Fractional Dynamic Calculus and

Fractional Dynamic Equations on Time

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Svetlin G. Georgiev

Fractional
Dynamic Calculus
and Fractional
Dynamic Equations
on Time Scales
Fractional Dynamic Calculus and Fractional
Dynamic Equations on Time Scales
Svetlin G. Georgiev

Fractional Dynamic Calculus

and Fractional Dynamic
Equations on Time Scales

123
Svetlin G. Georgiev
Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics
Sofia University St Kliment Ohridski
Sofia, Bulgaria

ISBN 978-3-319-73953-3 ISBN 978-3-319-73954-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73954-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018934407

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Preface

Fractional differential equation theory is an important branch of mathematics

that includes continuous fractional differential equations and discrete fractional
difference equations. The theory of fractional differential equations has gained
considerable popularity and importance over the past three decades or so. Many
applications in numerous seemingly diverse and widespread fields of science and
engineering have been found. The theory indeed provides several potentially useful
tools for solving differential and integral equations and various other problems
involving special functions of mathematical physics as well as their extensions
and generalizations in one and more variables. To unify differential equations and
difference equations, Stefan Hilger proposed the time scale and built the relevant
basic theories. This book encompasses recent developments in fractional calculus
and fractional differential equations on time scales. This book is intended for use in
the field of fractional calculus and fractional dynamic equations on time scales. It
is also suitable for graduate courses in the above fields. The book contains nine
chapters, which are pedagogically organized. This book is specifically designed
for those without extensive mathematical background who wish to understand
fractional calculus and fractional dynamic equations on time scales.
The basic definitions of forward and backward jump operators are due to Hilger.
In Chapter 1, examples of jump operators on some time scales are presented. The
graininess function, which is the distance from a point to the closed point on the
right, is introduced in this chapter. The definitions of delta derivative and delta
integral are given, and some of their properties are deduced. Chapter 2 introduces the
Laplace transform on time scales. Its main properties are deduced, and conditions
are given on the class of functions that have a transform. An inversion formula for
the transform is given. Chapter 3 deals with convolution on time scales. Using an
initial value problem containing a dynamic version of the transport equation, the
delay (or shift) of a function defined on a time scale is introduced, and the delay in
turn is used to introduce the convolution of two functions defined on the time scale.
Some elementary properties of the delay and the convolution are given, and the main
convolution theorem is proved. Chapter 4 is concerned with the Riemann–Liouville
fractional Δ-integral and the Riemann–Liouville fractional Δ-derivative. Some of

v
vi Preface

the properties of the Δ-power function and Riemann–Liouville fractional Δ-integral

and derivative are deduced and proved. In Chapter 5, a Cauchy-type problem
with Riemann–Liouville fractional Δ-derivative is considered. The existence and
uniqueness of the solution are proved along with the dependence of the solution
on the initial data. Riemann–Liouville fractional dynamic equations with constant
coefficients are investigated in Chapter 6. In Chapter 7, the Caputo fractional Δ-
derivative on time scales is introduced, and some of its properties are deduced.
In Chapter 8, the existence and uniqueness of the solution of the Cauchy-type
problem with the Caputo fractional Δ-derivative are proved, and the dependence
of the solution upon the initial value is investigated. Chapter 9 is devoted to Caputo
fractional dynamic equations with constant coefficients.
The aim of this book is to present a clear and well-organized treatment of the
concepts behind the development of the relevant mathematics and solution tech-
niques. The material of this book is presented in a highly readable, mathematically
solid format. Many practical problems are illustrated, displaying a wide variety of
solution techniques.

Paris, France Svetlin G. Georgiev

October 2017
Contents

1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Forward and Backward Jump Operators, Graininess Function . . . . 1
1.2 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Mean Value Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 The Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.1 Hilger’s Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.2 Definition and Properties of the Exponential Function. . . . . 53
1.5.3 Examples for Exponential Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.6 Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.7 Dynamic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.8 Power Series on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.9 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2 The Laplace Transform on Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.1 Definition and Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.2 The Laplace Transform on Isolated Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.3 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3 Convolution on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.1 Shifts and Convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.1.1 The Quantum Calculus Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.1.2 Investigation of the Shifting Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.2 Convolutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3 The Convolution Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.4 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4 The Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Integral and the
Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Derivative on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.1 The Δ-Power Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.2 Definition of the Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Integral
and the Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

vii
viii Contents

4.3 Properties of the Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Integral

and the Riemann–Liouville Fractional Δ-Derivative
on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.4 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5 Cauchy-Type Problems with the Riemann–Liouville Fractional
Δ-Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2 The Dependence of the Solution on the Initial Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6 Riemann–Liouville Fractional Dynamic Equations
with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.1 Homogeneous Riemann–Liouville Fractional Dynamic
Equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.2 Inhomogeneous Riemann–Liouville Fractional Dynamic
Equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.3 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7 The Caputo Fractional Δ-Derivative on Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.1 Definition of the Caputo Fractional Δ-Derivative and Examples . . 301
7.2 Properties of the Caputo Fractional Δ-Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.3 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8 Cauchy-Type Problems with the Caputo Fractional Δ-Derivative . . . 311
8.1 Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution
to the Cauchy-Type Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.2 The Dependence of the Solution on the Initial Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
9 Caputo Fractional Dynamic Equations with Constant Coefficients . . 321
9.1 Homogeneous Caputo Fractional Dynamic Equations
with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.2 Inhomogeneous Caputo Fractional Dynamic Equations
with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
9.3 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10 Appendix: The Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.1 Definition of the Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.2 Some Properties of the Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.3 Limit Representation of the Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
11 Appendix: The Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.1 Definition of the Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.2 Properties of the Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.3 An Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Chapter 1
Elements of Time Scale Calculus

This chapter is devoted to a brief exposition of the time scale calculus that provides
the framework for the study of fractional dynamic calculus and fractional dynamic
equations on time scales. A detailed discussion of the time scale calculus is beyond
the scope of this book, and for this reason, the author limits himself to outlining a
minimal set of properties that will be needed in what follows. The presentation in
this chapter follows the books [5] and [2]. A deep and thorough investigation of the
time scale calculus, as well as a discussion of the available literature on this subject,
can be found in those books.

