Ethnicity Power and The English

2 Ethnicity, Power and the
English1
J o h n M o r e la n d
‘The eternal stream of blood binds us across the ages ’2
In his T ra vels in H y p errea lity, U m b e rto Eco s u g g e s te d th a t all o u r

c o n te m p o ra ry ‘h o t’ p ro b le m s have th e ir so u rc e in th e M iddle A ges,
and a rg ue d th a t ‘we go back to . . . [the M id d le Ages] every tim e we ask
o u rs e lv e s about o u r o rig in ’; th a t ‘p e o ple s ta rte d d re a m in g of th e
M iddle A ges from th e very b e g in nin g of th e m o d e rn e r a ’. * In one such
d re a m , th e blood of th e g en tes (p e o p le s) of th e e a rly M iddle A ges still
flows in th e v e in s of th e ir m o d e rn kin. T h e is su e of o rig in s is ‘h o t’
b e c a u se th e re a re still p e o ple who b e lie ve th a t th e re is an e te rn a l
s tre a m of blood linking th e m to th e ir ‘e th n ic ’ a n c e s to rs and th e
‘h o m e la n d ’. F o r m any th a t ‘b lo o d ’ flows from th e early M iddle A ges.
T h e y fu rth e r be liev e th a t a rc h ae o lo g ic al and h isto ric a l e v id en c e can be
u sed to d e m o n s tra te this, and can confirm th e m in th e ir a n c e s tra l
h o m e lan d s o r show th e m w h e re th o s e h o m e lan d s a re . In th is c h a p te r I
1. I d e d ic a te th is a r tic le to m y u n c le S e a n R itc h ie w h o d ie d w h ile it w as b e in g

w ritte n . W hile h e m ig h t n o t h a v e fa v o u re d th e fo c u s o n th e E n g lis h , I h o p e h e
w o u ld h a v e a p p ro v e d of th e s e n tim e n ts w h ic h u n d e rp in th is w o rk . T h e e d ito r s of
th is b o o k d is p la y e d a Jo b -lik e p a tie n c e w a itin g fo r th is c o n trib u tio n a n d th e ir
c o m m e n ts o n e a rly d r a f ts c o n trib u te d g re a tly to w h a te v e r m e r i ts th is fin al
v e r s io n m a y h a v e . I v e r y m u c h a p p r e c ia te th e ir e ffo rts a n d s u p p o r t. I m u s t a lso
th a n k th e s e r ie s e d ito r , P r o f e s s o r N ic h o la s B ro o k s, fo r h is firm e d ito r ia l h a n d
a n d v a lu e d c o m m e n ts . R ic h a rd J e n k in s , A lex W oolf, H e in ric h H a rk e , V a n e s s a
T o u lm in , R ic h a rd H o d g e s a n d M a rk P lu c ie n n ik e n h a n c e d m y p e r s p e c tiv e s on
e th n ic ity a n d th e E n g lis h . P a r tic ip a tio n in th e E u ro p e a n S c ie n c e F o u n d a tio n ’s
T r a n s f o r m a ti o n o f th e R o m a n W o rld p ro je c t e n a b le d m e to m e e t a n d d is c u s s
s o m e of th e is s u e s w ith s c h o la r s fro m a c r o s s E u ro p e . In th e lig ht o f th e
p r o b le m s a d d r e s s e d in th is a r tic le it s e e m s m o re th a n a p p r o p r ia te to th a n k all
th o s e in v olv e d in th is tr a n s n a tio n a l v e n tu re . My d e e p e s t th a n k s , h o w e v e r, go to
P ru e fo r h e lp in g m e th ro u g h a v e ry d iffic ult tim e .
2. II. R e in c rlh , th is I 'a l r r s n m o o r a ls S i e d l n n u s la n d d e s V o r z n t n n n s c h i n (L e ip z ig ,
lib iti), !>; i lie d in 15. A rn o ld , ‘T h e p a st a s p ro p a g a n d a : to ta lita ria n a rc h a e o lo g y in
N azi ( ie r m a n y ', A n t n / n t t v (> I (11)1)0), Iti.H.
