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Analytical Techniques in the Oil and Gas Industry for Environmental
Monitoring
Analytical Techniques in the Oil and Gas
Industry for Environmental Monitoring
Edited by
Melissa N. Dunkle
The Netherlands
William L. Winniford
USA
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
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editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for
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Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Part I Scope 1
1 Introduction 3
Melissa N. Dunkle and William L. Winniford
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Petroleum Cycle 3
1.1.2 Well-Known Cases of Environmental Contamination 4
1.1.2.1 Oil-Drilling Rig Deepwater Horizon 4
1.1.2.2 Sanchi Oil Tanker Collision 6
1.1.3 Summary 6
1.2 Petroleum 7
1.3 Analytics 9
1.4 Reservoir Tracers 12
1.5 Emissions from the Petroleum Industry 12
1.6 Environmental Analysis and Monitoring 14
1.7 Conclusions 17
References 17
Part II Introduction to the Petroleum Industry 21
2 Petroleum: From Wells to Wheels 23

Clifford C. Walters, Steven W. Levine, and Frank C. Wang
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Petroleum in the Ancient World 23
2.3 The Petroleum System 28
2.3.1 Source Rocks 28
vi Contents
2.3.2 Generation of Petroleum 34

2.3.3 Migration and Accumulation 35
2.4 The Upstream 37
2.4.1 Exploration 37
2.4.1.1 Play and Prospect Evaluation 38
2.4.1.2 Predicting Petroleum Quantity and Quality 43
2.4.2 Drilling 45
2.4.2.1 Development of Drilling Technology 46
2.4.2.2 Modern Drilling Practices 49
2.4.2.3 Well Logging 52
2.4.2.4 Development 57
2.4.3 Production 58
2.4.3.1 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Production 58
2.4.3.2 Surface Oil Sands 61
2.4.3.3 Unconventional Resources 61
2.4.3.4 Plug and Abandonment 66
2.5 Mid-Stream 67
2.5.1 Transportation 67
2.5.2 Storage 70
2.6 Downstream 72
2.6.1 Evolution of Modern Refining 72
2.6.2 Modern Refinery Processes 73
2.6.2.1 Crude Oil Pretreatment 75
2.6.2.2 Separation 75
2.6.2.3 Conversion 81
2.6.2.4 Purification 95
2.6.2.5 Sweetening and Treating 100
2.6.3 Fuel Products 102
2.6.3.1 Mogas (Motor Gasoline) 103
2.6.3.2 Diesel 104
2.6.3.3 Jet Fuels/Kerosene 106
2.6.3.4 Fuel Oil 106
2.6.3.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 107
2.7 Petrochemicals 107
2.7.1 Olefins: Prime and Higher Olefins 107
2.7.2 Aromatics 109
2.7.3 Lubes 109
2.7.4 Other Products 110
2.8 The Future of Petroleum 110
References 112
Contents vii
Part III Analytical Techniques Utilized in the Petroleum

Industry 121
3 Petroleum Analysis Through Conventional Analytical

Techniques 123
3.1 Introduction to Petroleum Analysis 123
3.2 Brief History on Petroleum Analysis 123
3.2.1 How Petroleum Analysis Influenced Developments in Gas
Chromatography 124
3.2.1.1 Detector Technology 125
3.2.1.2 Column Technology 132
3.3 Conventional Analysis of Petroleum 135
3.3.1 Distillation 136
3.3.2 PIONA Analyzer 137
3.3.3 Detailed Hydrocarbon Analysis 138
3.3.4 GC-MS Analysis for Unknown and Biomarker Identification 139
3.3.4.1 Diamondoids 140
3.3.4.2 Naphthenic Acids 141
3.3.4.3 Biomarkers 142
3.3.5 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) and Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Their Environmental Impact 145
3.3.6 Tar Analysis 146
3.3.7 Analysis of Heteroatoms and Heavy Metals 149
3.3.7.1 Heteroatoms 149
3.3.7.2 Heavy Metals 150
3.3.8 Additional Analytical Applications for Petroleum 150
References 150
4 Advanced Analytics for the Evaluation of Oil, Natural Gas,

and Shale Oil/Gas 161
Emmie Dumont, Pat Sandra, Kyra A. Murrell, Frank L. Dorman,
Allegra Leghissa, and Kevin A. Schug
4.1 IRMS in the Oil and Gas Industry 161
4.1.1 IRMS: General 161
4.1.1.1 Introduction 161
4.1.1.2 Isotopic Fingerprint 162
4.1.2 IRMS: The Technique 164
4.1.2.2 Ionization 164
4.1.2.3 Mass Analyzer 164
viii Contents
4.1.2.4 Detection 165

4.1.2.5 Referencing 165
4.1.2.6 Bulk Analysis 165
4.1.3 Compound Specific IRMS 166
4.1.3.2 GC-IRMS 166
4.1.3.3 LC-IRMS 167
4.1.3.4 Two-Dimensional GC-IRMS 168
4.1.4 IRMS Applications in the Oil and Gas Industry 169
4.1.4.2 Oil Fingerprinting 171
4.1.4.3 Air Pollution 172
4.1.4.4 Differentiating Oil Derived Products 174
4.1.4.5 Inherent Tracers for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 174
4.1.5 Conclusions Over Utilization of IRMS in the Oil and Gas
Industry 176
4.2 Advanced Analytics for the Evaluation of Oil, Natural Gas, and Shale
Oil/Gas: Comprehensive GC (GC × GC) 176
4.2.1 Background 176
4.2.2 Basic Principles of GC × GC: Instrumentation 178
4.2.3 Basic Principles of GC × GC: Columns 180
4.2.4 Basic Principles of GC × GC: Modulators 184
4.2.5 Basic Principles of GC × GC: Detectors 186
4.2.6 Basic Principles of GC × GC: Data Processing 187
4.2.7 Petrochemical Applications: Group-Type Analysis 190
4.2.8 Petrochemical Applications: Contaminated Soil and Sediments 193
4.2.9 Petrochemical Applications: Marine Oil Spills 196
4.2.10 Petrochemical Applications: Hydraulic Fracturing 199
4.2.11 Conclusions of Utilizing GC × GC in the Oil and Gas Industry 201
4.3 Petroleum and Hydrocarbon Analysis by Gas Chromatography:
Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 202
4.3.1 Introduction to GC-VUV 202
4.3.2 GC-VUV Data Processing 204
4.3.2.1 Time Interval Deconvolution (TID) Algorithm 206
4.3.2.2 Pseudo-absolute Quantitation 208
4.3.3 GC-VUV Applications 210
4.3.4 GC-VUV Conclusions 214
References 215
Contents ix
5 Liquid Chromatography: Applications for the Oil and Gas

Industry 225
Denice van Herwerden, Bob W. J. Pirok, and Peter J. Schoenmakers
5.1 Introduction 225
5.1.1 Petroleum Industry 225
5.1.2 Introduction to Liquid Chromatography 226
5.2 Group-Type Separations 228
5.2.1 Group-Type Separations of Heavy Distillates 228
5.2.2 Other Group-Type Separations 232
5.3 Molecular-Weight Distribution 233
5.4 Target Analysis 236
5.4.1 Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons 236
5.4.2 Naphthenic Acids 240
5.4.3 Phenols 244
5.5 LC as a Pre-separation Technique for GC Analysis 245
5.6 Conclusions 247
References 248
6 Supercritical Fluids in Chromatography: Applications to the

Oil and Gas Industry 259
Didier Thiébaut and Robert M. Campbell
6.2 Basics of SFC 260
6.2.1 Packed Column SFC 262
6.2.1.1 Implementation 262
6.2.1.2 Applications of Packed Column SFC 264
6.2.2 Capillary SFC 265
6.3 Simulated Distillation (SIMDIST) 266
6.3.1 Experimental 267
6.3.2 Results 267
6.4 Group-Type and Related Separations 270
6.4.1 Heavy Samples 271
6.4.2 Additives 272
6.5 Detailed Separations 273
6.5.1 Surfactant and Alkoxylate Polymer Analysis by SFC 273
6.5.1.1 Open Tubular Columns 273
6.5.1.2 Packed Capillary Column SFC of Surfactants 274
6.5.2 Packed Column SFC of Surfactants 275
x Contents
6.5.2.1 Surfactants by Sub-2 μm Particle Packed Column SFC 276

6.5.2.2 Surfactant Characterization by SFC/MS: Software-Assisted
Deconvolution of Co-polymers 280
6.5.2.3 CO2 Cloud Point Pressures of Non-ionic Surfactants by Capillary and
Packed Column SFC 280
6.5.2.4 CO2 /Water Partition Coefficients by SFC 280
6.5.2.5 SFC of Ionic Surfactants 281
6.5.3 Capillary SFC of Surfactants 281
6.5.3.1 Large Volume Injection in Capillary SFC 281
6.5.3.2 Splitless Injection in Capillary SFC 282
6.5.4 Separations of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 283
6.5.5 SFC in Multidimensional Separations 285
6.5.5.1 LC × SFC 285
6.5.5.2 Feasibility of SFC × SFC 287
References 288
7 Online and In Situ Measurements for Environmental