1.1 Forward and Backward Jump Operators,

Graininess Function

Definition 1.1. A time scale is an arbitrary nonempty closed subset of real

numbers.
We will denote a time scale by the symbol T.
We suppose that a time scale T has the topology that it inherits from the real numbers
with standard topology.
Example 1.1. [1, 2], R, N,
 
1 1 1
−2, −1, − , 0, , , 2, 3, 6
2 4 3

are time scales.


Example 1.2. [a, b), (a, b], (a, b), (a, b] {2b − a} are not time scales.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

S. G. Georgiev, Fractional Dynamic Calculus and Fractional Dynamic
Equations on Time Scales, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73954-0_1
2 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

Definition 1.2. For t ∈ T we define the forward jump operator σ : T → T as

follows:

σ (t) = inf{s ∈ T : s > t}.

We note that σ (t) ≥ t for all t ∈ T.

Definition 1.3. For t ∈ T we define the backward jump operator ρ : T → T by

ρ(t) = sup{s ∈ T : s < t}.

We note that ρ(t) ≤ t for all t ∈ T.

Definition 1.4. We set

inf Ø = sup T, sup Ø = inf T.

Definition 1.5. For t ∈ T we have the following cases.

1. If σ (t) > t, then we say that t is right-scattered.
2. If t < sup T and σ (t) = t, then we say that t is right-dense.
3. If ρ(t) < t, then we say that t is left-scattered.
4. If t > inf T and ρ(t) = t, then we say that t is left-dense.
5. If t is left-scattered and right-scattered at the same time, then we say that t is
isolated.
6. If t is left-dense and right-dense at the same time, then we say that t is dense.
√ √
Example 1.3. Let T = { 3n + 2 : n ∈ N}. If t = 3n + 2 for some n ∈ N, then
t2 − 2
n= and
3
√ √ √ √
σ (t) = inf{l ∈ N : 3l + 2 > 3n + 2} = 3n + 5 = t2 + 3 for n ∈ N,
√ √ √ √
ρ(t) = sup{l ∈ N : 3l + 2 < 3n + 2} = 3n − 1 = t2 − 3 for n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.

For n = 1 we have
√ √
ρ( 5) = sup Ø = inf T = 5.

Since
 
t2 − 3 < t < t2 + 3 for n ≥ 2,
√
we conclude that every point√ 3n + 2, n ∈ N, n ≥ 2, is right-scattered and left-
scattered, i.e., every point 3n + 2, n ∈ N, n ≥ 2, is isolated.
1.1 Forward and Backward Jump Operators, Graininess Function 3

Because
√ √ √ √
5 = ρ( 5) < σ ( 5) = 8,
√
we have that the point5 is right-scattered.
 
2
Example 1.4. Let T = : n ∈ N ∪ {0} and t ∈ T be arbitrarily chosen.
2n + 1
2
1. t = . Then
3
 
2 2
σ = inf Ø = sup T = ,
3 3
   
2 2 2 2 2 2
ρ = sup ,0 : ,0 < ,l ∈ N = < ,
3 2l + 1 2l + 1 3 5 3

2
i.e., is left-scattered.
3
2
2. t = , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2. Then
2n + 1
   
2 2 2 2
σ = inf : > ,l ∈ N
2n + 1 2l + 1 2l + 1 2n + 1
2 2
= > ,
2(n − 1) + 1 2n + 1
   
2 2 2 2
ρ = sup ,0 : ,0 < ,l ∈ N
2n + 1 2l + 1 2l + 1 2n + 1
2 2
= < .
2(n + 1) + 1 2n + 1

2
Therefore, all points , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2, are right-scattered and left-scattered,
2n + 1
2
i.e., all points , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2, are isolated.
2n + 1
3. t = 0. Then

σ (0) = inf{s ∈ T : s > 0} = 0,

ρ(0) = sup{x ∈ T : s < 0} = sup Ø = inf T = 0.
n n
Example 1.5. Let T = : n ∈ N0 and t = , n ∈ N0 , be arbitrarily chosen.
7 7
4 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

1. n ∈ N. Then
 
n l l n n+1 n
σ = inf , 0 : , 0 > , l ∈ N0 = > ,
7 7 7 7 7 7
 
n l l n n−1 n
ρ = sup , 0 : , 0 < , l ∈ N0 = < .
7 7 7 7 7 7
n
Therefore, all points t = , n ∈ N, are right-scattered and left-scattered, i.e., all
7
n
points t = , n ∈ N, are isolated.
7
2. n = 0. Then
 
l l 1
σ (0) = inf , 0 : , 0 > 0, l ∈ N0 = > 0,
7 7 7
 
l l
ρ(0) = sup : , 0 < 0, l ∈ N0 = sup Ø = inf T = 0,
7 7

i.e., t = 0 is right-scattered.
√
Exercise 1.1. Classify each point t ∈ T = { 5n − 2 : n ∈ N0 } as left-dense, left-
7

scattered, right-dense, or right-scattered.

√ √
Answer. The points 5n − 2, n ∈ N, are isolated; the point −2 is right-scattered.
7 7

Definition 1.6. The numbers

n
1
H0 = 0, Hn = , n ∈ N,
k
k=1

will be called harmonic numbers.

Exercise 1.2. Let

H = {Hn : n ∈ N0 }.

Prove that hH is a time scale for all h > 0. Find σ (t) and ρ(t) for t ∈ H.
Answer. σ (Hn ) = Hn+1 , ρ(Hn ) = Hn−1 , n ∈ N, ρ(H0 ) = H0 .

Definition 1.7. The graininess function μ : T → [0, ∞) is defined by

μ(t) = σ (t) − t.


Example 1.6. Let T = 7n : n ∈ N . Let also t = 7n ∈ T for some n ∈ N. Then

σ (t) = inf 7l : 7l > 7n , l ∈ N = 7n+1 = 7t.
1.1 Forward and Backward Jump Operators, Graininess Function 5

Hence,
   
μ(t) = σ (t) − t = 7t − t = 6t or μ 7n = 6 7n , n ∈ N.
√
Exercise 1.3. Let T = n + 4 : n ∈ N0 . Find μ(t), t ∈ T.
5

√ √ √
Answer. μ n+4 = n+5− n + 4, n ∈ N0 .
5 5 5

Definition 1.8. If f : T → R is a function, then we define the function f σ : T → R

by

f σ (t) = f (σ (t)) for any t ∈ T, i.e., f σ = f ◦ σ.