2. U. E co , ‘I b e a m in g of th e M id d le A g e s ’, in I r a n i s in ll y ft e r r r a h l v (1DH7), tifi.
24 Jo h n M o re la n d
w ant to b egin a stu dy of th e way in w hich th e s e ‘d re a m s ’ of th e M iddle

A ges have c o n trib u te d to th e c o n stru c tio n of th e E n g lis h .1
As a rc h a e o lo g is ts and h is to ria n s we have to in v e stig a te th e s e is su e s
b e c a u se we can show th a t in th e M iddle A ges - th a t place to w hich
p e o p le so often re tu rn in th e ir dream -w orld - e th n ic ity w as n o t b ased
on ‘b lo o d ’.45 T h e ‘e te rn a l s tre a m of b lo o d ’ b ind s n e ith e r th e E n glish n o r
any o th e r m o d e rn p e o ple a c ro ss th e a ges to th e ir e th n ic fo re b e a rs .6 We
can d e m o n stra te th is. It is tru e th a t ‘m e dieval p e o p le s . . . se e m
fre q u e n tly to have believed th a t th e y b e lon g e d to n a tio n s ( n a tio n e s ) and
p e o p le s {g en tes ) ', and th a t ‘sin ce a pe ople w as fo rm ed by d e sc e n t,
blood was th e vehicle for its c o n so lid atio n and e x pa n sio n from one
g e n e ra tio n to th e n e x t’.7 H ow ever, it is also tru e th a t th e se ‘p e o p le s ’
w e re ‘im a gine d c o m m u n itie s ’8 b ound to g e th e r by b e lie f in com m on
d e s c e n t and a c tu a l com m on in te r e s ts .9 T h e g e n tes of th e e arly M iddle
A ges cam e to believe th a t the y c o n s titu te d ‘b lo o d -c o m m u n itie s’ as a
re su lt of social and political s o lid a rity .10 As R ichard Je n k in s a rg u e s,
p e o ple com e to belie ve th a t th e y s h a re a c om m on a n c e s try as a
consequence of acting to g e th e r .11
T h is d o es n ot m ean th a t e th n ic ity did n ot e x ist in th e e arly M iddle
A ges; it did. B ut it w as bound up w ith o th e r form s of id e n tity , and
p a rtic u la rly w ith re la tio n s h ip s of p o w er and d o m in a tio n . T h e im p o sitio n
of o u r c o n c e p t of a d is c re te and o b je ctive e th n ic ity on th e e arly M iddle
A ges may provide th e m ed ieva l c o n c e p t of e th n ic ity w ith a p o w e r in the
s tru c tu rin g of so c ie ty and th e life of th e individual w hich it n e v e r had at
th e tim e . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e of o u r im p ositio n is th a t we ig n o re or
d e va lu e fa c to rs w hich w e re th e n of g r e a te r im p o rta n c e in th e
c o n stru c tio n of society and th e self. An a w a re n e ss of th is p rov ide s
us w ith a v ery d iffe re n t im age of th e M iddle A ges and a very d iffe re n t
u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e ‘d re a m s ’ we can re sp o n sib ly draw from it.
It is e asy to a p p re c ia te th e ro le of e th n ic ity in th e w ars th a t have
rip p e d th ro u g h th e B alkans; m any p e op le can, p e rh a p s, com e to s e e
th e N o rth e rn Ire lan d ‘T ro u b le s ’ as an e th n ic as o p p o se d to (o r as well
4. T h a t s tu d y w ill a p p e a r in m o re c o m p le te fo rm in m y fo rth c o m in g b o o k , M y th s o f
th e E n g li s h .
5. T h is is d e s p ite th e im p lic a tio n s of m u c h of th e r e c e n t w o rk o n g e n e tic s a n d
a rc h a e o lo g y . S e e P . S im s-W illia m s, ‘G e n e tic s , lin g u is tic s , a n d p r e h is to ry :
th in k in g b ig a n d th in k in g s tr a i g h t’, A n t i q u i t y 72 (1 9 9 8 ), 5 0 5 - 2 7 .
6. W. P o h l, ‘T h e B a rb a ria n s u c c e s s o r s t a t e s ’, in T h e T r a n s f o r m a ti o n o f th e R o m a n
W o rld A D 4 0 0 - 9 0 0 , e d . L. W e b s te r a n d M . B ro w n (1 9 9 7 ), 47.
7. R.R. D a v ie s, ‘T h e p e o p le s of B rita in a n d Ire la n d 1 1 0 0 - 1 4 0 0 , 1. I d e n t i t i e s ’,
T r a n s a c ti o n s o f the. R o y a l H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty (5th s e r . 4 (1 9 9 4 ), 4, 0, e m p h a s is
added.
8. Ib id ., 4.
9. P. A m o ry, ‘N a m e s, e th n ic id e n tity , a n d c o m m u n ity in liltli a n d six th c e n tu r y
B u rg u n d y ’, V ia to r 25 (1 9 9 4 ), 4.