Applications in Oil and Gas 299
Eric Schmidt, J.D. Tate, William L. Winniford, and Melissa N. Dunkle
7.2 Characteristics of On-line Analyzers 300
7.2.1 Zone Classification 300
7.2.2 Sampling Systems 301
7.2.3 Detection 302
7.3 Water Analysis 302
7.3.1 General Water Analysis 302
7.3.2 Application: Benzene in Drinking Water 303
7.4 Air Quality and Emissions Monitoring 304
7.4.1 Regulations 305
7.4.1.1 US Air Monitoring 305
7.4.1.2 European Union Air Monitoring 305
7.4.2 Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry for Emission
Monitoring 307
7.5 Sample Conditioning 309
7.6 Well Drilling and Production 309
7.6.1 Well Logging 310
7.6.2 Emissions 312
7.7 Texas Commission on Environmental Quality 312
7.8 Fenceline Monitoring 313
7.9 Pipeline and Fugitive Emission Monitoring with Drones 317
7.10 Types of Continuous Emission Monitors 317
Contents xi
7.10.1 Nondispersive IR (NDIR) 317

7.10.2 UV and Dispersive IR 319
7.10.3 Chemiluminescent NOx /SOx Analyzers 319
7.10.4 TDL Analyzers 320
7.10.5 QCL Analyzers 321
7.11 Portable GCs 321
References 324
Part IV Special Cases and Examples Related to the

Petroleum Industry 329
8 Tracers for Oil and Gas Reservoirs 331

William L. Winniford and Melissa N. Dunkle
8.2 Types of Tracers 334
8.2.1 Radioactive Water Tracers 334
8.2.2 Radioactive Gas Tracers 336
8.2.3 Radioactive Measurement Techniques 336
8.2.4 Example Studies of Radioactive Tracers 338
8.2.5 Chemical Water Tracers 338
8.2.6 Chemical Gas Tracers 339
8.2.7 Naturally Occurring Tracers 340
8.2.7.1 Isotopes 340
8.2.7.2 Biomarkers 341
8.3 Regulations 341
References 343
9 Environmental Impact of Emissions Originating from the

Petroleum Industry 347
9.1 Global Warming 347
9.1.1 Causes of Global Warming 347
9.1.2 Combatting Global Warming 349
9.2 Environmental Impact of Diesel Emissions 350
9.2.1 Diesel Engine 350
9.2.2 Diesel Exhaust 350
9.2.3 Diesel Engine Modifications 351
9.2.4 Diesel Fuel Modifications 354
9.2.4.1 Low Sulfur Diesel 355
9.2.4.2 Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel 355
xii Contents
9.2.4.3 Biodiesel 355

9.2.4.4 Modification of Diesel and Biodiesel with Oxygenates 357
9.2.5 Sulfur Monitoring of Diesel Fuels 358
9.2.6 Monitoring Air Pollution/Haze 359
9.3 Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuel Sourcing and Energy Conversion
on Global Warming 360
9.3.1 Coal Mining, Natural Gas Wells, and Methane Release 360
9.3.1.1 Coal Mine Methane 362
9.3.1.2 Natural Gas Methane 363
9.3.2 Fossil Fuel Power Stations 363
9.3.2.1 Coal-Fired Power Station 363
9.3.2.2 Gas-Fired Power Station 364
9.3.3 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Power Stations 364
9.3.3.1 Carbon Dioxide 365
9.3.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide 366
9.3.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides 367
9.3.3.4 Particulate Matter (PM) 367
9.3.3.5 Coal Ash and Heavy Metals 368
9.3.4 Wastewater from Fossil Fuel Power Stations 369
9.3.5 Analysis of Ground Water 371
References 371
Part V Environmental Analysis 379
10 Environmental Analysis of Soil, Water, and Air 381

Paige Teehan, Kyra A. Murrell, Romano Jaramillo, A. Paige Wicker,
Robert Parette, Kevin A. Schug, and Frank L. Dorman
10.1 Water and Soil Monitoring 381
10.2 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soil 382
10.2.1 Introduction 382
10.2.2 Soil as a Matrix 383
10.2.3 Sample Preparation 383
10.2.3.1 Collection and Preservation 384
10.2.3.2 Extraction 384
10.2.3.3 Concentration 384
10.2.3.4 Cleanup 384
10.2.4 Sample Analysis 386
10.3 Volatile Organic Compound Analysis 389
10.3.2 Methane Monitoring 389
Contents xiii
10.3.2.1 Cavity Ring-Down Laser Spectrometry Techniques 390

10.3.2.2 Mobile Platforms for Bottom-Up Analyses 391
10.3.2.3 Aircraft-Based Top-Down Analysis 392
10.3.3 Non-Methane VOC Monitoring 392
10.3.3.1 Air Sampling 392
10.3.3.2 Analysis of Air Samples 393
10.4 Water Analysis 393
10.4.2 Sample Preparation 395
10.4.3 Sample Analysis 397
10.5 Portable GCs for Field Monitoring 402
10.5.2 Analyzing Field Samples 403
10.6 Fingerprinting in the Oil and Gas Industry 404
10.6.2 Hydrocarbon Fingerprinting 405
10.6.3 Additional Texts on Fingerprinting Oil Spills and Petroleum
Products 405
References 406
Part VI Future Trends in the Petroleum Industry 417
11 Future Trends 419

William L. Winniford and Melissa N. Dunkle
11.2 Climate Change 421
11.3 Likely Scenarios 422
11.3.1 Gas Emissions 422
11.3.2 Water Emissions 425
11.3.3 Oil Sands 427
11.3.4 Food Contact – MOSH/MOAH 428
11.3.5 Industry 4.0 and the 4th Wave of Environmentalism 428
11.4 Summary 430
References 430
Index 433
1
Part I
Scope
3
Introduction
Melissa N. Dunkle 1 and William L. Winniford 2
1
Analytical Science, Dow Benelux, BV, Herbert H. Dowweg 5, Building 446, Hoek, The Netherlands
2
Analytical Science, The Dow Chemical Company, 230 Abner Jackson Parkway, Lake Jackson, TX, USA
1.1 Introduction
The oil and gas industry, also known as the petroleum industry, is a global
endeavor that encompasses exploration, extraction, refining, transportation, and
marketing of petroleum products. The scope of this book is to provide readers
with background knowledge on the petroleum industry, for example on how
petroleum is sourced and refined, which will then be related to the multitude of
analytical techniques required to characterize and quantify the various aspects of
petroleum and petroleum-related products, combine with links to environmental
impact.
This book has been designed in such a way as to provide a thorough background
for students or novices in the industry, but also to provide enough detailed appli-
cations and analytical advancements to be useful for experts on the topic.
This book has been divided into six parts to simplify the complexity of the dis-
cussed topics for the readers:
● Part 1: Scope
● Part 2: Introduction to the Petroleum Industry
● Part 3: Analytical Techniques Utilized in the Petroleum Industry
● Part 4: Special Cases and Examples Related to the Petroleum Industry
● Part 5: Environmental Analysis
● Part 6: Future Trends in the Petroleum Industry
1.1.1 Petroleum Cycle

Whether we realize it or not, petroleum and petroleum-related products are part
of our everyday lives. While petroleum is sourced as a raw material, it is further
Analytical Techniques in the Oil and Gas Industry for Environmental Monitoring, First Edition.
Edited by Melissa N. Dunkle and William L. Winniford.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4 1 Introduction
Raw materials
Landfill
Recycling Life cycle Manufacturing

petroleum
Usage Distribution
Figure 1.1 Life cycle of petroleum.
manufactured into useable materials, such as fuel for automobiles (e.g. gasoline
and diesel) or into petrochemicals and chemicals that are further processed into
everyday items (e.g. cosmetics, plastics, foams, construction and building materi-
als, etc.). After use, these items are then (ideally) recycled back into the lifecycle
to be manufactured into new products; Figure 1.1 shows a general schematic for
the petroleum lifecycle.
At any point in the lifecycle, care must be taken to avoid environmental contami-
nation, from the sourcing of petroleum, through to ensuring that we all do our part
to recycle and avoid contributing to landfill waste. The authors realize that not all
materials can be recycled; however, we do want to stress environmental awareness
to the reader. Two examples of environmental contamination originating from
different phases of the petroleum lifecycle will be discussed before providing an
overview of the content of this book.
1.1.2 Well-Known Cases of Environmental Contamination