Example 1.7. Let T = 3N0 ,

f (t) = t3 − 7t, t ∈ T.

We will find

f σ (t), t ∈ T.

Here

σ (t) = 3t, t ∈ T.

Then

f σ (t) = (σ (t))3 − 7σ (t)

= (3t)3 − 7(3t)
= 27t3 − 21t, t ∈ T.

Example 1.8. Let T = N20 and

t+1
f (t) = , t ∈ T.
t+2

We will find

f σ (t), t ∈ T.

Here
√ 2
σ (t) = t+1 , t ∈ T.
6 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

Then
√2
σ t+1 +1
f (t) = √ 2
t+1 +2
√
t+2 t+2
= √ , t ∈ T.
t+2 t+3

Example 1.9. Let T = 2N0 and

f (t) = t2 − t + 1, t ∈ T.

We will find

f σ (t), t ∈ T.

Here

σ (t) = 2t, t ∈ T.

Then

f σ (t) = (σ (t))2 − σ (t) + 1

= (2t)2 − 2t + 1
= 4t2 − 2t + 1, t ∈ T.

Exercise 1.4. Let T = 5N0 and

t2 + 3
f (t) = , t ∈ T.
t2 + 7

Find f σ (t), t ∈ T.
Answer.

25t2 + 3
f σ (t) = , t ∈ T.
25t2 + 7

Definition 1.9. We define the set


T\(ρ(sup T), sup T] if sup T < ∞,
Tκ =
T otherwise.
1.1 Forward and Backward Jump Operators, Graininess Function 7

 
1 1
Example 1.10. Let T = : n ∈ N ∪ {0}. Then sup T = and
2n + 1 3
   
1 1 1 1
ρ = sup ,0 : , 0 < 1, l ∈ N = .
3 2l + 1 2l + 1 5

Therefore,
 
1 1 1
Tκ = T\ , = : n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 ∪ {0}.
5 3 2n + 1

Example 1.11. Let T = {7n2 + n − 10 : n ∈ N}. Then sup T = ∞ and Tκ = T.

 
11 11
Example 1.12. Let T = : n ∈ N ∪ {0}. Then sup T = < ∞,
n +3
2 4
   
11 11 11 11 11
ρ = sup , 0 : , 0 < , l ∈ N = .
4 l2 + 3 l2 + 3 4 7

Hence,
 
11 11  11
Tκ = T\ , = : n ≥ 2 ∪ {0}.
7 4 n2 + 3

Definition 1.10. We assume that a ≤ b. We define the interval [a, b] in T by

[a, b] = {t ∈ T : a ≤ t ≤ b}.

Open intervals, half-open intervals, and so on are defined accordingly.

Example 1.13. Let [a, b] be an interval in T and let b be a left-dense point, b < ∞.
Then sup[a, b] = b, and since b is a left-dense point, we have that ρ(b) = b. Hence,

[a, b]κ = [a, b]\(b, b] = [a, b]\Ø = [a, b].

Example 1.14. Let [a, b] be an interval in T, and b a left-scattered point, b < ∞.

Then sup[a, b] = b, and since b is a left-scattered point, we have that ρ(b) < b.
We assume that there is c ∈ (ρ(b), b], c ∈ T. Then ρ(b) < c ≤ b, which is a
contradiction. Therefore,

[a, b]κ = [a, b]\(ρ(b), b] = [a, b).

 
4
Exercise 1.5. Let T = : n ∈ N ∪ {0}. Find Tκ .
2n2 + n + 10
 
4
Answer. : n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 ∪ {0}.
2n2 + n + 10
8 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

1.2 Differentiation

Definition 1.11. Assume that f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ Tκ . We define

f Δ (t) to be the number, if it exists, defined as follows: for every  > 0 there is a
neighborhood U of t, U = (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ T for some δ > 0, such that

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f Δ (t)(σ (t) − s)| ≤ |σ (t) − s| for all s ∈ U, s = σ (t).

We call f Δ (t) the delta or Hilger derivative of f at t.

We say that f is delta or Hilger differentiable, or differentiable for short, in T κ if
f Δ (t) exists for all t ∈ Tκ . The function f Δ : T → R is said to be the delta derivative
or Hilger derivative, or simply the derivative, of f in T κ .
Remark 1.1. If T = R, then the delta derivative coincides with the classical
derivative.
Theorem 1.1. The delta derivative is well defined.
Proof. Let t ∈ Tκ and fiΔ (t), i = 1, 2, be such that


| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f1Δ (t)(σ (t) − s)| ≤ |σ (t) − s|,
2

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f2Δ (t)(σ (t) − s)| ≤ |σ (t) − s|,
2
for all  > 0 and all s belonging to a neighborhood U of t, U = (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ T,
for some δ > 0, s = σ (t). Hence,
 f (σ (t)) − f (s) f (σ (t)) − f (s) 
 
| f1Δ (t) − f2Δ (t)| =  f1Δ (t) − + − f2Δ (t)
σ (t) − s σ (t) − s
 f (σ (t)) − f (s)   f (σ (t)) − f (s) 
 
≤  f1Δ (t) − + − f2Δ (t)
σ (t) − s σ (t) − s

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f1Δ (t)(σ (t) − s)| | f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f2Δ (t)(σ (t) − s)|
= +
|σ (t) − s| |σ (t) − s|
 
≤ +
2 2
= .

Since  > 0 was chosen arbitrarily, we conclude that

f1Δ (t) = f2Δ (t),

which completes the proof.

1.2 Differentiation 9

Remark 1.2. Let us assume that sup T < ∞ and f Δ (t) is defined at a point t ∈ T\Tκ
with the same definition as given in Definition 1.11. Then the unique point t ∈ T\Tκ
is sup T.
Hence, for all  > 0 there is a neighborhood U = (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ (T\Tκ ) for some
δ > 0, such that

f (σ (t)) = f (s) = f (σ (sup T)) = f (sup T), s ∈ U, s = σ (t).