10. S. R e y n o ld s, 'W h.il d o w e m e a n by "A n g lo S a x o n " a n d "A n g lo S a x o n s ” ? . to u r n a i
o f l l r t h s h S im ile s , 24 (1 9 8 5 ). 4 05.
11. R. J e n k in s , R e t h in k in g E l h n ie il v A r g u m e n ts a n d E x / ilo r a h o n s (1 9 9 7 ), 10.
E th n ic ity , P ow er a n d the E n g lish 25
as?) a re lig io u s conflict. H ow ever, we have a te n d e n c y to s e e e th n ic ity

n o t as p a rt of o u r m ake-up, b u t as so m e th in g p a rtic u la r to th e
‘O th e rs ’. 1- W ith c h a ra c te ris tic fo rth rig h tn e s s , M ichael Ig n atie ff s ta te s
th a t a t th e e nd of his ‘J o u rn e y s in to th e N ew N a tio n a lism ’ he had to
c o n fro n t
th e c e n tra l c o n c e it w hich c o sm o p o lita n s e v e ry w h e re , and the
B ritish in p a rtic u la r, have a b o ut th e tid e of e th n ic n a tio n a lism
d e stro y in g th e fixed la nd m a rks of th e Cold W ar w orld: e v e ry on e
e lse is a fanatic, e v e ry on e b u t us is a n a tio n a lis t.11
W ith th e s e in sig h ts in m ind, I w ant to begin digging into th e m y ths of
th e E n g lish . I w ant to q u e stio n com m only held id e as a b o ut th e ir
o rig in s and to c o u n te r th e im plicitly held n o tio n th a t th e e m e rg e n c e of
E ngland and E n g lish n e ss was p a rt of som e in e vita b le p r o c e s s ." In
p a rtic u la r I will q u e stio n th e c o n s titu tio n of th e ‘p e o p le s ’ - th e A ngles,
S axons and J u te s - w ho, largely on th e b a sis of one s h o rt p a ra g ra p h in
B e d e ’s E cclesia stic a l H isto ry o f th e E n g lish P e o p le p ' a re d e e m e d th e
a n c e s to rs of th e E n g lish , and a s s e s s w hat kind of id e n titie s wo can
re a d from th e ir m a te ria l c u ltu re .
O ne of th e s tro n g e s t and m ost p e rs is te n t ‘m yths of th e E n g lish ’ is
th a t th e y a re d e sc e n d e d from th e s e th re e G e rm a nic p e o p le s. In the
late n in e te e n th c e n tu ry F ra n c is G u m m e re a rgu e d th a t ‘G e rm a n ic
in v a d e rs ’ prov id ed th e fou n da tion of E nglish n a tion a l life ;11’ in th e late
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry P ro fe ss o r S ir G eoffrey E lton a s s e rte d th a t ‘th e
m ixed c o lle c tio n of G e rm a n ic ra id e rs . . . [becam e] . . . su b su m e d u n d e r
th e n a m e of th e E n g lish ’. 12345617 H ow ever, one of th e c o n clu sio n s of this
c h a p te r is th a t th e ‘E n g lis h ’ a re n ot biologically d e sc e n d e d from t lu*
G e rm a nic sto ck of B e d e ’s a cc ou n t. T h e b e lie f th a t th e y a re is a myth
th a t draw s heavily on ‘d re a m s ’ of th e M iddle A ges. It is a m yth that is
p e rp e tu a te d th ro u g h a m isre a d in g of h is to ric a l and a rc ha eo lo g ic al
e v id en c e, and th ro u g h th e im p o sitio n of m o d e rn c o n c e p ts of id e ntity
o nto th e M igratio n P e rio d p a st. It is a m yth th a t h a s p e n e tra te d to th e
c ore of m any p e o p le s ’ b e liefs a bo u t th e ir ‘o rig in s ’, and it is th e so u rc e
of m any of th e c h a ra c te ris tic s th a t th e y feel to be p e cu liarly ‘E n g lish ’.
12. Ib id ., 14.
13. M . Ig n a tie f f, B lo o d ti m i B e lo n g in g : J o u r n e y s in to th e N e w N a t io n a li s m ( 1 9 94 ), 1 I .
