapid
gas currents are used so that contact between the volatilized hydrocarbons and the hot
active charcoal may be as brief as possible. In this way cracking of the hydrocarbons
at high temperature, with consequent deposition of inactive carbon, is largely avoided.
“While the removal of the hydrocarbons by oxidation and distillation is the main
object of the activation process, another important action goes on at the same time,
namely, the oxidation of the primary carbon itself. This oxidation is doubtless
advantageous, up to a certain point, for it probably at first enlarges, at the expense of
the walls of solid carbon, cavities already present in the charcoal, thus increasing the
total surface exposed. Moreover, the outer ends of the capillary pores and fissures
must be somewhat enlarged by this action and a readier access thus provided to the
inner portions of the charcoal. However, as soon as the eating away of the carbon wall
begins to unite cavities, it decreases, rather than increases, the surface of the
charcoal, and a consequent drop in volume activity, that is in the service time, of the
charcoal, is found to result.
“It is obvious, therefore, that conditions of activation must be so chosen and
regulated as to oxidize the hydrocarbons rapidly and the primary carbon slowly. Such a
differential oxidation is not easy to secure since the hydrocarbons involved have a very
low hydrogen content, and are not much more easily oxidized than the primary carbon
itself. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbons to be removed are shut up in the interior
of the granule. On the one hand, a high enough temperature must be maintained to
oxidize the hydrocarbons with reasonable speed; on the other hand, too high a
temperature must not be employed, else the primary carbon will be unduly consumed.
The permissible range is a relatively narrow one, only about 50 to 75°. The location of
the optimum activating temperature depends upon the oxidizing agent employed and
upon other variables as well; for air, it has been found to lie somewhere between 350
and 450°, and for steam between 800 and 1000°.
“The air activation process has the advantage of operating at a conveniently low
temperature. It has the disadvantage, that local heating and an excessive consumption
of primary carbon occur, so that a drop in volume activity results from that cause before
the hydrocarbons have been completely eliminated. As a consequence, charcoal of the
highest activity cannot be obtained by the air activation process.”
The steam activation process has the disadvantage that it operates at so high a
temperature that the regulation of temperature becomes difficult and other technical
difficulties are introduced. It has the advantage that local heating is eliminated. The
hydrocarbons can, therefore, be largely removed without a disproportionate
consumption of primary carbon. This permits the production of a very active charcoal.
It has the further advantage that it worked well with all kinds of charcoal. Inferior
material, when treated with steam, gave charcoal nearly as good as the best steam-
treated cocoanut charcoal. Because of the shortage of cocoanut, this was a very
important consideration.
 Fig. 68.—Section of Raw Cocoanut Shell.
Magnified 146½ diameters.

The air, steam and also carbon dioxide-steam activation processes have all been
employed on a large scale by the Chemical Warfare Service for the manufacture of gas
mask carbon.
Fig. 69.—Section of Carbonized Cocoanut Charcoal.
Magnified 146½ Diameters.

Fig. 70.—Two-Minute Charcoal not Activated.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

“The above considerations are illustrated fairly well by the

photo-micrographs shown in Figs. 68 to 71. Fig. 68 shows a
 section of the original untreated cocoanut shell crosswise to the
long axis of the shell. In it can be seen the closely packed, thick-
walled so-called ‘stone-cells’ characteristic of all hard and dense
nut shells. Fig. 69 is a photograph of a similar section through the
same cocoanut shell after it has been carbonized. As these
photographs are all taken with vertical illumination against a dark
background, the cavities, or voids, and depressions all appear
black, while the charcoal itself appears white. It is clear from this
photograph that much of the original grosser structure of the shell
persists in the carbonized products. Figs. 70 and 71 are more
highly magnified photographs of a carbonized charcoal before
and after activation, respectively. As before, all the dark areas
represent voids of little or no importance in the adsorptive activity
of the charcoal, while the white areas represent the charcoal
itself. In Fig. 70 (unactivated) the charcoal itself between the voids
it seen to be relatively compact, while in Fig. 71 (activated) it is
decidedly granular. This granular structure, just visible at this high
magnification (1000 diameters), probably represents the grosser
porous structure on which the adsorption really depends. These
photographs, therefore, show how the porosity is increased by
activation.”

Fig. 71.—31-Minute Steam Activated Charcoal.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

The great demand for charcoal, and the need for activating other than cocoanut
charcoal led to the development of the Dressler tunnel kiln, which seemed to offer
many advantages over the Dorsey type of treater.

Fig. 72.—Sectional View of Dressler Tunnel Kiln,

Adapted to Activation of Charcoal.