1.1.2.1 Oil-Drilling Rig Deepwater Horizon
Deepwater Horizon is one of the most well-known oil spills originating from the
United States. On 20 April 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil drilling rig exploded
and sank in the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico while sourcing crude oil
(EPA 2017). In total, 11 workers lost their lives, and more than 4 million barrels
of oil spilled into the Gulf of Mexico over a period of 87 days before the Macondo
well was able to be capped. The Gulf Coast ecosystem was severely affected and
altered by this event, and as a result, the Resources and Ecosystems Sustainabil-
ity, Tourist Opportunities, and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act
1.1 Introduction 5
(RESTORE Act) was signed into law (RESTORE 2015). The RESTORE Act was
aimed at restoring the long-term health of the natural ecosystem and economy
of the Gulf Coast Region. Additionally, the oil and gas industry identified sev-
eral learnings from this disaster; firstly, the blowout preventer, which failed in the
Deepwater Horizon operation, was in need of improvement, and secondly, there
is a need for better deepwater sub-sea intervention capabilities (Griffin 2010).
Even as the spill was still active, cleanup activities were underway. Oil disper-
sants were used in an attempt to keep the surface oil from reaching the coastline
by breaking down the hydrocarbons, and this was the first example where oil
dispersants were used underwater. While oil dispersants should not be any
more toxic than the oil they are intended to disperse, it was noted in a study by
Rico-Martinez that for selected aquatic species (Brachionus manjavacas), the
combination of the oil dispersants used in the Deepwater Horizon spill and the
Macondo oil showed a synergetic effect for increased toxicity (Rico-Martínez
et al. 2013). Even two years after the event, the full impact on the environment,
including marine and human life was not fully known. In 2012, a study of the
sediment and pore-water from coastal marshes was performed using both gas
chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and isotope ratio mass
spectrometry (IRMS), which showed that oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill
was still present (Natter et al. 2012). In 2013, GC-MS was used to analyze tar
balls washing up on the Alabama coastline; through chemical fingerprinting, it
was determined that these tar balls originated from the Deepwater Horizon spill
(Mulabagal et al. 2013). It should be noted that National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took great
measures to ensure that no contaminated seafood reached consumers (Astaiza
2012). As a result of the Deepwater Horizon spill, the Gulf of Mexico Research
Initiative coordinated scientific research to understand the environmental impact
and consequences of oil spills better. Recently, an offering of books have been
published on the environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and
the scientific advancements and learnings attained (Murawski et al. 2020a,b).
As a result of the Deepwater Horizon spill, several improvements have been
implemented for offshore oil drilling: sturdier wells, improved blowout preven-
ters, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) on every oil rig, improved preparedness for
future blowouts, and improved technology for tracking and controlling spilled oil
(Kiger 2012). In terms of sturdier wells, the US Federal Government now requires
an engineer to certify that cementing used in offshore drilling can meet expected
pressures (DOI 2012), and new stricter specifications for blowout preventers have
been published (DOI 2019). The Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement
(BSEE), part of the US Department of the Interior (DOI), is the leading agency in
the United States responsible for implementing these requirements and enforcing
that the requirements are met with offshore drilling.
6 1 Introduction
1.1.2.2 Sanchi Oil Tanker Collision

More recently, on 6 January 2018, the Sanchi oil tanker collided with the CF Crys-
tal cargo ship in the East China Sea around 160 nautical miles from Shanghai,
China. Immediately following the collision, the Sanchi broke out in fire; none
of her 32 crew survived. The Sanchi was carrying 960,000 barrels (130,000 MT)
of a natural-gas condensate, plus nearly 2000 MT of fuel to make the commute
from Iran to South Korea when the collision occurred, and on 14 January 2018,
the Sanchi sank. Satellite remote sensing (SRS) and the Visible Infrared Imaging
Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Nightfire were used to track the tanker both day and
night from the collision to sinking (Sun et al. 2018).
Learnings from this example include the need for better safety training for ship-
ping crews, but also that cleanup technologies need to improve in order to mini-
mize the damages to the environment (Wan and Chen 2018). With the navigation
technology available at the time, this collision should have been avoidable; how-
ever, human error from both the Sanchi crew and the CF Crystal crew led to the
collision. In fact, nearly 80% of all offshore incidents are a result of human error
(Bea et al. 1997).
The environmental impact of this spill is different than that of an oil spill,
as natural-gas condensate is more volatile than crude oil. Due to this fact, the
greatest environmental concern was focused around immediate toxic effects,
rather than deposition of the condensate on sediments or polluting beaches
(Carswell 2018). As such, focus was placed on analyzing the more toxic com-
ponents of natural-gas condensate, such as heavy metals and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), in open fishing areas. Heavy metals were analyzed by
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and GC-MS was used
to quantify PAHs, and in seawater, sediments and seafood in the fishing grounds
connecting China and Japan, Pb and low molecular weight PAHs were found
at high levels (Wang et al. 2019). Additionally, as the Sanchi was ablaze, it was
unclear as to how much of the condensate would burn off, how much would
evaporate, and how much would go down with the ship. As such, a model was
created to track the spread of condensate from the Sanchi spill; refer to Figure 1.2
(Qiao et al. 2019). With the issues observed utilizing dispersants to breakdown the
hydrocarbons from crude oil spills, for example, at the Deepwater Horizon spill,
research into the use of foams to separate water and the oil spilled was conducted
(Chen et al. 2019).
1.1.3 Summary
There are many examples of environmental contamination originating from the
oil and gas industry. Our goal is not to detail each case; rather, our intention is
to provide the reader with information on analytical developments that are being
1.2 Petroleum 7
45°N
35°N
Sink
25°N
60 days
90 days
120 days
180 days
15°N
120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E 160°E 170°E
Figure 1.2 Map of the visitation frequency for oil particles based on the assumption
that the bunker oil leaks continuously for two months. Source: Qiao et al. (2019).
Reproduced with permission, Copyright (2019), Elsevier.
used in the oil and gas industry and how these developments, when applicable,
are being exploited for environmental monitoring.
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to providing the reader with a thorough
overview of the content contained within this book.
1.2 Petroleum
Petroleum is a naturally occurring material that can be found in geological for-

mations in the Earth. A full overview of petroleum and the petroleum industry
is given in Chapter 2; however, a brief overview is given here. Figure 1.3 shows a
heat map of the 2018 global petroleum reserves as billions of barrels (EIA 2019b).
As can be seen, Venezuela and Saudi Arabia have the largest petroleum reserves.
The petroleum from these reserves is then sourced, typically through drilling.
Figure 1.4 shows the 2018 total global petroleum and other liquids production in
thousands of barrels per day (EIA 2019b).
The sourced petroleum is then refined and separated via distillation into
light (roughly C4 to C12 ), middle (up to C20 ), and heavy distillates (>C20 ). Light
distillates include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), liquefied natural gas (LNG),
and gasoline. Middle distillates consist of naphtha, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel.
Heavy distillates are made up of heavy fuel oil, asphalt, bitumen, lubricating oils,
and waxes. Many of the products from the distillation of refined petroleum will
8 1 Introduction
Legend
Billion barrels
Value is not available
0 302
Figure 1.3 Heat map of the 2018 global petroleum reserves. Source: From EIA (2019b).
2018 total petroleum and other liquids production

Thousand barrels/day
18 000
16 000
14 000
12 000
10 000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
N ar
ay
iA s
R ia
C ia
a
na
q
Em ran
Ku il
M it
N o
za ria
an
az
ud ate
te
a
ad
ra
ic
b
at
w
w
hi
Ka ige
st
us
ex
ra
ira
I
Br
an
or
Sa St
kh
d
te
ab
ni
U
Ar
d
te
ni
U
Figure 1.4 2018 total petroleum and other liquids production. Source: From EIA (2019b).
1.3 Analytics 9
be recognizable to all readers, such as the various types of fuel for the transport
industry, which also includes personal vehicles. What may be less well known to
certain readers is that from the refined petroleum distillates, further processing
can be performed to produce petrochemicals. The most common petrochemicals
include olefins (ethylene and propylene) and aromatics (benzene, toluene,
xylenes). Global ethylene and propylene production are around 150 million MTs
and 80 million MTs per annum, respectively (Zimmermann and Walzl 2009),
and combined aromatics global production is around 95 million MTs per annum
(Bender 2013). As can be deduced, petrochemicals are not end products; however,
they are the building blocks to a wide array of end products used in people’s
daily lives. Products produced from petrochemicals come from various sectors,
including health, hygiene, housing and construction, and food packaging, to
name a few.
1.3 Analytics
Throughout the years, as the petroleum industry has evolved, so has the analytical
industry. Most significantly, the developments made in gas chromatography (GC)
have gone hand-in-hand with the analysis of petroleum, including instrumenta-
tion, column developments, and detector technologies. A comprehensive overview
of these developments is given in Chapter 3 of this book. As analytical technology
advanced, so did the development of standardized methods for the evaluation of
petroleum and petroleum distillates; numerous standardized methods have been
published and are widely used today. Typically, these methods have been vetted by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and are known as ASTM
methods, or Universal Oil Products (UOP) standard guidelines and methods.
While conventional standardized methods are available, it should not be
assumed that research and development are not present. The remaining chapters
in Part 3 of this book will describe in detail the advancements that have taken
place as well as non-conventional analyses that are available for the various
aspects of the petroleum industry.
Advancements in GC include multidimensional GC as well as coupling the GC
separation to non-typical GC detectors, such as IRMS and vacuum ultra-violet
(VUV) detection. In multidimensional GC, both heart-cutting and comprehen-
sive analyses have been developed. Both techniques have their merits, while
heart-cutting would be beneficial for impurity or contamination identification
and even quantification, comprehensive two-dimensional GC gives group type
spatial separation, which has been applied to various middle and heavy petroleum
distillates. Examples of the application of multidimensional GC in the petroleum
industry will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
10 1 Introduction
Using gas chromatography–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS) allows