14. J.G .A . P o c o c k , ‘B ritis h h is to ry : a p le a fo r a n e w s u b je c t’, J o u r n a l o) M o d e rn
H is to r y 4 7 (1 9 7 5 ), 6 0 9 . S e e a lso P. W o rm a ld , ‘B e d e , th e b re tw a ld a s a n d th e
o rig in s o f th e g e n s A n g lo r u tn ', in Id e a l a n d R e a lity in F r a n k i s h a n d A n g lo S a x o n
S o e ie ty , e d . I*. W o rm a ld (1 9 8 3 ), 104.
15. B e d e 's E e e le s ia s tie a l H is to r y o f th e E n g lis h P eo p le, e d s B. C o lg ra v e a n d h’.A.B.
M y n o rs ( 1 9 6 9 ), 1.15 ( H e r e a f te r B e d e , H E ). S e e a lso M. H u n te r, ‘G e rm a n ic a n d
R om a n a n tiq u ity an d th e s e n s e of th e p a s t in A n glo-S a xon K n g lu u d ', A n g lo S a x o n
E n g l a n d 3 (1 9 7 4 ), 31.
16. K. G u m m e re , ( ie r m a n ic O r ig in s : A S t u d y in P r im it i v e C u lt u r e (1 8 9 2 ), 1 2.
17. (ì. K lton, The E n g lis h (1 9 9 2 ), 1. T in 1 ‘c o n q u e st m y th ' is e x a m in e d liy II II.u k e .
M a te ria l c u ltu r e a s m yth: w e a p o n s m A nglo S a xo n g r a v e s ’, in B u t t a i a n ti S o c iety
The ( Im m o lo g ii a l a n d S o c ia l A n a ly s is o f A n h a eo lo g u a t B u t t a i P a tii ( 1997), 120 I
Of c o u rse , h is to ria n s have q u e stio n e d th e m yth, in w hole o r in

p a r t.1* H ow ever, such c ritic is m s have proved u n a ttra c tiv e to E n g lish
h is to ria n s , sinc e th e y a tta ck th e ‘E nglish na tion al s to ry ’.10 T oday, w hile
h is to ria n s and a rc h a e o lo g is ts have e x p re s s e d th e b e lie f th a t th e y have
a s o p h istic a te d u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e M igration P e riod , w hen it c om e s
to th e s o u rc e s for th e ‘E nglish na tiona l s to ry ’ m any sc h o la rs ‘still se e m
far too w illing to su sp e n d th e ir d is b e lie f’.20
In o th e r p a rts of th e w orld we can s e e th a t ‘e th n ic d re a m s ’ of th e
M iddle A ges a re of m o re th a n aca de m ic c o n c e rn . At a tim e w hen th e
fo rm e r g o v e rn in g p a rty h a s b e e n re d u c e d to a p u re ly E ng lish
h e a rtla n d ; w hen th e p e o ple of S co tlan d and W ales have voted for
d evolution; w hen th e L a bo u r g o v e rn m e n t is not d e p e n d e n t on U n io n ist
v o te s in W e s tm in s te r and th e fu ture of N o rth e rn Ire la n d w ithin th e
U nion is again b e in g c o n sid e re d ; and w hen N orm an T e b b it has a rgu e d
th a t th e fa ilure of ‘m in o rity ’ c u ltu re s to in te g ra te into B ritis h /E n g lish
c u ltu re w ould re s u lt in d is in te g ra tio n and th e ‘B alk a n iz a tio n ’ of
B rita in ,21 an a p p re c ia tio n of th e co n stru c ted n a tu re of E n g lish id e n tity
may be tim ely.
Like m any o th e rs , Lord T e b b it b e lie v e s th a t th e re is a sin g le E nglish
c u ltu re into w hich th e O th e rs m u s t in te g ra te . H ow ever, it is c le a r th a t
w hat c u ltu re s, languages, and h isto rie s th e re a re w ithin E ngland a re
th e p ro d u c t of th e h isto ry of th e m a n y p e o p le s w ho have lived (and
fought) th e re . T h e y a re n o t th e p ro d u c t of som e m ythical, c o h e re n t,
h o m o g e n eo u s, a n c ie n t p e op le called th e E n g lish .
S tan d in g o u ts id e th e m yth of E n g lish n e ss, I will a s s e s s th e e v id en c e
from E ngland. T h ro u g h o u t th is c h a p te r, ho w e ver, I will also draw upon
th e a rch a eo lo gic al and h istoric a l e v id e n c e from a c ro ss M igration
P e rio d E u ro p e . T h a t is th e w orld from w hich th e s u p p o se d a n c e s to rs
of th e E n g lish e m e rg e d . F u rth e r, th is in form a tio n can s e rv e to p ut th e
laconic ‘K nglish’ s o u rc e s in to c o n te x t,22 and can a s s is t in o ve rc om ing
th a t in su la rity of outlook w hich has d o m in a ted e arly Anglo-Saxon
stu d ie s, and c o n trib u te d to a ss u m p tio n s abo u t th e ‘in e v ita b ility ’ of
England and th e ‘u n iq u e n e s s ’ of th e E nglish. S I.