“The Dressler tunnel kiln is a type used in general ceramic

work. The furnace consists essentially of a brick kiln about 190 ft.
long, 12 ft. broad, and 9 ft. high, lined with fire brick. Charcoal is
loaded in shallow, refractory trays in small tram cars, about 120
trays to the car. The cars enter the kiln through a double door and
the charcoal remains in the hot zone at a temperature of about
850° C. for about 4 hrs., depending upon the nature of the
material charged. Water is atomized into this kiln, and a positive
pressure maintained in order to exclude entrance of air. The kiln is
gas-fired and the charcoal is activated by the steam in the
presence of the combustion gases.
“Under such treatment the charcoal is given a high degree of
activation without the usual accompanying high losses. Seemingly
the oxidizing medium used, together with the operating
conditions, produce a deep penetration of the charcoal particles
without increasing the extensive surface combustion experienced
 in the steam activators. The capacity of such a type furnace is
limited only by the size of the installation.
“The advantages of this type furnace may be tabulated as follows:

1—High quality of product.

2—Small weight and volume losses.
3—Large capacity per unit.
4—Minimum initial cost and maintenance of installation.
5—Simplicity and cheapness of operation.
6—Adaptability to activation of all carbon materials.
7—Availability of furnaces of this general type already constructed.”

Substitutes for Nut Charcoal

The first experiments were made with a special anthracite coal (non-laminated and
having conchoidal fracture). This had a life of 560 minutes as against 360 minutes for
air treated cocoanut charcoal and 800-900 minutes for steam-treated charcoal.
When the Gas Defense Service tried to activate anthracite on a large scale in
vertical gas retorts at Derby, Connecticut, the attempt was a failure. They carbonized at
900° and then turned on the steam with the result that the steam-treated coal had a
slightly greater density than the untreated, which was wrong, and had a shiny
appearance in parts with roughened deposits in other parts. When the hydrocarbons
are decomposed at high temperatures, the resulting carbon is somewhat graphitic, is
itself inactive, is not readily oxidized, and impairs or prevents the activation of the
normal carbon upon which it is deposited. This discovery made it possible to treat
anthracite successfully. The conditions must be such as to minimize high temperature
cracking, to carry off or oxidize the hydrocarbons as fast as formed, and especially to
prevent the gases from cooler portions of the treater coming in contact with carbon at a
much higher temperature. With these facts in mind, a plant was built at Springfield
which produced 10 tons a day of 150-300 minute charcoal from raw anthracite. This
was one-third of the total production at that time and was mixed with the nut charcoal
made at Astoria, thereby preventing an absolute shortage of canister-filling material in
October, 1918.
It was next shown that the cocoanut charcoal fines resulting from grinding and
screening losses and amounting to 50 per cent of the product, could be very finely
ground, mixed with a binder, and baked like ordinary carbon products. By avoiding gas-
treating in the bake, the resulting charcoal is nearly as good as that from the original
shell. A recovery plant for treating the cocoanut fines was built at Astoria. The product
was called “Coalite.”
The great advantage of cocoanut shell as a source of charcoal is that it is very
dense and consequently it is possible to convert it into a mass having a large number
of fine pores, whereas a less dense wood, like cedar, will necessarily give more larger
pores, which are of relatively little value. The cocoanut charcoal is also pretty resistant
to oxidation which seems to make selective oxidation a more simple matter. By
briquetting different woods, it is possible to make charcoal from them which is nearly
equal to that from cocoanut shell.
By heating lamp-black with sulfur and briquetting, it was possible to make a
charcoal having approximately the same service time as cocoanut charcoal. A charcoal
was made by emulsifying carbon black with soft pitch, which gave the equivalent of
400 minutes against chloropicrin before it had been steam-treated. This looked so
good that the plans were drawn for making a thousand pounds or more of this product
at Washington to give it a thorough test. This was not done on account of the cessation
of all research work. The possible advantage of this product was the more uniform
distribution of binder.
Instead of steam-treating anthracite coal direct, it was also pulverized, mixed with a
binder, and baked into rods which were then ground and activated with steam. The
resulting material, which was known as Carbonite, had somewhat less activity than the
lamp-black mixes but was very much cheaper. A plant was built to bake 40 tons a day
of this material, which would yield 10 tons a day of active carbon after allowing for
grinding losses and steam treatment. The plant was guaranteed to furnish an
absorbent having a life of 600 minutes against chloropicrin.