source/origin identification for collected samples. While IRMS has not typically
been applied to the petroleum industry, the capability to trace a spill or con-
tamination to the original well, factory, or other location could be possible. The
VUV detector, combined with either a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional GC
separation, provides identification and quantification of the various hydrocarbon
species in petroleum and petroleum distillates using the obtained spectra.
In additional to GC, other separation techniques can also be applied to different
aspects of the petroleum industry. Liquid chromatography (LC) is one such tech-
nique. LC can be used as a pre-separation method for sample cleanup or sample
simplification prior to GC or GC × GC analysis. LC and LC × LC can be combined
with different detector technologies, including high-resolution mass spectrometry
(HRMS) for the analysis of environmental samples (e.g. soil extracts, groundwa-
ter, etc.) for contamination tracking and identification. Chapter 5 gives a detailed
overview of the application of LC in the petroleum and petrochemical industries.
Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) can be applied using either capillary
columns or packed columns. Capillary SFC (cSFC) equipment resembles GC
equipment; however, the technique can be applied to heavier petroleum samples,
such as vacuum oil distillates. On the other hand, packed column SFC (pSFC)
equipment is based on LC equipment. pSFC can be applied to the analysis of
surfactants and additives that are utilized in the petroleum industry. The reader
will find more information on SFC applied to the petroleum industry in Chapter 6.
A vast array of chromatographic techniques can be applied to the samples orig-
inating from the petroleum industry. However, since the 1950s, GC has been the
primary tool for analyzing petroleum products and distillates. Two of the most
common examples are discussed briefly.
One example where a chromatographic separation was able to replace a
labor-intensive distillation often used in the petroleum industry (ASTM-D86
2018) is simulated distillation (SIMDIST). SIMDIST uses a GC separation
to quickly and accurately determine the true boiling point distribution of
petroleum and petroleum distillates. When GC is used, SIMDIST analysis can
be applied to petroleum products and distillates with a final boiling point of
538 ∘ C (ASTM-D2887 2019); however, high temperature GC can also be applied
to analyze samples with final boiling points up to 700 ∘ C (Vickers 2002). On the
other hand, cSFC can also be utilized for SIMDIST analysis, extending the range
of petroleum products and distillates to a final boiling point of around 900 ∘ C
(Dulaurent et al. 2007). For additional information on SIMDIST by GC and SFC,
the readers are referred to Chapters 3 and 6, respectively.
The quantification of the various hydrocarbon groupings, for example, the paraf-
fins (P), isoparaffins (I), olefins (O), naphthenes (N), and aromatics (A), or PIONA
for short, is applied to petroleum distillates in order to better characterize the
material. Typically, GC is applied for PIONA quantification, where either a single
1.3 Analytics 11
column or a multidimensional approach can be applied. Due to the inherent com-

plexity of petroleum distillates, especially when olefins and oxygenates are present,
the multidimensional approach is the qualified technique for PIONA quantifi-
cation (ASTM-D6839 2018). When single column approaches are used, the sep-
aration is often combined with advanced detector technology. For example, the
Pro-Q PIONA Analyzer from Global Analyser Solutions (GAS) combines a sin-
gle high-resolution GC separation with mass spectrometric detection (GAS 2018).
Quantification is performed using dedicated software that utilizes a specific MS
spectral library, retention indices, and automated peak deconvolution to provide
automated identification, quantification, and reporting. While this single-column
PIONA analysis can be utilized, it is not a standardized method. For that, one
must look to the gas chromatography–vacuum ultra-violet (GC-VUV), which has
recently come out with an ASTM method for single-column PIONA quantification
(ASTM-D8071 2019). For additional information on PIONA analysis, the reader is
referred to Part 3.
The analytical techniques discussed thus far have focused on lab-scale equip-
ment. However, it is important to mention that online or process instrumentation
is also available. An online analyzer is connected to the source of the sample,
where the sample stream is allowed to flow from the process equipment to the
analyzer. With such a setup, no sample is required to be taken and transported to
an analytical lab for analysis, which can have several benefits, including real-time
analysis during the process, as well as no degradation or contamination of the
sample due to the sample handling steps can occur.
Processes in the petroleum industry are typically run at high temperatures and
pressures, and zone classifications are given in the plant for the different hazard
levels. It should be noted that differences in zone classification exist between the
United States and Europe, which will be described in more detail in Chapter 7. As
a result of these zone classifications, it is required that the analytical instrumenta-
tion installed online is appropriate for the zone where the installation will occur.
GC instrumentation for online SIMDIST or PIONA quantification is constructed
very differently from that of a lab instrument. Typical online GC analyzers consist
of an explosion-proof outer casing, where the analytical instrumentation is built
into that casing. Additionally, due to the high temperature and pressures used in
petroleum processes, the introduction of the sample into the online analyzer is a
challenging but crucial step. Instead of direct injection into the GC column, a valve
injection is performed, for example.
Online GC analyzers are just one example of possible online analyses; some
other examples include but are not limited to the following:
● Online chlorine analysis in crude, water, and process streams (ASTM D7536)
● Online viscosity measurements
● Online Freeze, Clouds, and Pour Point Analyzer
12 1 Introduction
● Online Oil in Water Analyzer (Laser-Induced Fluorescence)

● Online Sulfur Analyzer (EDXRF)
● Process Analyzer for Oil/total Fat Composition (FTNIR)
● SIMDIST Process Analyzer (GC-FID)
● PIONA Process Analyzer (GC-TCD/FID)
A wide variety of analytical techniques (off-line and online) and advancements
discussed in Part 3 of this book can be utilized in environmental monitoring.
While this topic is briefly mentioned with the description of various analytical
techniques, several chapters have been dedicated to various aspects of the
environment and the impact of the petroleum industry.
1.4 Reservoir Tracers

Oil geologists have used tracers to gain better insight into the geological formations
of where drilling occurs for over 60 years. Tracers can be utilized with both con-
ventional and non-conventional reservoirs; conventional reservoirs are those that
are straightforward to tap (e.g. pumpjack or wellhead compressor is sufficient),
and non-conventional reservoirs are those requiring hydraulic fracking. By using
reservoir tracers, valuable knowledge on the fluid flow information is obtained,
accurately measuring the oil, gas, and water flow. Such information can help max-
imize the oil yield to be recovered from a reservoir.
Tracers can be water-soluble, oil-soluble, or even gaseous, depending on the
geology and type of reservoir of interest. Early tracers were radioactive; however,
as one can imagine, many different hazards were associated with these tracers,
especially concerning safe handling. Nowadays, chemical tracers are used, where
thiocyanate (SCN–) is the most common water tracer, perfluorocarbons, specifi-
cally SF6 , is the most commonly used gas tracer, and naturally occurring isotopes
are being evaluated for tracer applications. The reader is guided to Chapter 8 for a
detailed explanation of reservoir tracers.
1.5 Emissions from the Petroleum Industry

Global warming is a topic of great environmental concern. The surface tempera-
ture of the planet has risen by 0.8 ∘ C since 1980, which is a result of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions and air pollution (Shaftel et al. 2019). Government policies
have been implemented to reduce GHG emissions and air pollution in order to
slow down and eventually prevent further increase in the surface temperature.
1.5 Emissions from the Petroleum Industry 13
Legend
Million metric tons carbon dioxide
0 10 802 NA
Figure 1.5 2017 Global CO2 emissions per million MTs. Source: From EIA (2019a).
In the context of the petroleum industry, emissions refer to the release of air pol-
lutants. Air pollutants can arise from exhaust gas, flue gas, and GHG emissions.
Exhaust gas is any gas generated by fuel combustion and is typically related to
transportation, flue gas is any gas exiting to the atmosphere by a flue, and GHGs
are a specific class of gases that absorb and emit radiant energy. The most prevalent
GHG is carbon dioxide (CO2 ), making up over three-quarters of all GHG emis-
sions; as such, CO2 emission data is typically used to track GHG emissions. The
other GHGs included methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. Figure 1.5
shows the 2017 global CO2 emissions per million MTs (EIA 2019a).
Air pollutants include the GHGs and many other harmful substances, including
sulfur oxides (SOx ), nitrogen oxides (NOx ), volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
particulate matter (PM), persistent free radicals, ammonia, odors, and radioac-
tive pollutants. Some of these air pollutants will contribute to acid rain, such as
SOx and NOx , while others will contribute to smog, such as NO2 and PM. PM is
classified by its size; PM10 corresponds to particles less than 10 μm, and PM2.5
corresponds to particles less than 2.5 μm. Both PM10 and PM2.5 are inhalable par-
ticles. In addition to sources from the oil and gas industry (e.g. fossil-based fuels
and fossil-based electricity), PM can also originate from other industrial and agri-
cultural emissions, the transportation industry, residential heating and cooking,
the manufacture and distribution of chemicals, and forest fires. Figure 1.6 shows
the global modeled annual mean for PM less than 2.5 μm for 2016 (Chan 2017).
When exposed to moderate to high levels of PM2.5, which is above 51 on the air
14 1 Introduction
Modeled annual mean PM2.5 for the year