IS. P. S im s W illia m s, T h e s e ttle m e n t of E n g la n d in B e d e a n d th e C h r o n ic le ’, A n g lo -

S a x o n E n g la n d 13 (1 9 8 3 ), 1.
19. U n d ., 1.
30. Ib id ., 39.
31. M. W h ile , ‘H a g u e fury at T o ry “ d in o s a u r s ” ’, t h e G u a r d ia n (8 O c to b e r 1 9 9 7 ), 1;
in te rv ie w w ith L o rd T e b b it, T o d a y p r o g ra m m e , BBC R a dio 4, 8 O c to b e r 1 99 7 .
S e e a lso I*. I.o w e n th a l, ‘B ritis h n a tio n a l id e n tity a n d th e E n g lish la n d s c a p e ’,
E lir a i H isto r y 2 (1 9 9 1 ), 3 0 b 3 0.
33. E oi an a s s e s s m e n t of th e s e s o u r c e s , s e e D avid D u m v ille , ‘E s s e x , m id d le A nglia ,
a n d th e e x p a n s io n of M e rc ia in th e s o u th e a s t M id la n d s ', in The <Ir ig in s o f A n g lo
S a x o n K i n g d o m s , c d . S. B a s s e tt (1 9 8 9 ). 133, 126. A lso, t . S cu ll, 'A rc h a e o lo g y ,
e a ily A n glo-S a xon s o c ie ty a n d th e o r ig in s of A nglo S a xo n k in g d o m s ’, A n g lo
S a x o n S t u d ie s in A n h a e o lo g y a n d H isto r y (> ( 1993), 6!> 6; R H o d g e s , I h e A n g lo
S a x o n A c h ie v e m e n t (1 9 8 9 ), 33 3
In a d ditio n , I will a rg u e th a t m uch m is u n d e rsta n d in g of M igration

P e rio d E ngland is a c o n s e q u e n c e of th e a b se n c e of th e o riz a tio n of
som e of th e key c o n c e p ts w e u se - in p a rtic u la r of e th n ic ity , m a te ria l
c u ltu re , and th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e m . I will th e re fo re a tte m p t to
p rovide such a ‘th e o riz a tio n ’, draw ing upon re c e n t a rch ae olog ical,
a n th ro p olo g ic a l and sociological th e o ry and on fre s h re a d in g s of som e
of th e d o c u m e n ta ry and a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id en c e.
T h e aim h e re is n ot to d e stro y th e fee ling s of belon g in g (and
se c urity? ) w hich th is sto ry b e sto w s b ut to show th a t th e E nglish, ju s t
like th e O th e rs, a re c o n stru c te d th ro u g h m yth; and th a t th e m yth of th e
E n glish , like o th e r n a tion al m yths, ow es m o re to c u ltu re and h isto ry
th a n to blood and m a nife st d e stiny . In a dd ition , if we d e c o n s tru c t this
sto ry we can p ro d u c e a h isto ry of th e E nglish w hich is m o re in tu n e
w ith th e ir h e te ro g e n e o u s p a st and th e ir m u ltic u ltu ral p re s e n t.
Archaeological cultures and ‘p eop les’
S u sa n R eynolds h as s u g g e ste d th a t th e ‘m o st difficult p ro b le m s of all in

w ha t we th in k of as Anglo-Saxon h isto ry com e righ t a t its very
b eg in n ing , w ith w hat is tra d itio n a lly called th e Anglo-Saxon s e ttle
m e n t’.232 4 In o ne of th e m o st pow erful ‘d re a m s ’ of th e E nglish, th is is
w h e re th e y w e re b orn.
T h e p ro b le m s of stu d y in g th is p e rio d a re in d e e d difficult and a re
m ade m o re so by th e in a d e q u a te th e o riz a tio n of c o n c e p ts. T h e
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e is c o m p a ra tiv ely s p a rs e and difficult to
in te rp re t. T he sam e can be said of th e d o c u m e n ta ry so u rc e s. H ow ever,
th is difficulty in in te rp re ta tio n has n ot alw ays b e e n re c o gn iz ed and
p a st sc h o la rs h ip is litte re d w ith u n c ritic a l re a d in g s of th e h isto ric al
s o u rc e s and a tte m p ts to situ a te th e a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id en c e w ithin
th e m .21 T o in itia te th is d isc u ssio n , how e ver, w e have to go back to
R ey no ld s’ ‘very b e g in n in g ’.