Therefore, for all α ∈ R and s ∈ U we have

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − α(σ (t) − s)| = | f (sup T) − f (sup T) − α(sup T − sup T)|
≤ |σ (t) − s|,

i.e., every α ∈ R is the delta derivative of f at the point t ∈ T\Tκ .

Example 1.15. Let f (t) = α ∈ R. We will prove that f Δ (t) = 0 for all t ∈ Tκ .
Indeed, for t ∈ Tκ and for all  > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
s ∈ (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ T, s = σ (t), implies

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − 0(σ (t) − s)| = |α − α|

≤ |σ (t) − s|.

Example 1.16. Let f (t) = 2t, t ∈ T. We will prove that f Δ (t) = 2 for all t ∈ Tκ .
Indeed, for t ∈ Tκ and for all  > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that s ∈ (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ T,
s = σ (t), implies

| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − 2(σ (t) − s)| = 2|σ (t) − s − (σ (t) − s)|

≤ |σ (t) − s|.

Example 1.17. Let f (t) = 4t2 , t ∈ T. We will prove that f Δ (t) = 4σ (t) + 4t,
t ∈ Tκ .
 
Indeed, for t ∈ Tκ and for all  > 0 and for s ∈ t − , t + ∩ T, s = σ (t), we
8 8

have |t − s| < and
4
 
 
| f (σ (t)) − f (s) − 4(σ (t) + t)(σ (t) − s)| = 4 (σ (t))2 − s2 − (σ (t) + t)(σ (t) − s)

= 4|(σ (t) − s)(σ (t) + s)

−(σ (t) + t)(σ (t) − s)|
= 4|σ (t) − s||t − s|
≤ |σ (t) − s|.
10 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

√
Exercise 1.6. Let f (t) = 3 t, t ∈ T, t > 0. Prove that
1
f Δ (t) = √
3 2 √  for t ∈ Tκ , t > 0.
t + tσ (t) + (σ (t))2
3 3

Exercise 1.7. Let f (t) = t4 , t ∈ T. Prove that f Δ (t) = (σ (t))3 + t (σ (t))2 + t2 σ (t)
+t3 for t ∈ Tκ .
Theorem 1.2. Assume f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ Tκ . Then we have the
following.
1. If f is differentiable at t, then f is continuous at t.
2. If f is continuous at t and t is right-scattered, then f is differentiable at t with
f (σ (t)) − f (t)
f Δ (t) = .
μ(t)
3. If t is right-dense, then f is differentiable iff the limit
f (t) − f (s)
lim
s−→t t−s
exists as a finite number. In this case,
f (t) − f (s)
f Δ (t) = lim .
s−→t t−s
4. If f is differentiable at t, then

f (σ (t)) = f (t) + μ(t)f Δ (t).

 
1
Example 1.18. Let T = : n ∈ N0 ∪ {0}, f (t) = σ (t), t ∈ T. We will find
2n + 1
Δ 1 1−t
f (t), t ∈ T. For t ∈ T, t = ,n= , n ≥ 1, we have
2n + 1 2t
 
1 1 1 1
σ (t) = inf ,0 : ,0 > , l ∈ N0 =
2l + 1 2l + 1 2n + 1 2n − 1

1 t
= = > t,
2 1−t
2t −1 1 − 2t

1
i.e., every point t = , n ≥ 1, is right-scattered. At these points,
2n + 1
f (σ (t)) − f (t) σ (σ (t)) − σ (t) (σ (t))2
f Δ (t) = = =2
σ (t) − t σ (t) − t (1 − 2σ (t))(σ (t) − t)
2
t t2
1−2t (1−2t)2 t2 1
=2 =2 =2 = .
1− 2t t
−t
1−4t 2t2 2t2 (1 − 4t) 1 − 4t
1−2t 1−2t 1−2t 1−2t
1.2 Differentiation 11

Let n = 0, i.e., t = 1. Then

 
1 1
σ (1) = inf ,0 : , 0 > 1, l ∈ N0 = inf Ø = sup T = 1,
2l + 1 2l + 1

i.e., t = 1 is a right-dense point. Also,

f (1) − f (s) σ (1) − σ (s) 1 − 1−2s

s
lim = lim = lim
s→1 1−s s→1 1−s s→1 1 − s
1 − 3s
= lim = +∞.
s→1 (1 − s)(1 − 2s)

Therefore, σ (1) doesn’t exist.

Let now t = 0. Then
 
1 1
σ (0) = inf ,0 : , 0 > 0, l ∈ N0 = 0.
2l + 1 2l + 1

Consequently, t = 0 is right-dense. Also,

σ (h) − σ (0)
h
1−2h −0 1
lim = lim = lim = 1.
h−→0 h h−→0 h h−→0 1 − 2h

Therefore, σ (0) = 1.
Example 1.19. Let T = {n2 : n ∈ N0 }, f (t) = t2 , g(t) √ = σ (t), t ∈ T. We will find
f Δ (t) and gΔ (t) for t ∈ Tκ . For t ∈ Tκ , t = n2 , n = t, n ∈ N0 , we have
√
σ (t) = inf{l2 : l2 > n2 , l ∈ N0 } = (n + 1)2 = ( t + 1)2 > t.

Therefore, all points of T are right-scattered. We note that f (t) and g(t) are
continuous functions in T. Hence,

f (σ (t)) − f (t) (σ (t))2 − t2

f Δ (t) = = = σ (t) + t
σ (t) − t σ (t) − t
√ 2 √ √
= t + 1 + t = t + 2 t + 1 + t = 1 + 2 t + 2t,
g(σ (t)) − g(t) σ (σ (t)) − σ (t)
gΔ (t) = =
σ (t) − t σ (t) − t
√ √
( σ (t) + 1) − σ (t)
2 σ (t) + 2 σ (t) + 1 − σ (t)
= =
σ (t) − t σ (t) − t
√ √ √
1 + 2 σ (t) 1 + 2( t + 1) 3+2 t
= = √ = √ .
σ (t) − t ( t + 1)2 − t 1+2 t
12 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

√
Example 1.20. Let T = { 2n + 1 : n ∈ N0 }, f (t) = t4 , t ∈ T. We will find f Δ (t),
4

√ t4 − 1
t ∈ T. For t ∈ T, t = 2n + 1, n = , n ∈ N0 , we have
4

2
√ √ √ √
σ (t) = inf{ 2l + 1 : 2l + 1 > 2n + 1, l ∈ N0 } = 2n + 3
4 4 4 4

4
= t4 + 2 > t.