2016 µg/m3
raster
>10
11–15
16–25
26–35
36–69
>70
Figure 1.6 Map of global air pollution, modeled annual mean for PM 2.5 for 2016
(μg/m3 ). Source: Reproduced from Chan (2017), World Health Organization. License: CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.4
quality index (AQI), then negative health effects can be observed. AQI is a unitless
measure; an AQI score for PM2.5 of 51 is around 12 μg/m3 , which corresponds to
the light gray (11–15 μg/m3 ) regions (or moderate PM2.5 levels) in Figure 1.6.
Chapter 9 is dedicated to two examples from the oil and gas industry, where both
European and US regulatory committees have implemented stringent policies to
reduce GHG emissions and air pollution. Not only can regulations differ between
the United States and Europe, but regulations can also vary by state in the United
States and by country in Europe. The first example focuses on diesel emissions and
the improvements made to both the diesel engine and diesel fuel over the years to
reduce emissions. The second example focuses on the energy sector, specifically
fossil fuel-based energy (e.g. coal-fired power stations and natural gas-fired power
stations), and the improvements made to reduce emissions.
1.6 Environmental Analysis and Monitoring
The need for environmental monitoring seems logical, as the risks of spills orig-
inating from the well, spills occurring during transport, issues during and aris-
ing from refining and processing, and the risk of air emissions at any point in
the process are of real concern. Environmental monitoring covers a broad scope,
1.6 Environmental Analysis and Monitoring 15
Sources of groundwater contamination
Airborne and Acid rain

nitrogen recharge to
compounds groundwater,
surface water
Urban runoff
Lake
Hazardous Landfill
water dumpsite Automobiles
Pesticides,
fertilizers
Municipal
water
supply
Animal plant
waste Well
Boats/watercraft Gas
Septic
system Water table station
Lake
Leaking underground
storage tank
Sand and gravel
aquifer
Contamination
migration
Groundwater flow Groundwater flow
Figure 1.7 Diagram of potential sources for groundwater contamination.

Source: Reproduced with permissions, Copyright (2019), Groundwater (2019).
including air analysis, water analysis, and soil/ground analysis and is discussed in
detail in Chapter 10. The reader might ask why, with all the analytical develop-
ments discussed herein, is there a specific focus on environmental analysis? This
comes down to the importance and care that must be taken during the sampling
of environmental samples.
Care must be taken when collecting environmental samples, as the sampling
technique should not have an influence on the material or affect the results. A sam-
ple can be affected by dilution, weathering, and traversing great distances from the
original source location, which adds to the complexity of environmental monitor-
ing. Figure 1.7 contains a diagram of potential sources for air pollution and ground-
water contamination (Groundwater 2019). Airborne pollutants from industry and
transportation not only contribute to air pollution but also create acid rain, which
recharges groundwater and surface water. Urban runoff, runoff from agriculture,
and ground contamination from industry, landfills, and other sources are all pos-
sible points of origin for groundwater contamination.
However, groundwater is not the only water that can be contaminated; of spe-
cific concern for the petroleum industry is the risk for tanker oil spills. Figure 1.8
shows a world map of selected oil tanker spills, including the top 20 largest volume
European waters
Number of accidents: 13
Total oil spillage: 342 000 tons
Names of ships: Torrey Canyon (1967), Jakob Maersk (1975), Urquiola (1976), Amoco Cadiz (1978),
Independenta (1979), Irenes Serenade (1980), Odyssey (1988), Khark 5 (1989), Haven (1991), Aegean
Sea (1992), Prestige (1992), Braer (1993), Sea Empress (1996)
Asian waters
Names of ships: Sea Star (1972),
Nova (1985), Hebi Spirit (2007),
Sanchi (2018)
American waters
Names of ships: Hawaiian Patriot
(1977), Atlantic Empress (1979),
Exxon Valdez (1989) Waters off the coast of South Africa
Names of ships: Castillo De
Bellver (1983), Abt Summer
(1991), Katina P (1992)
Figure 1.8 Map of major global tanker oil spills since 1967. Source: Data taken from ITOPF (2019).
References 17
spills from the last 50 years (ITOPF 2019). While it can be seen that the highest
number of tanker spills have occurred in European Waters, these waters have by
no means the largest volume of oil spilled. Once spilled, the oil disperses along the
surface of the oceans, seas, and other waterways, where dilution and weathering
occur.
The focus of Chapter 10 is to illustrate the importance of environmental sam-
ple collection and handling and to detail examples compiled from the literature.
Examples of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), VOCs, and non-volatile com-
ponents, to name a few, are discussed, including the necessary sample preparation
steps. In addition to the use of laboratory-scale analytical equipment for environ-
mental analyses, portable measuring devices, such as portable GCs, along with the
benefits and drawbacks of such equipment, will also be mentioned.
1.7 Conclusions
The Scope detailed herein provides the reader with a brief overview of the mate-
rial presented in this book. The topics range from background information on
petroleum and the petroleum industry, analytical techniques utilized for various
aspects of petroleum and petroleum-related products, and finally, making the con-
nection to environmental impact.
With this book, the authors have attempted to compile a comprehensive
overview of analytics utilized in the oil and gas industry with specific emphasis
on environmental monitoring. From conventional analytical tools to advanced
multidimensional techniques, a wide range of analytics have been covered;
however, this book is not all-encompassing.
In addition to the analytical techniques available, the authors have provided the
readers with some insight into the future trends we envision for the petroleum
industry (Chapter 11), as well as gaps in the current analytical toolbox.
References
Astaiza, R. (2012). 19 months later, here’s what we’ve learned from the Deepwater
Horizon oil spill. Business Insider (4 December). Retrieved from https://www
.businessinsider.com.
ASTM-D2887. (2019). Standard test method for boiling range distribution of petroleum
fractions by gas chromatography. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
Retrieved from https://www.astm.org.
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ASTM-D6839. (2018). Standard test method for hydrocarbon types, oxygenated

compounds, and benzene in spark ignition engine fuels by gas chromatography. West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. Retrieved from https://www.astm.org.
ASTM-D8071. (2019). Standard test method for determination of hydrocarbon group
types and select hydrocarbon and oxygenate compounds in automotive spark-ignition
engine fuel using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet absorption
spectroscopy detection (GC-VUV). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
ASTM-D86. (2018). Standard test method for distillation of petroleum products and
liquid fuels at atmospheric pressure. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
Bea, R., Holdsworth, R., and Smith, C. (1997). Human and organizational factors in
the safety of offshore platform. In: 1996 International Workshop on Human Factors
in Offshore Operations (eds. R.G. Bea, R.D. Holdsworth and C. Smith), 109–126.
New York, NY: American Bureau of Shipping.
Bender, M. (2013). Global aromatics supply – today and tomorrow. Ocean Gas
European Magazine 39: 209–212.
Carswell, C. (2018). Unique oil spill in East China Sea frustrates scientists. Nature
554: 7690.
Chan, M. (2017). A global health guardian: climate change, air pollution, and
antimicrobial resistance. In: Ten Years in Public Health: 2007–2017 (ed. M. Chan),
136–142. France: World Health Organization.
Chen, X.Y., Wang, L., Nagamine, S., and Ohshima, M. (2019). Study oil/water
separation property of PE foam and its improvement by in situ synthesis of
zeolitic–imidazolate framework (ZIF-8). Polymer and Engineering Science 59:
1354–1361. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25118.
DOI (2012). Oil and Gas and Sulphur Operations on the Outer Continental
Shelf–Increased Safety Measures for Energy Development on the Outer Continental
Shelf (4310-VH-P). Online. US Department of the Interior (DOI). Retrieved from
https://www.bsee.gov.
DOI. (2019). BSEE finalizes improved blowout preventer and well control regulations
(Press release). Retrieved from https://www.doi.gov (accessed 19 March 2020).
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by capillary supercritical fluid chromatograph. Oil & Gas Science and
Technology – Rev. IFP 62: 33–42. https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst:2007003.
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Another random document with
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THE STRAIN THAT MAKES THE CORNING EGG FARM FAMOUS
As The Corning Egg Farm was located within a few miles of New
York City the breeds which laid the white shelled egg were the only
ones worthy of consideration, and, in the study of the question, it
was found there was another important matter confronting the egg
farmer, as to the breed which he should keep, whether a setter, or a
non-setter. On an egg farm, where hundreds of layers are to be kept,
if any of the Asiatics, or so called American Breeds, were kept, they
would be a source of considerable added expense, first, in the way
of loss of eggs during their numerous broody periods; second, in the
necessary buildings in which to carry the “broody biddies” until they
have become sensible, and are in a proper frame of mind to be
returned to the Laying House. This might look on its face a small
affair, but success to The Corning Egg Farm has come through
watching every corner, and while sparing no needed expenditure,
avoiding unnecessary and foolish outlay.
So, to the man who would really meet with a large success, all the
breeds which lay the dark shelled egg, because of their setting
propensity, must be eliminated.
All the members of the Mediterranean family are layers of the
white shelled egg, and are what is termed “non-setting.”
S. C. White Leghorns Outclass All