2 3. R e y n o ld s, ‘W h at do w e m e a n ’, 4 0 0 .
2 4. R e fe r e n c e s a n d d is c u s s io n a r e p ro v id e d in I). A u stin , ‘T h e ‘‘p r o p e r s tu d y ” of
m e d ie v a l a r c h a e o lo g y ’, in F ro m th e B a lti c to th e B la c k S e a , e d s D . A u stin a n d L.
A lco ck (1 9 9 0 ), 9 - 4 2 . M a ny p e o p le h a v e n o w r e a s s e s s e d th e h is to ric a l e v id e n c e
a n d w e c a n r e a d it in a m o r e ‘r e a lis ti c ’ fa sh io n . S e e , a m o n g o th e r s , B. Y o rk e ,
‘F a c t o r fic tio n ? T h e w ritte n e v id e n c e fo r th e fifth a n d six th c e n tu r ie s A D ’,
A n g lo -S a x o n S tu d ie s in A r c h a e o lo g y a n d H is to r y 6 (1 9 9 3 ), 4 5 - 5 0 ; D. D u m v ille ,
‘K in g sh ip , g e n e a lo g ie s a n d r e g n a l l i s t s ’, in E a r l y M e d ie v a l K in g s h ip , e d s F.
S a w y e r a n d 1. W ood (1 9 7 7 ), 7 2 - 1 0 4 ; S im s-W illia m s, ‘S e ttle m e n t of E n g la n d ’.
T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e is c o n s id e r e d by (a g a in , a m o n g m a n y o th e r s ) S.
E s m o n d e C le a ry , T h e E n d i n g o f R o m a n B r i t a i n ( 1 9 8 9 ), 1 3 0 -8 7 ; C .J. A rn o ld , T h e
A rc h a e o lo g y o) th e E a r ly A n g lo S a x o n K in g d o m s ( s e c o n d e d itio n 1 9 97 ); N .J.
H ig h a m , R o m e , B r it a i n a m i th e A n g l o S a x o n s (1 9 9 2 ); C. H ills, ‘T h e a rc h a e o lo g y
o f A n glo S a x o n E n g la n d in th e p a g a n p e rio d : a r e v ie w ’, A n g lo S a x o n E n g l a n d H
(1 9 7 9 ), 2 9 7 3 2 9 ; ( . S cu ll, 'E a rly A n glo-S a xon s o c ie ty ’, 0 5 8 2 ; J. H in e s , ‘T h e
S c a n d in a v ia n c h a r a d e i of A n glia n E n g la n d : a n u p d a te ', in T he A g e o f S u t t o n H oo:
28 J o h n M o re la n d
In th e e arly e ig h th c e ntu ry , B ede, in his H isto ria E c clesia stica G en tis

A n g lo ru m , prov id ed us w ith an a c c o u n t of th e s e ttle m e n t of E ng lan d by
th e A ngles, Saxons and Ju te s :
th e ra c e of th e A ngles o r S axons, invited by V ortig ern , cam e to
B rita in in th re e w a rsh ip s . . . T h e y cam e from th re e v ery pow erful
G e rm a n ic trib e s , th e S axons, A ngles and J u te s . T h e p e o ple of
K e nt and th e in h a b ita n ts of th e Isle of W ight a re of Ju tish origin
and also th o se o p p o s ite th e Isle of W ight, th a t p a rt of th e
kingdom of W essex w hich is still today called th e n a tio n of th e
J u te s . F ro m th e Saxon co u ntry , th a t is, th e d is tric t now know n as
Old Saxony, cam e th e E a s t S axons, th e S o u th S axons, and th e
W est S axons. B e sid e s this, from th e c o u n try of th e A ngles, th a t
is, th e land b e tw e e n th e k ingdom s of th e J u te s and th e S axons,
w hich is called A n g u lu s , cam e th e E a s t A ngles, th e M iddle
A ngles, th e M erc ia n s, and all th e N o rth u m b ria n ra ce (th a t is
th o s e p eo p le w ho dwell n o rth of th e riv e r H um b e r) as w ell as th e
o th e r Anglian trib e s. A n g u lu s is said to have re m a in e d d e s e rte d
from th a t day to this. T h e ir first le a d e rs a re said to have b e e n two
b ro th e rs , H e ng ist and H o rsa .2"1
T h is is th e a c c o u n t of th e A nglo-Saxon s e ttle m e n t w hich has so
beg u iled g e n e ra tio n s of a rc h a e o lo g is ts, h is to ria n s , p o litic ian s and
C h u rc h m e n . It p ro v id e s th e h is to ric a l c o n te x t w ithin w hich m any
a rc h a e o lo g is ts have so u gh t to s itu a te th e ir e v id e n c e . T h u s J.N .L .