Therefore, every point of T is right-scattered. We note that the function f (t) is

continuous in T. Hence,

f (σ (t)) − f (t) (σ (t))4 − t4

f Δ (t) = =
σ (t) − t σ (t) − t
= (σ (t))3 + t (σ (t))2 + t2 σ (t) + t3
 4

= (t4 + 2)3 + t2 t4 + 2 + t t4 + 2 + t3 .
4

√
Exercise 1.8. Let T = { n + 1 : n ∈ N0 }, f (t) = t + t3 , t ∈ T. Find f Δ (t), t ∈ Tκ .
5

 5
Answer. 1 + (t5 + 1)2 + t t5 + 1 + t2 .
5

Theorem 1.3. Assume f , g : T → R are differentiable at t ∈ Tκ . Then the

following hold:
1. The sum f + g : T → R is differentiable at t with

( f + g)Δ (t) = f Δ (t) + gΔ (t).

2. For every constant α, αf : T → R is differentiable at t with

(αf )Δ (t) = αf Δ (t).

1
3. If f (t)f (σ (t)) = 0, we have that : T → R is differentiable at t and
f
 Δ
1 f Δ (t)
(t) = − .
f f (t)f (σ (t))
f
4. If g(t)g(σ (t)) = 0, we have that : T → R is differentiable at t with
g
 Δ
f f Δ (t)g(t) − f (t)gΔ (t)
(t) = .
g g(t)g(σ (t))
5. The product fg : T → R is differentiable at t with

( fg)Δ (t) = f Δ (t)g(t) + f (σ (t))gΔ (t) = f (t)gΔ (t) + f Δ (t)g(σ (t)).

1.2 Differentiation 13

Example 1.21. Let f , g, h : T → R be differentiable at t ∈ Tκ . Then

( fgh)Δ (t) = (( fg)h)Δ (t) = ( fg)Δ (t)h(t) + ( fg)(σ (t))hΔ (t)

= ( f Δ (t)g(t) + f (σ (t))gΔ (t))h(t) + f σ (t)gσ (t)hΔ (t)
= f Δ (t)g(t)h(t) + f σ (t)gΔ (t)h(t) + f σ (t)gσ (t)hΔ (t).

Example 1.22. Let f : T → R be differentiable at t ∈ Tκ . Then

Δ
f2 (t) = ( ff )Δ (t) = f Δ (t)f (t) + f (σ (t))f Δ (t) = f Δ (t)( f σ (t) + f (t)).

Also,

( f 3 )Δ (t) = ( ff 2 )Δ (t) = f Δ (t)( f (t))2 + f (σ (t))( f 2 )Δ (t)

= f Δ (t)( f (t))2 + f σ (t)f Δ (t)( f σ (t) + f (t))
= f Δ (t)( f (t))2 + f (t)f σ (t) + ( f σ (t))2 .

We assume that
n−1
 n−1−k
( f n )Δ (t) = ( f (t))k (f (t))k f σ (t)
k=0

for some n ∈ N.
We will prove that
n
 n−k
( f n+1 )Δ (t) = f Δ (t) ( f (t))k f σ (t) .
k=0

Indeed,

( f n+1 )Δ (t) = ( ff n )Δ (t) = f Δ (t)( f (t))n + f σ (t)( f n )Δ (t)

= f Δ (t)( f (t))n + f Δ (t)( f (t))n−1 + ( f (t))n−2 f σ (t)
 n−2  σ n−1 σ
+ · · · + f (t) f σ (t) + f (t) f (t)
 2  n
= f Δ (t) ( f (t))n +( f (t))n−1 f σ (t)+( f (t))n−2 f σ (t) +· · · + f σ (t)
n
Δ
 n−k
= f (t) ( f (t))k f σ (t) .
k=0
14 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

Example 1.23. Now we consider f (t) = (t − a)m for a ∈ R and m ∈ N. We set

h(t) = (t − a). Then hΔ (t) = 1. From this and the previous exercise, we get

m−1
 m−1−k
f Δ (t) = hΔ (t) (h(t))k hσ (t)
k=0
m−1
= (t − a)k (σ (t) − a)m−1−k .
k=0

1
Let now g(t) = . Then
f (t)

f Δ (t)
gΔ (t) = − ,
f (σ (t))f (t)

whereupon

m−1
1
gΔ (t) = − (t − a)k (σ (t) − a)m−1−k
(σ (t) − a)m (t − a)m
k=0
m−1
1 1
=− .
(t − a) m−k (σ (t) − a)k+1
k=0

 κ
Definition 1.12. Let f : T → R and t ∈ T κ = Tκ . We define the second deriva-
2

tive of f at t by
 Δ
f Δ (t) = f Δ (t),
2

provided it exists. Similarly we define higher-order derivatives f Δ : Tκ → R.

n n

(n)
Theorem 1.4 (Leibniz Formula). Let Sk be the set consisting of all possible
strings of length n containing σ exactly k times and Δ n − k times. If

(n)
fΛ exists for all Λ ∈ Sk ,

then
⎛ ⎞
n
⎜ ⎟ k
( fg)Δ = f Λ ⎠ gΔ .
n
⎝
k=0 (n)
Λ∈Sk
1.2 Differentiation 15

Example 1.24. Let μ be differentiable at t ∈ Tκ and suppose that t is right-scattered.

Then
 
Δσ
 Δ σ f (σ (t)) − f (t) σ f (σ (σ (t))) − f (σ (t))
f (t) = f (t) = =
σ (t) − t σ (σ (t)) − σ (t)
f (σ (σ (t))) − f (σ (t)) 1
= σ (σ (t))−σ (t)
σ (t) − t
σ (t)−t
 Δ 1 1
= f σ (t) = f σ Δ (t) ,
σ Δ (t) 1 + μΔ (t)

i.e.,

f σ Δ (t) = (1 + μΔ (t))f Δσ (t).