Before deciding we looked the different members of this family
over with considerable care, and we found that the Single Comb
White Leghorn is the fowl that out-classes all the others for the
purpose of an egg farm. It is a bird, where properly bred, of great
hardiness and stamina. It readily adapts itself to all conditions of
climate, and, where the right “strain” is procured, it is never a
disappointer as to the number, size, and the class of eggs which it
produces. We, therefore, decided to adopt the Single Comb White
Leghorn, and we have outlined, in a previous chapter, how we went
to work to build up the unequaled Corning Strain, by the most careful
selection, and scientific mating.
Prof. Gowell, at the Maine Agricultural Station, carried on his
breeding with Barred Plymouth Rocks, and it is interesting to note
that his average for some eight years, taking his star performers,
was 134.27 eggs per hen for twelve months, while at The Corning
Egg Farm the flocks of fifteen hundred pullets averaged per hen, for
ten months laying, 143.25 eggs in 1909, and 145.11 eggs in 1910.
Here was a difference of two months in time, and yet the large
flocks, taken as a whole, not weeding out a few star performers,
surpassed the twelve months’ record of the Barred Plymouth Rocks
at the Maine Station by almost nine eggs in 1909, and ten eggs in
1910. This significant fact made considerable impression on a
number of breeders in the neighborhood of Boston, with the result
that, in the last two years, The Corning Egg Farm has supplied a
large number of hatching eggs and considerable breeding stock for
farms in New England.
As one gentleman from Boston pointed out, even with the
difference in price between the brown and the white egg, he found
that he could not really afford to continue with the breeds laying the
brown egg, for the Leghorn, in numbers, more than made up for the
slight difference in price between the two colors, in the Boston
Market. And, as he still further pointed out, it took less food to supply
the Leghorn than it did any of the larger breeds, and this, of course,
was another source of economy.
It should be remembered that the “Strain” of any breed is most
important. One may purchase White Leghorns where the inbreeding
has been so great that they are not capable of laying eggs in large
numbers, and the percentage of fertility from the hatching standpoint
in such birds will be a most uncertain quantity. Such chicks as may
be hatched will be far from strong, and the mortality will run into
figures which will dishearten anyone.
Line Breeding—Not Inbreeding

In the building up of a great strain of birds it is necessary to “line
breed,” for, if the old theory of introducing new blood to prevent
inbreeding, and the method of introducing the new blood, was, as is
done in so many places even to-day, by introducing males from other
sources, the entire system falls down. Nothing is accomplished and
time is worse than wasted. The possibility of handing down the
virtues of mother to daughter, and of father to son, is eliminated. If all
the qualities of a given “Strain” are to be handed down line breeding
must be adhered to in the strictest sense. Inbreeding, however, must
be avoided, or disaster will follow.
How Corning Farm Produces Unrelated Cockerels

The Method of The Corning Egg Farm is as follows: a pen of
carefully selected yearling hens is set aside in what is known as “the
pen for the production of unrelated cockerels.” A most carefully
selected cockerel to every twelve hens is placed in the pen.
Incubators are run with eggs from this pen only, and the resulting
chicks are marked before being placed in the Brooder House. The
cockerels which appear with this marking are grown to maturity,
those coming up to our standard being selected to head the breeding
pens for the following season. The marked pullets are placed in the
Laying Houses with the other pullets, but are never selected for
yearling breeders on our own Farm. In pens sold to others we
always furnish unrelated cockerels.
Having hatched a sufficient number of chicks to produce about
four hundred cockerels, no further eggs are set from this pen, and, at
the end of the season, all the birds comprising this pen are sold.
This Method of line breeding hands down the laying quality which
has been so developed, and which is being increased from season
to season in an unbroken line, but inbreeding is absolutely avoided,
and the vigor of the stock is maintained.
Perhaps, in closing the chapter, nothing could be more apt than a
letter received from a Breeder of Crystal White Orpingtons, in the
neighborhood of one of the large Western Cities. The letter-head, in
large type, states, “Breeder of Crystal White Orpingtons, the Great
Winter Layer.” The contents of the letter is as follows:
“As I am now planning to go into the Egg business, and desire to
follow your method as closely as possible, and, while in this locality
there is not such a marked preference for the white egg over the
brown, still the White Leghorn, of a good strain, doubtless outlays
any other breed known, and the shape of its egg is such that it is
superior for table use, to any laid by the dark shelled family. It,
therefore, is my purpose, as rapidly as possible to work into a large
flock of Leghorns, with Corning stock as a basis.”
It will be noted that the gentleman is a breeder of Crystal White
Orpingtons, and prints in large type on his letter-head, “The Great
Winter Layer,” but that when it comes down to “brass tacks,” from the
standpoint of the hen which will produce an egg for table use, and
the hen that will give you the requisite number to make the dollars,
the Breeder of the Crystal White Orpingtons wants to put in the
Corning Strain of Single Comb White Leghorns.
CHAPTER VI
Advantages of the Large Flock System—Reduces
Cost of Housing and Economizes in Time and
Labor
For many years the floor space per hen has been an interesting
study to anyone reading poultry literature, either in books or in
magazine articles.
Some fifteen years ago it was generally considered for a hen to do
at all well she must have at least twenty square feet of floor space.
Later, the number of feet was divided by half, and for some time ten
square feet was considered to be the very least a hen could possibly
do with. Then we come to the four square feet period, and this
created a great deal of controversy. Many writers declared that it was
impossible for any hen, no matter how housed, to do well in such a
restricted space. At times, some visionary writer pictured a flock in
one house, of what was then considered an enormous size. One
Professor of poultry went so far as to state that he had successfully
kept some three hundred hens in one flock, and had obtained most
satisfactory results. This statement, however, was denied by others,
and the Professor wrote an article in which he set forth that, while he
had done this, he would never think of suggesting that the average
poultry-keeper attempt it. In his statement there were some truths
that it is well to remember, namely, that the average poultry-keeper
would not give the flock the care and supervision necessary to keep
it in health. In other words, the poultry-keeper would not attend to the
necessary cleanliness, and disease would break out, and, in the
average poultry house, under such conditions, this would mean the
total annihilation of the flock.
THREE STERILE LAYING HOUSES CONTAINING 4500 PULLETS, WITH A
FLOOR SPACE OF 7680 SQUARE FEET
Draughts the Stumbling Block

As economy of space and labor is one of the main factors in
getting a commercial profit where poultry is operated with, the large
flock system appealed most strongly to The Corning Egg Farm. Long
houses, under one roof, without divisions, had been attempted by
others, and the endeavor to discover the reason for the failures,
where this had been attempted, was a very interesting study. It was
found that the main stumbling block in houses of this type was
draughts. To eliminate the draughts was the problem we then
undertook to solve. It was found that if the houses were built in
sections of twenty feet, and the partitions which divided the house
into roosting closets were extended twelve inches beyond the
dropping boards, and were carried from the floor to the roof, the air
currents were broken up, and the difficulty of draughts was
overcome.
Houses, as we believed in constructing them, were expensive,
unless it was possible to carry a very large number of layers
successfully in them. In studying the two hundred and twenty-five
pullets as they worked contentedly in the No. 1 Laying House, which
was but twelve feet wide, we became convinced that it was perfectly
possible in a house sixteen feet wide by one hundred and sixty feet
in length to carry fifteen hundred layers. This, to be sure, allowed the
hen only a little over two square feet of floor space, with the dropping
boards included. But, as we figured it, the hen also had the entire
house for floor space, and, while it is true that fourteen hundred and
ninety-nine sisters were her near neighbors, they all enjoyed the
same large space to roam in. A house, then, of this size,
accommodating fifteen hundred layers, was not an expensive house
per bird, and, when you consider that the construction was such that
the up-keep was practically nothing, it became not only not an
expensive house, but really a very cheap one.
The success of the fifteen hundred layers in one house proved
itself at once, and we never have seen the slightest necessity for
altering the plan of the Laying House, as we first laid it out.
2,000 Birds to a House

The large flock system works economies, then, in housing, in the
amount of labor necessary to care for the birds, and in gathering the
eggs. And there is no doubt but that a house of considerably greater
length, with a flock ranging as high as two thousand birds, could
successfully be handled. In fact, on one farm which has been in
existence over twenty-five years, a Corning Method Laying House of
two hundred feet in length has been in operation now for twelve
months, and the owners write us that it is the most successful house
on their entire farm, and that as rapidly as possible they are
rebuilding all their Laying Houses, and making them of this type.
CHAPTER VII
What is the Winter Layer?—The Properly Hatched
and Reared Pullet
Many people have a very erroneous idea with regard to getting
Winter eggs. They seem to think any hen should produce eggs in
Winter. The hen generally moults in the early Fall, and Nature has
provided this time of rest for her. The egg organs cease to produce,
for the hen finds she has all she can do to supply the necessary
material for her new dress, and this is a very serious drain on her
system. The natural time, however, for a pullet to begin to lay is
when she reaches maturity, and, as the pullet hatched in the early
Spring, properly cared for, should come into eggs in the early Fall,
the pullet, then, is the Winter layer.
It must still be remembered that the domesticated fowl of to-day is
a bird of evolution. In its wild state a pullet did not begin to lay eggs
in the Fall, and neither did she lay a large number of eggs at any
time. With the coming of Spring, and an abundance of succulent
green food, and large quantities of animal food in the shape of a
great variety of worms and insects, she laid and hatched her brood.
Therefore, to have successful Winter layers, it is necessary to
produce as nearly as possible the Spring-time conditions.
INTERIOR LAYING HOUSE NO. 1 IN 1910
Must Feed Green Food