M yres, one of th e g re a te s t Anglo-Saxon a rc h a e o lo g is ts of th e tw e n tie th
c en tu ry , b eg an his in v e stig a tio n of th e c o n tin e n ta l b a ck g ro u n d of th e
‘E nglish s e ttle m e n ts ’ w ith B e d e ’s s ta te m e n t, and a rg u e d th a t it w as
p ossible to a c co m m o d a te th is w ith th e a rc hae olog y , e sp e cia lly w ith th e
c re m a tio n p o tte ry to w h o se study he d e v oted his life.2'1 F o r M yres,
c om m e n cin g his s tu d ie s in th e 1920s, it a p p e a re d n a tu ra l to u se th e
c re m a tio n u rn s as e th n ic sign ifie rs. M uch th e sam e a p pro a c h of
m a tc hing th e p o tte ry and je w e lle ry from E nglish c e m e te rie s w ith th a t
from n o rth e rn G erm a ny and s o u th e rn S c andinavia, and th e n applying
‘e th n ic n a m e s ’ draw n from th e h isto ric a l s o u rc e s , has b e e n follow ed
m ore re c e n tly by M artin W elch and (to som e e x te n t) Jo h n H in e s.252627
c o u til.
The S e v e n th C e n t u r y in N o r th W e ste rn E u r o p e , e d . M . C a rv e r ( 1 9 9 2 ), 3 1 5 - 2 9 ;
J.N .L . M y re s , t h e E n g li s h S e tt le m e n t s ( 1 9 8 6 ). L a n g u a g e is c o n s id e r e d by J.
H in e s , ‘P h ilo lo g y , a rc h a e o lo g y a n d th e a d v e n tu s S a x o n u m vet A n g l o r u m ', in
t i r ita in 100 0 0 0 : L a n g u a g e a n d H isto r y , e d s A. H a m m e s b e rg e r a n d A. W ollm a n n
(1 9 9 0 ), 17 36; a n d id e m , ‘T h e b e c o m in g of th e E n g lis h : id e n tity , m a te ria l
c u ltu r e a n d la n g u a g e in e a rly A n glo S a x o n E n g la n d ’, A n g lo S a x o n S tu d ie s in
A rc h a e o lo g y a m i H is to r y 7 (1 9 9 1 ), 19 59.
25. B e d e , H E 1.15.
26. M y re s , E n g lis h S e tt le m e n t s , 16, 63.
27. M. W e lch , A n g lo S a x o n E n g l a n d (1 9 9 2 ), I I S e e a lso M ines, ' I lie S c a n d in a v ia n
i b a ia i l e i ' a n d |. B lair, A n g lo S a x o n ( h l o n l s h i r e ( 1 994 ), 7 8, B. York»’, Wessex in
th e E a r lv M id d le A g e s ( 1 9 95 ). 11 Eoi lim e s , s e e iin .24 a n d 79
T h e s e a rc h a e o lo g ists w rite w ithin w ha t is know n as th e c u ltu re -

h isto ry a p p roa c h . T his kind of a rc h a e o lo g y /h is to ry is b a se d on th e
p re m is e th a t we can link th e d is trib u tio n of c lu s te rs of a rc ha eo lo g ic al
a rte fa c ts w ith th e ‘p e o p le s ’ re fe rre d to in th e h isto ric a l s o u rc e s .28 In
c u ltu re -h is to ry , A rc ha eo lo g y ’s su b se rv ie n c e to H istory is re p ro d u c e d ,
and a rc h a e o lo g is ts c o n tin u e to la b o ur u n d e r th e ‘ty ra n ny of th e
h isto ric a l re c o rd ’.29 David A ustin su g g e s ts th a t ‘th e a rc h a e o lo g is t fe els
bound . . . by th e ru le s of h isto ric a l p ra c tic e laid down by d o c u m e n ta ry
h is to ria n s ’.30 H is to ria n s s e t th e a genda for th e stud y of th e p e rio d and
w he n a rc h a e o lo g is ts have c o n trib u te d th e y have te n d e d to ‘a c c e p t
u n c h alle n g e d th e “ tr u t h ” of [the] d o c u m e n ta ry in form ation and its
in te rp re ta tio n s as th e u n q u e stio n e d fram e w o rk of th e d is c u s s io n ’.31
O ne of th e re s u lts , says A ustin, is th a t ‘a rc h ae o lo g y has follow ed for
m o s t of th is c e n tu ry an e th n o c e n tric , and racial, view of e arly m edieval
B rita in as th e political and c u ltu ra l p ro d u c t of c o n q u e s t and co lon y’.32 I
h ope th a t in th e c o u rse of th is c h a p te r it will b e co m e c le a r th a t m any
h is to ria n s and a rc h a e o lo g ists have in d e e d c o n stru c te d a racial and
e th n o c e n tric view of e a rly E n g lish h istory . M o st, h o w e ver, a re
u n aw are th a t th e y have d one so.