German Charcoal
After the Armistice was signed, Chaney took up the question of how the Germans
made their charcoal. The German charcoal was made from coniferous wood and was
reported to be as good as ours, in spite of the fact that they were using inferior
materials. Inside of a month Chaney had found out how the German charcoal was
made, had duplicated their material, and had shown that it was nothing like as good as
our charcoal. The Germans impregnated the wood with zinc chloride, carbonized at red
heat, and washed out most of the zinc chloride. When this zinc chloride was found in
the German charcoal, it was assumed that it had been added after the charcoal had
been made. It was therefore dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, thereby improving
the charcoal against chloropicrin. The German charcoal was then tested as it stood,
including the fines, against American charcoal, 8 to 14 mesh. The most serious error,
however, was in testing only against a high concentration of chloropicrin. The German
charcoal contains relatively coarse pores which condense gases at high concentrations
very well but which do not absorb gases strongly at low concentrations. The result was
that the German charcoal was rated as being four or five times as good as it really
was.
 German Charcoal. ×200.

Fig. 73.—Charcoal from Spruce Wood.

Comparison of Charcoal
The following table shows a comparison of charcoals from different sources. The
method of activation was identical and the times of treatment were those approximately
giving the highest service time. The results against chloropicrin, therefore, represent
roughly the relative excellence of the charcoal obtainable from various raw materials,
using this method of activation:

Comparison of Various Active Charcoals Activated in

Laboratory
Steam Accelerated
Apparent
Treatment Chloropicrin
Density
at 900° Test Results
Base
Weight
Material Weight Service
Primary Activated Time Loss
Absorbed Time
Carbon Carbon Min. Per
Per Cent Min.
Cent
Sycamore 0.158 0.080 18 53 41 7.3
Cedar 0.223 0.097 60 88 78 16.0
Mountain 0.420 0.236
mahogany 60 44 32 16.3

Ironwood 0.465 0.331 60 44 31 20.8

Brazil nut 0.520 0.316 120 71 46 32.2
Ivory nut 0.700 0.460 120 70 48 47.0
Cohune nut 0.659 0.502 120 48 51 53.4
Babassu 0.540 0.322
210 68 85 58.7
nut
Cocoanut 0.710 0.445 120 60 61 58.4
Cocoanut 0.710 0.417 180 75 72 64.4

Briquetted Materials
Sawdust 0.542 0.365 120 66 53 40.0
Carbon 0.769 0.444
240 64.3 53 50.5
black
Bituminous 0.789 0.430
165 61 58.3 46.8
coal
Anthracite 0.830 0.371
480 81 53 40.7
coal
 “In conclusion, it will be of interest to compare the charcoals
manufactured and used by the principal belligerent nations, both
with one another and with the above mentioned laboratory
preparations. Data on these charcoals are given in the following
table:

Comparison of Typical Production Charcoals

of the Principal Belligerent Nations
Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Nov. Cocoanut Air
U. S. A. 0.60 10
1917 activated
June, Mixed nuts, Steam
U. S. A. 0.58 18
1918 etc. activated
Nov. Cocoanut Steam
U. S. A. 0.51 34
1918 activated
Wood Long
England 1917 0.27 6
distillation
England Aug. Peach 0.54 16
1918 stones,
etc.
France 1917-18 Wood 0.23 2
Wood Chemical
and
Germany Early ? 3
steam
treatment
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.25 33
1917 steam
treatment
 Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.24 42
1918 steam
treatment
“It is at once evident that the service time of most of these
charcoals is very much less than was obtained with the laboratory
samples. However, in the emergency production of this material
on a large scale, quantity and speed were far more important than
the absolute excellence of the product. It will be noted, for
instance, that the cocoanut charcoal manufactured by the United
States, even in November, 1918, was still very much inferior to
the laboratory samples made from the same raw material. This
was not because a very active charcoal could not be produced on
a large scale, for even in May, 1918, the possibility of
manufacturing a 50-min. charcoal on a large scale had been
conclusively demonstrated, but this activation would have
required two or three times as much raw material and five times
as much apparatus as was then available, due to the much longer
time of heating, and the greater losses of carbon occasioned
thereby.
“It should furthermore be pointed out that the increase in the
chloropicrin service time of charcoal from 18 to 50 min. does not
represent anything like a proportionate increase in its value under
field service conditions. This is partly due to the fact that the
increased absorption on the high concentration tests is in reality
due to condensation in the capillaries, which, as has been pointed
out, is not of much real value. More important than this, however,
is the fact that most of the important gases used in warfare are
not held by adsorption only, but by combined adsorption and
chemical reaction, for which purpose an 18-min. charcoal is, in
general, almost as good as a 50-min. charcoal.”

Typical Absorptive Values of Different Charcoals

Against Various Gases