On The Corning Egg Farm, when the pullets are brought up from
the Range into the Laying Houses, the majority of them have already
been laying on the Range, and they are in fit condition to be brought
strongly into eggs. They are fed a large quantity of succulent green
food, in the form which, perhaps, is more delicious to the hen than
any other, that is, Sprouted Oats. The quantity of animal food in their
mash is increased, and, with the vigorous digging for the grain in the
deep litter, the problem of Winter eggs is solved, and from day to
day, the number of eggs coming from the pullet houses, increases
very rapidly.
On the other hand, the pullet which has completed its first ten
months of laying is well advanced in the moult, and is becoming a
yearling hen. Those qualifying under the drastic examination for
perfect type are selected for the next year’s Breeders, and are
removed to the Breeding Houses, which have been thoroughly
disinfected and put in the most sanitary condition to receive them.
Those not reaching the Corning Standard are marketed, as we sell
culls only to the butcher.
The aim in handling the yearling hen is not to get eggs from her
during the Winter, but to give her a long rest, and to build her up, and
put her in the pink of condition for the coming breeding season, and
it is the aim at The Corning Egg Farm to have as few eggs produced
as possible from the breeding pens until about the first of January,
when an increased amount of animal food is added to the daily ration
for the purpose of bringing the hens into eggs, and within a few days
there is a very rapid increase in the number of eggs from these pens.
It must be remembered that the profit in Winter eggs is made from
pullets, and to be successful in this line the Laying Houses must be
well stocked with them.
Yearling and two year old hens are the proper breeding females.
The Corning Egg Farm Method is one of continuous rotation, as
follows:
Incubator to Brooder House.
Brooder House to Range.
Range to Laying House. Those selected as coming up to the
Corning Standard go to the Breeder House.
At the end of the second year the Breeders are all sold for
foundation stock.
This gives an opportunity to the public to procure the very best
Breeders at a most reasonable price.
CHAPTER VIII
A Great Laying Strain—The Selection of Breeders
to Produce It
The first requisite is to breed from a mature animal, from a real
yearling hen. The term “yearling hen” is a misnomer, for, when she is
twelve months of age she has not as a rule developed into a true
yearling hen. The female has five months of growth, ten months of
laying, and then she moults, which process varies in duration from
eight to ten weeks.
Eighteen Months Old

When she has completed the moult, her entire anatomy has
undergone a change, and she is a mature animal, about eighteen
months of age, a fit specimen to reproduce her kind, and her off-
spring will be strong and vigorous youngsters.
The great mortality one reads of among chicks can be traced more
to breeding from immature females than to any other cause.
The general method of selecting breeders for a great many years
has been by the use of “trap nests.” Surely the use of a mechanical
device is a poor method to determine what hens are proper for
breeding purposes, and really the trap nest tells you nothing.
In every pen there are daily a number of eggs which are not laid in
the nest at all. To what particular hen does the attendant credit eggs
found in hollows scooped out in corners under the dropping boards?
It is a peculiarity of “Biddy” that where she sees an egg she almost
always decides it is a good and proper place for her to lay another.
Thus, on some days, where trap nests are in use, it may be
necessary to make a great number of guesses as to which hen did
not lay in the traps, but on the floor.
Trap Nests a Failure
There is another reason why trap nests really tell you nothing.
Take two females of a pen whose numbers are one and two. For the
first few weeks No. 1 surpasses her sister No. 2 in the production of
eggs. To this pen, clover has been the green food fed, and of this
ingredient the farm has run short. The shipment has been expected
daily but did not arrive, and, because of that failure, for four or five
days no other green food was provided. Then cabbage was resorted
to to take the place of the clover. The pen having been without green
food for a number of days was fairly greedy for it, and good, crisp
cabbage suits the palate of many hens exactly, and they are very apt
to overdo the matter in eating it. A great layer must be a large eater,
and so hen No. 1 gorged herself on the cabbage. Her digestive
organs were upset, and for a number of weeks she ceased laying,
while hen No. 2 continued to shell out a fair number of eggs. The
owner of these birds, when it came time for the selection of the
breeders, expressed his great disappointment over hen No. 1. She
had started so well, and then had blown up entirely, and so she is
passed up, and hen No. 2 is accepted as a breeder.
ONE OF THE BREEDING HOUSES JUST AFTER MATING 1910
Now, if the anatomy of these two birds had been studied, it would
have been found at once that hen No. 1 was much better qualified to
take a place in the breeding pen than hen No. 2. The mere fact that
the trap nest record of any female shows a phenomenal number of
eggs laid in ten or twelve months does not necessarily prove that
she is a proper animal to breed from. Post-mortem examinations
show in many cases that they are freaks, and, while they have laid a
great number of eggs, there was much to be desired in regard to the
eggs, as to their size, shape, and color. As a matter of fact it would
have been a great mistake to have bred from such an individual.
Type Reproduces Type

It must be remembered that type produces type, and the only
proper way to select birds for the breeding pen which will produce
progeny capable of great egg production is to thoroughly understand
their anatomy. It is impossible to produce a great performer in any
line unless the animal is of a build capable of the performance. No
one would expect to breed a two-minute trotter from a Shetland
Pony.
The hen which is capable of becoming an ideal layer must have a
deep keel, a long body, and, as she faces out, she must have an
appearance of broadness, and must be the shape of a wedge back
to the point where the wings join the body.
The Large Flock System is carried on in the Breeding Pen on The
Corning Egg Farm, and it has been most successful. It has been
found that the small pen does not produce the high fertility
continuously which the Large Flock System does. During the season
of 1910, for long periods, the fertility ran as high as 96%, and as
early as the first of March it was above 90%. In the season of 1911,
eggs incubated in the early part of February, ran above 91%, and
during the season there were times when the fertility reached 97%.
The Breeding Pens are mated up two weeks before eggs are to be
used for incubation, and early hatched cockerels are used to head
these Breeding Pens. It has been found that the mating of cockerels
with yearling hens produces a very decided predominance of pullets,
and the youngsters are strong and vigorous from the start.
The proportion of mating is one to twelve, and the records of The
Corning Egg Farm show that by this method of mating the number of
cockerels produced, through the years that the Farm has been in
operation, has been as low as one-quarter, and as high as one-third.
The males to head the pens are selected with the same care that
the hens are. They are all perfect birds, of large size, and conform as
closely as possible to the standard requirements, without interfering
with the paramount aim of producing a Great Layer.
CHAPTER IX
What is the Best Time to Hatch?
The question which is the title of this chapter is asked over and
over again. You see it propounded to the editor of almost every
poultry paper in the country. And it is a difficult one to answer,
because the various needs of different people are so diversified.
April and May are doubtless the natural hatching seasons for all
varieties. Climatic conditions are then kinder, the food which is
necessary for the production of many eggs, and eggs of the strong
hatchable kind, is supplied by Nature in great abundance, and the
young chick coming into life in these months finds a great variety of
natural food of the very best kind for growth awaiting it. In Spring
eggs run strongly fertile, and in every way Nature seems to lend
herself to successful hatching, and the starting of the young chick
properly on its journey.
The man, however, who is operating an egg farm, and has made
contracts for the delivery of a continuous supply of eggs to exacting
customers, cannot well afford to wait until these months to hatch in,
for it is necessary for him to have a large number of pullets reaching
maturity and beginning to lay, before his last year’s pullets reach the
moulting period and stop egg production. To accomplish this it is
necessary to have in his brooder house, by not later than the first
week of March, a goodly number of yellow babies. From that time on
he must keep them coming, so as to have a sufficient number a few
weeks apart to take the place of the yearling hens going into the
moult. In this way he will succeed in keeping up a continuous flow of
eggs.
It is true there is a danger in these early hatched pullets. They may
go into what is called the Winter moult, after laying well into the
month of December, but they will not all moult, and before there is a
marked shrinkage the later hatches will be laying strongly.
The moult which occurs with early hatched birds does not last as
long as the moult coming in the regular season. The birds soon
return to the nest, and the house rapidly jumps back to a very large
output of eggs for the coming Spring months. Thus the great
increase in numbers helps to offset the decrease in price, and to
equalize the bank account.
It must be remembered, however, that Leghorns hatched up to the
25th of June make good Winter layers provided they are properly
cared for, and given the food and attention which produces a great
growth, and under such conditions one will find no difficulty in getting
them into laying eggs readily by the time they are five months of age.
An Interesting Experiment in Late Hatching