Also,
 σ Δ  σ
f σ σ Δ (t) = f σ (t) = (1 + μΔ (t)) f σ Δ (t) = (1 + μΔ (t))f σ Δσ (t),
 Δσ  Δ σ
f σ Δσ (t) = f σ (t) = f σ (t)
 σ  
= (1 + μΔ (t))( f Δ )σ (t) = 1 + μΔσ (t) f Δσ σ (t).

Theorem 1.5 (Chain Rule). Assume that g : R → R is continuous, g : T → R is

delta differentiable on Tκ , and f : R → R is continuously differentiable. Then there
exists c ∈ [t, σ (t)] with

( f ◦ g)Δ (t) = f (g(c))gΔ (t).

Example 1.25. Let T = Z, f (t) = t3 + 1, g(t) = t2 . We have that g : R → R is

continuous, g : T → R is delta differentiable on Tκ , f : R → R is continuously
differentiable, σ (t) = t + 1. Then

gΔ (t) = σ (t) + t,

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = f (g(c))gΔ (1) = 3(g(c))2 (σ (1) + 1) = 9c4 . (1.1)

Here c ∈ [1, σ [1]] = [1, 2].

Also,

f ◦ g(t) = f (g(t)) = (g(t))3 + 1 = t6 + 1,

( f ◦ g)Δ (t) = (σ (t))5 + t (σ (t))4 + t2 (σ (t))3 + t3 (σ (t))2 + t4 σ (t) + t5 ,

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = (σ (1))5 + (σ (1))4 + (σ (1))3 + (σ (1))2 + σ (1) + 1 = 63.

16 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

From this and (1.1), we get

√
4
63 = 9c4 or c4 = 7 or c= 7 ∈ [1, 2].

Example 1.26. Let T = {2n : n ∈ N0 }, f (t) = t + 2, g(t) = t2 − 1. We note that

g : T → R is delta differentiable, g : R → R is continuous, and f : R → R is
continuously differentiable.
For t ∈ T, t = 2n , n ∈ N0 , n = log2 t, we have

σ (t) = inf 2l : 2l > 2n , l ∈ N0 = 2n+1 = 2t > t.

Therefore, all points of T are right-scattered. Since sup T = ∞, we have that

Tκ = T. Also, for t ∈ T, we have

( f ◦ g)(t) = f (g(t)) = g(t) + 2 = t2 − 1 + 2 = t2 + 1,

( f ◦ g)Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 2t + t = 3t.

Hence,

( f ◦ g)Δ (2) = 6. (1.2)

Now, using Theorem 1.5, we get that there is c ∈ [2, σ (2)] = [2, 4] such that

( f ◦ g)Δ (2) = f (g(c))gΔ (2) = gΔ (2) = σ (2) + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6. (1.3)

From (1.2) and (1.3), we find that for every c ∈ [2, 4], we have

( f ◦ g)Δ (2) = f (g(c))gΔ (2).

 2
Example 1.27. Let T = 3n : n ∈ N0 , f (t) = t2 + 1, g(t) = t3 . We note that
g : R → R is continuous, g : T → R is delta differentiable, and f : R → R is
continuously differentiable.
2  1
For t ∈ T, t = 3n , n ∈ N0 , n = log3 t 2 , we have
 2
σ (t) = inf 3l : 3l > 3n , l ∈ N0 = 3(n+1)
2 2 2

1
= 3 · 3n · 32n = 3t32(log3 t) > t.
2 2

Consequently, all points of T are right-scattered. Also, sup T = ∞. Then Tκ = T.

Hence for t ∈ T, we have

( f ◦ g)(t) = f (g(t)) = (g(t))2 + 1 = t6 + 1,

1.2 Differentiation 17

( f ◦ g)Δ (t) = (σ (t))5 + t (σ (t))4 + t2 (σ (t))3

+t3 (σ (t))2 + t4 σ (t) + t5 ,

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = (σ (1))5 + (σ (1))4 + (σ (1))3 + (σ (1))2 + σ (1) + 1

(1.4)
= 35 + 34 + 33 + 32 + 3 + 1 = 364.

From Theorem 1.5, it follows that there exists c ∈ [1, σ (1)] = [1, 3] such that

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = f (g(c))gΔ (1) = 2g(c)gΔ (1) = 2c3 gΔ (1). (1.5)

Because all points of T are right-scattered, we have

gΔ (1) = (σ (1))2 + σ (1) + 1 = 9 + 3 + 1 = 13.

From this and (1.5), we obtain

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = 26c3 .

From the last equation and (1.4), we obtain

364 √
3
364 = 26c3 , or c3 = = 14, or c= 14.
26

Exercise 1.9. Let T = Z, f (t) = t2 + 2t + 1, g(t) = t2 − 3t. Find a constant

c ∈ [1, σ (1)] such that

( f ◦ g)Δ (1) = f (g(c))gΔ (1).

Answer. ∀c ∈ [1, 2].

Theorem 1.6 (Chain Rule). Assume that v : T → R is strictly increasing and T̃ =
v(T) is a time scale. Let w : T̃ → R. If v Δ (t) and wΔ̃ (v(t)) exist for t ∈ Tκ , then

(w ◦ v)Δ = (wΔ̃ ◦ v)v Δ .


Example 1.28. Let T = 22n : n ∈ N0 , v(t) = t2 , w(t) = t2 + 1. Then v : T → R

is strictly increasing and T̃ = v(T) = 24n : n ∈ N0 is a time scale. For t ∈ T,
t = 22n , n ∈ N0 , we have

σ (t) = inf 22l : 22l > 22n , l ∈ N0 = 22n+2 = 4t,

v Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 5t.

18 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

For t ∈ T̃, t = 24n , n ∈ N0 , we have


σ̃ (t) = inf 24l : 24l > 24n , l ∈ N0 = 24n+4 = 16t.

Also, for t ∈ T, we have

(w ◦ v)(t) = w(v(t)) = (v(t))2 + 1 = t4 + 1,

(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = (σ (t))3 + t (σ (t))2 + t2 σ (t) + t3

= 64t3 + 16t3 + 4t3 + t3 = 85t3 ,

wΔ̃ ◦ v(t) = σ̃ (v(t)) + v(t) = 16v(t) + v(t) = 17v(t) = 17t2 ,

wΔ̃ ◦ v(t) v Δ (t) = 17t2 (5t) = 85t3 .