In the season of 1910 The Corning Egg Farm made a very
interesting experiment, in a large way, so far as late hatching goes.
We incubated two large batches of eggs, the first being set so that
the chicks hatched from the 18th to the 26th of July; the second
batch completed incubation August 15th. The resulting pullets from
these two hatches were some fifty odd over twelve hundred. We
carried them on Range until December 1st, and then placed them in
a Laying House by themselves. They had not begun to lay on Range
so far as we were able to discover, although many of the pullets had
the appearance of eggs. Almost from the start, after they were
placed in the Colony Houses, we fed them, in addition to the regular
Range ration, a good supply of Sprouted Oats each day. This was
done for the reason that of course the succulent green food had
passed away, and we consider it of vital importance that growing
birds be given the opportunity to gather a large supply of succulent
green food. The records show that within three days after the pullets
were placed in the Laying House we began to gather from one to
three eggs a day. Before December was over the house was
producing 10%; January saw 35% output of eggs, and before
February was very far advanced we were doing better than 60%.
There was a time in March when the House was yielding a 75%
output.
SPROUTED OATS CELLAR
These birds laid strongly all Summer, and we were interested in

noting when they would start to moult. We had seen the statement
made a number of times that late hatched pullets were very late
moulters. In our experience, however, this did not prove to be true,
for this pen of birds moulted at just about the same time, and in the
same proportion, as the earlier hatches did.
We had frequently seen it stated that birds hatched in the very last
week of August, or the first week in September, would produce eggs
at the same time that the June hatched pullets would begin to
produce them. Our experience with June hatches, and we have had
four years of it, disproves this statement absolutely. We find that the
June hatched pullet, properly cared for, comes in quite as rapidly as
those hatched in April and May.
We do not wish to go on record as advocates of July and August
hatching, but we simply wish to show what could be accomplished if
a Breeder met with some misfortune, and was compelled to hatch
late or not at all.
CHAPTER X
Succulent Green Food—Satisfactory Egg
Production Impossible Without It
A goodly supply of green food is necessary to all birds, the
growing chicken as well as the yearling hen, for it is a great aid to
digestion, helping to properly assimilate all foods as they are taken
into the crop, and passed through the great grinding mill of a
chicken.
There is no possible hope of a full egg supply from any Laying
House where a large quantity of green food is not fed daily. It may be
fed in many forms. Clover or Alfalfa (and we are now speaking first
of the Winter supply of green food) may be procured in a dry state,
and by properly scalding it with hot water it may be made to almost
live again, so far as its freshness and delightful odor go. In many
cases the preparation of Clover or Alfalfa spoils it. The water should
be quite at the boiling point, and it should be poured over, preferably
it should be put on with a sprinkling can. The method at The Corning
Egg Farm is to place whichever we are using of the Clover family in
pails, a given number for each Laying House, and as they stand in
rows the hot water is applied with a sprinkling can. The contents are
not allowed to steep, but as soon as the second wetting of the long
row of pails is reached they are placed on the delivery wagon and at
once taken to their destination. When the contents are emptied from
the pails they will be steaming hot, too hot for the birds to take at
first, and you will find them standing in a ring around the Clover, and
from time to time testing the heat. As soon as it is cool enough they
will devour it with great avidity.
Where Alfalfa is fed some flocks give considerable difficulty at first
as they do not seem to relish it, but after a short time they seem to
acquire the taste, and become very fond of it. It contains a higher
amount of protein than the ordinary Clover which can be bought in
the market, but in purchasing Alfalfa products one should be careful
not to buy a large quantity of dirt, but get what is known as “short
cut,” and have it carefully sifted.
By many people cabbages are considered a most excellent green
food for Winter use, but if they are chopped up and fed to the layers
considerable caution should be used in the feeding. They are very
apt to upset the digestive organs of the birds, and that means a very
decided decrease in the number of eggs. This is equally true of
Mangle beets and other roots which in many cases are used.
Sprouted Oats Best

At The Corning Egg Farm we are strong believers in Sprouted
Oats as a green food, and we now maintain a cement Cellar, with
good drainage, which is used for nothing else. The method of
sprouting oats is really very simple, and does not require the
arduous labor which one would imagine from numerous articles
written on the subject.
How They Are Grown on the Farm

We have frames three by six feet in size, built of ordinary boards,
but not matched material. The sides are about four inches high.
These frames are laid on the floor of the Cellar, and each frame is
filled with forty-eight quarts of oats spread evenly over the bottom.
We have a large sprinkler attached to the hose, and the oats are
thoroughly wet as they lie in the trays, and this wetting is repeated
every morning. In a temperature from fifty to sixty degrees we find
that the oats have started to sprout about the third day, and from this
on the growth is very fast. Parts of the oats in the frame will swell two
or three inches in places, above the surrounding mass of oats, and
we make it a practice to place the sprinkler directly on top of this
swelling, and it is found by so doing that the frame in a short time will
present a very even growth.
If the Sprouted Oats are fed when the green tops are from one
and a half to two inches in length the chemical quality of the oat is
not lost, and we really get a double ration when it is fed. If allowed to
go beyond this length, they are then just an ordinary green food.
In many instances we have noticed writers advocating soaking the
oats overnight, and then, for the next few days, to periodically stir
them. And in other cases writers advise, when they are placed in the
frames to turn the oats over. This is a serious mistake, for anyone
can readily see that the tender shoots, which grow most rapidly after
the third day, would be broken off, and where this occurs the oats will
rot.
Oats, of course, can be sprouted in sheds, or even out-of-doors, if
they are covered up so that the sun will not dry them out too rapidly.
A frame should be made in such a manner that the water sprayed
over the oats will slowly drain away. There are a number of different
contrivances now being placed on the market for sprouting oats, and
we have no doubt that, on small plants, some of them would prove
quite satisfactory. Where it is desired to sprout oats in a small way, in
the Cellar of one’s house, a rack can be built with run-ways for the
trays to slide on, with a space of two inches between the trays. By
thoroughly sprinkling the top tray the water will run down through
from one tray to another, and, as the growth progresses, the more
advanced ones can be moved up from the bottom of the rack, as
they require less water than those in a less advanced stage.
The oats sprout more quickly if grown and sprinkled in a fairly dark
place, and it must be remembered that too warm a temperature will
rot the mass after the growth has reached its fourth or fifth day.
Timothy and Clover Cut Green

As one enters The Corning Egg Farm, on the left of the drive,
there is about an acre of Timothy and Clover. This acre has been
very heavily fertilized and brought up to a high state of cultivation.
The Timothy and Clover grow so rapidly, and the growth comes in
such abundance almost before the snow is off the ground, that
cutting it as we do, so many rows each morning, it is impossible to
cross the entire plot before that which was first cut has almost grown
beyond the succulent point. To make a change for the hens we cut
this in the early Spring, and pass it through the Clover Cutter,

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Analytical Techniques in the Oil and

Gas Industry for Environmental

Project management in the oil and gas industry 1st

Microbiologically influenced corrosion in the upstream

A Practical Guide to Piping and Valves for the Oil and

Sustainable Shale Oil and Gas. Analytical Chemistry,

Environmental Technology in the Oil Industry 3rd

Education and Training for the Oil and Gas Industry

Education and Training for the Oil and Gas Industry

Tools, Techniques and Protocols for Monitoring

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

Hardback ISBN: 9781119523307

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

Printed in the United States of America

Part II Introduction to the Petroleum Industry 21

2 Petroleum: From Wells to Wheels 23

2.3.2 Generation of Petroleum 34

Part III Analytical Techniques Utilized in the Petroleum

3 Petroleum Analysis Through Conventional Analytical

4 Advanced Analytics for the Evaluation of Oil, Natural Gas,

4.1.2.4 Detection 165

5 Liquid Chromatography: Applications for the Oil and Gas

6 Supercritical Fluids in Chromatography: Applications to the

6.5.2.1 Surfactants by Sub-2 μm Particle Packed Column SFC 276

7 Online and In Situ Measurements for Environmental

7.10.1 Nondispersive IR (NDIR) 317

Part IV Special Cases and Examples Related to the

8 Tracers for Oil and Gas Reservoirs 331

9 Environmental Impact of Emissions Originating from the

9.2.4.3 Biodiesel 355

Part V Environmental Analysis 379

10 Environmental Analysis of Soil, Water, and Air 381

10.3.2.1 Cavity Ring-Down Laser Spectrometry Techniques 390

Part VI Future Trends in the Petroleum Industry 417

11 Future Trends 419

1.1.1 Petroleum Cycle

Recycling Life cycle Manufacturing

Figure 1.1 Life cycle of petroleum.

1.1.2 Well-Known Cases of Environmental Contamination

1.1.2.2 Sanchi Oil Tanker Collision

Petroleum is a naturally occurring material that can be found in geological for-

2018 total petroleum and other liquids production

Using gas chromatography–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS) allows

column or a multidimensional approach can be applied. Due to the inherent com-

● Online Oil in Water Analyzer (Laser-Induced Fluorescence)

1.4 Reservoir Tracers

1.5 Emissions from the Petroleum Industry

Modeled annual mean PM2.5 for the year

1.6 Environmental Analysis and Monitoring

Sources of groundwater contamination

Airborne and Acid rain

Figure 1.7 Diagram of potential sources for groundwater contamination.

ASTM-D6839. (2018). Standard test method for hydrocarbon types, oxygenated

S. C. White Leghorns Outclass All

Line Breeding—Not Inbreeding

How Corning Farm Produces Unrelated Cockerels

Draughts the Stumbling Block

2,000 Birds to a House

Must Feed Green Food

Eighteen Months Old