Consequently,

(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = (wΔ̃ ◦ v(t))v Δ (t), t ∈ Tκ .

Example 1.29. Let T = {n + 1 : n ∈ N0 }, v(t) = t2 , w(t) = t. Then v : T → R is

strictly increasing and T̃ = {(n + 1)2 : n ∈ N0 } is a time scale.
For t ∈ T, t = n + 1, n ∈ N0 , we have

σ (t) = inf{l + 1 : l + 1 > n + 1, l ∈ N0 } = n + 2 = t + 1,

v Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = t + 1 + t = 2t + 1.

For t ∈ T̃, t = (n + 1)2 , n ∈ N0 , we have

σ̃ (t) = {(l + 1)2 : (l + 1)2 > (n + 1)2 , l ∈ N0 } = (n + 2)2

√
= (n + 1)2 + 2(n + 1) + 1 = t + 2 t + 1.

Hence for t ∈ T, we get

(wΔ̃ ◦ v)(t) = 1, (wΔ̃ ◦ v)(t)v Δ (t) = 1(2t + 1) = 2t + 1,

w ◦ v(t) = v(t) = t2 , (w ◦ v)Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 2t + 1.

Consequently,

(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = (wΔ̃ ◦ v(t))v Δ (t), t ∈ Tκ .

1.2 Differentiation 19


Example 1.30. Let T = 2n : n ∈ N0 , v(t) = t, w(t) = t2 . Then v : T → R is
strictly increasing, v(T) = T.
For t ∈ T, t = 2n , n ∈ N0 , we have

σ (t) = inf{2l : 2l > 2n , l ∈ N0 } = 2n+1 = 2t, v Δ (t) = 1,

(w ◦ v)(t) = w(v(t)) = (v(t))2 = t2 ,
(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 2t + t = 3t,
(wΔ ◦ v)(t) = σ (v(t)) + v(t) = 2v(t) + v(t) = 3v(t) = 3t,
(wΔ ◦ v)(t)v Δ (t) = 3t.

Consequently,

(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = (wΔ̃ ◦ v(t))v Δ (t), t ∈ Tκ .


Exercise 1.10. Let T = 23n : n ∈ N0 , v(t) = t2 , w(t) = t. Prove that

(w ◦ v)Δ (t) = (wΔ̃ ◦ v(t))v Δ (t), t ∈ Tκ .

Theorem 1.7 (Derivative of the Inverse). Assume that v : T → R is strictly

increasing and T̃ := v(T) is a time scale. Then

1
(v −1 )Δ̃ ◦ v(t) =
v Δ (t)

for all t ∈ Tκ such that v Δ (t) = 0.

Example 1.31. Let T = N, v(t) = t2 + 1. Then σ (t) = t + 1, v : T → R is strictly
increasing, and

v Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 2t + 1.

Hence,

Δ̃ 1 1
v −1 ◦ v(t) = = .
v Δ (t) 2t + 1

Example 1.32. Let T = {n + 3 : n ∈ N0 }, v(t) = t2 . Then v : T → R is strictly

increasing, σ (t) = t + 1,

v Δ (t) = σ (t) + t = 2t + 1.
20 1 Elements of Time Scale Calculus

Hence,

Δ̃ 1 1
v −1 ◦ v(t) = = .
v Δ (t) 2t + 1
 2
Example 1.33. Let T = 2n : n ∈ N0 , v(t) = t3 . Then v : T → R is strictly
2  1
increasing, and for t ∈ T, t = 2n , n ∈ N0 , n = log2 t 2 , we have
 2
σ (t) = inf 2l : 2l > 2n , l ∈ N0 = 2(n+1)
2 2 2

1
= 2n 22n+1 = t22(log2 t)
2 2 +1
.

Then
1 1
v Δ (t) = (σ (t))2 + tσ (t) + t2 = t2 24(log2 t) + t2 22(log2 t)
2 +2 2 +1
+ t2 .

Hence,

Δ̃ 1
v −1 ◦ v(t) = 1 1
.
t2 24(log2 t) 2 +2
+ t2 22(log2 t) 2 +1 + t2

Δ̃
Exercise 1.11. Let T = {n + 5 : n ∈ N0 }, v(t) = t2 + t. Find v −1 ◦ v(t).

1
Answer. .
2t + 2

1.3 Mean Value Theorems

Let T be a time scale and a, b ∈ T, a < b, Let f : T → R be a function.

Theorem 1.8. Suppose that f has delta derivative at each point of [a, b]. If
f (a) = f (b), then there exist points ξ1 , ξ2 ∈ [a, b] such that

f Δ (ξ2 ) ≤ 0 ≤ f Δ (ξ1 ).

Proof. Since f is delta differentiable at each point of [a, b], it follows that f is
continuous on [a, b]. Therefore, there exist ξ1 , ξ2 ∈ [a, b] such that

m = min f (t) = f (ξ1 ), M = max f (t) = f (ξ2 ).

[a,b] [a,b]

Because f (a) = f (b), we assume that ξ1 , ξ2 ∈ [a, b).

1.3 Mean Value Theorems 21

1. Let σ (ξ1 ) > ξ1 . Then

f (σ (ξ1 )) − f (ξ1 )
f Δ (ξ1 ) = ≥ 0.
σ (ξ1 ) − ξ1

2. Let σ (ξ1 ) = ξ1 . Then

f (ξ1 ) − f (t)
f Δ (ξ1 ) = lim ≥ 0.
t→ξ1 ξ1 − t

3. Let σ (ξ2 ) > ξ2 . Then

f (σ (ξ2 )) − f (ξ2 )
f Δ (ξ2 ) = ≤ 0.
σ (ξ2 ) − ξ2

4. Let σ (ξ2 ) = ξ2 . Then

f (ξ2 ) − f (t)
f Δ (ξ2 ) = lim ≤ 0.
t→ξ2 ξ2 − t

This completes the proof.

Theorem 1.9. If f is delta differentiable at t0 , then
 
f (σ (t)) = f (t0 ) + f Δ (t0 ) + E(t) (σ (t) − t0 ), (1.6)

where E(t) is defined in a neighborhood of t0 and

lim E(t) = E(t0 ) = 0.

t−→t0

Proof. Define

f (σ (t))−f (t0 )
σ (t)−t0 − f Δ (t0 ), t ∈ T, t = t0 ,
E(t) = (1.7)
0, t = t0 .

Solving (1.7) for f (σ (t)) yields (1.6) if t = t0 .

Let t = t0 . Then
1. σ (t0 ) > t0 . Then (1.6) is obvious.
2. σ (t0 ) = t0 . Then (1.6) is obvious.
This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.10. Let f be delta differentiable at t0 . If f Δ (t0 ) > (<)0, then there exists
δ > 0 such that

f (σ (t)) ≥ (≤)f (t0 ) for ∀t ∈ (t0 , t0 + δ)

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Der Rosenkavalier. Poetic Films, Ltd. Made by Paul Czinner & the
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Films Distributing Corporation. England. 190 min., sd., color, 35
mm. © The Rank Organisation Film Productions, Ltd.; 9Jul62 (in
notice: 1961); LF171.

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A Stitch in time. The Rank Organisation. England. 94 min., sd.,
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Doctor in love. The Rank Organisation. Released by Rank Film
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Rooney. The Rank Organisation. England. 88 min., sd., b&w, 16
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LF175.
Make mine mink. The Rank Organisation Film Productions, Ltd.
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LF176.
Mad about men. Distributed by General Film Distributors, Ltd.
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LF177.
A Night to remember. Walter Reade Organization, Inc. Released
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From the book by Walter Lord. Appl. au: The Rank Organisation
Film Productions, Ltd. © The Rank Organisation Film Productions,
Ltd.; 18Aug58; LF177.

LF178.
One good turn. A Two Cities film. Distributed by General Film
Distributors, Ltd. England. 95 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. From an
original story by Dorothy Whipple. © Two Cities Films, Ltd.;
17Jan55 (in notice: 1954); LF178.
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Man of the moment. Released by J. Arthur Rank Film Distributors,
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Film Productions, Ltd.; 10Oct55; LF179.

LF180.
One jump ahead. A Kenilworth-Fortress production. Distributed
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mm. From the novel by Robert Chapman. Appl. au: Kenilworth Film
Productions, Ltd. © Kenilworth Film Productions, Ltd.; 9May55 (in
notice: 1954); LF180.

LF181.
The Young lovers. A Universal-International release. England. 96
min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. Appl. au: Group Film Productions, Ltd. ©
Group Film Productions, Ltd.; 27Sep54; LF181.

LF182.
The Lost people. A Pentagon production. England. 100 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. Based on the play, Cockpit, by Bridget Boland. Appl.
au: General Film Distributors, Ltd. © General Film Distributors,
Ltd.; 26Sep49; LF182.

LF183.
The Dark man. An Independent Artists picture. Distributed by the
J. Arthur Rank Organisation. England. 91 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm.
Appl. au: Independent Artists, Ltd. © Independent Artists, Ltd.;
26Feb51 (in notice: 1950); LF183.

LF184.
Three sisters. Alan Clore Films, Ltd., with the National Theatre
Company in association with British Lion Films, Ltd. Released by
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35 mm. © Alan Clore Films, Ltd.; 2Nov70; LF184.

LF185.
A Queen is crowned. J. Arthur Rank Organisation. England. 82
min., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: Gaumont British Distributors, Ltd.
© Gaumont British Distributors, Ltd.; 8Jun53; LF185.

LF186.
The Long memory. J. Arthur Rank Organisation. England. 93
min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. From the novel by Howard Clewes. Appl. au.:
British Film Makers, Ltd. © British Film Makers, Ltd.; 23Feb53 (in
notice: 1952); LF186.

LF187.
Curtain up. Constellation Films. Released by the J. Arthur Rank
Organisation. England. 82 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. Adapted from the
play On Monday next, by Philip King. © Constellation Films, Ltd.;
2Jun52; LF187.

LF188.
Passage home. J. Arthur Rank Organisation. Distributed by
General Film Distributors, Ltd. England. 102 min., sd., b&w, 35 mm.
Based on the novel by Richard Armstrong. Appl. au.: Group Film
Productions, Ltd. © Group Film Productions, Ltd.; 16May55; LF188.

LF189.
It started in Paradise. J. Arthur Rank Organisation. Distributed by
General Film Distributors, Ltd. England. 91 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
Appl. au.: British Film Makers, Ltd. © British Film Makers, Ltd.;
24Nov52; LF189.

LF190.
 The Three Musketeers. Film Trust, S. A. Released by Twentieth
Century-Fox Film Corporation. France. 105 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
Add. ti.; The Queen’s diamonds; Diamonds of the Queen. Based on
the novel by Alexandre Dumas. © Film Trust, S. A.; 13Dec73; LF190.

LF191.
Follow that camel. Rank Organisation. England. 95 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. Appl. au.: Rank Film Distributors, Ltd. © Rank Film
Distributors, Ltd.; 6Jan68 (in notice: 1967); LF191.

LF192.
Turn the key softly. J. Arthur Rank Organisation. Distributed by
General Film Distributors, Ltd. England. 81 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm.
From the novel by John Brophy. Appl. au.: Chiltern Film
Productions, Ltd. © Chiltern Film Productions, Ltd.; 1Jun53; LF192.

LF193.
The League of gentlemen. Allied Film Makers, Ltd. Released by
Rank Film Distributors, Ltd. & Kingsley International. England. 114
min., sd., b&w, 35 mm. From the novel by John Boland. © A.F.M.
Productions, Ltd.; 18Apr60; LF193.

LF194.
Don’t lose your head. Rank Organisation. England. 90 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. Appl. au.: Rank Film Distributors, Ltd. © Rank Film
Distributors, Ltd.; 26Mar67; LF194.

LF195.
The Intelligence men; or, M.I.5 plus 2 equals 0. Rank
Organisation. England. 103 min., sd., color, 35 mm. Appl. au.: Rank
Organisation Film Productions, Ltd. © Rank Organisation Film
Productions, Ltd.; 18Apr65; LF195.