It is n e c e s sa ry to draw o u t th e im p lic atio n s of th e kind of h isto ry
w hich c u ltu re -h is to ry p ro d u c es:
1. T h e re is a d ire c t re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n e th n ic ity and m a te ria l
c u ltu re , d e sp ite th e p ro te s ta tio n s of a rc h a e o lo g is ts for at le a st th e
last d e ca d e.
2. T he A ngles, Saxons and J u te s e x is te d as d is c re te g ro u p in g s in
th e ir C o n tin e n ta l h o m e la nd s and re m a in e d so in th e e arly p e rio d of
th e ir s e ttle m e n t in E ngland.
3. Som ehow th e s e d is c re te g ro u p in g s gradually c o ale sc e d o r w ere
a b so rb e d to form th e n a tio n we know as E ngland and th e p e op le
we know as th e E nglish.
As a rc h a e o lo g is ts we really should know by now th a t th e re is no
im m e d ia te and d ire c t re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n e th n ic ity and m a te ria l
28. S o m e of th e p r o b le m s w ith th e c u l t u r e - h i s t o r y a p p ro a c h a re d is c u s s e d be low ,

a n d in A u s tin , ‘P r o p e r s t u d y ’; S. J o n e s , T h e A r c h a e o lo g y o f E t h n ic it y :
C o n s tr u c t in g Id e n ti ti e s in P a s t a n d P re s e n t (1 9 9 7 ), 1 5 - 2 6 , 1 3 5 -4 4 ; S. S h e n n a n ,
‘In tro d u c tio n : a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s to c u ltu ra l id e n tity ’, in A r c h a e o lo g ic a l
A p p r o a c h e s to C u l t u r a l I d e n ti ty , e d . S. S h e n n a n ( 1 9 8 8 ), 1 -3 2 ; B. T rig g e r , A
H is to r y o f A r c h a e o lo g ic a l T h o u g h t (1 9 8 9 ), 1 4 8 - 2 0 6 .
2 9. T . C h a m p io n , ‘M e d ie v a l a rc h a e o lo g y a n d th e ty ra n n y o f th e h is to ric a l r e c o r d ', in
A u stin a n d A lcock, B a lti c to th e B la c k S e a , 9 1.
30. A u s tin , ‘P r o p e r s tu d y ’, 12. S e e a ls o J. R ic h a rd s , ‘S ty le a n d sy m b o l: e x p la in in g
v a ria b ility in A n glo-S a xo n c r e m a tio n b u r ia ls ’, in P o w e r a n d P o litic s in E a r l y
M e d ie v a l B r it a i n a n d Ir e la n d , e d s S. D risc o ll a n d M. N ie k e (1 9 8 8 ), 145; H ills,
‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n p e r io d ’, 3 2 5 , 3 2 8 .
3 1. A u stin , ‘P r o p e r s tu d y ’, 2 5. L o tte H e d e a g e r, Iro n A g e S o cieties: E ro n i T rib e to
S ta te in N o r th e r n E u r o p e 5 0 0 B C to A D 7 0 0 ( 1 9 92 ), 181, h a s id e n tifie d th e s a m e
p ro b le m in D a n is h a r c h a e o lo g y .
3 2. A u stin , ‘P ro p e l s tu d y ’, 15.
c u ltu re . S te p h e n S h en n an ta c k le s th is p ro b le m h e ad on. He p o in ts o u t
th a t a rc h a e o lo g is ts have id e ntifie d w ha t a re called ‘a rc h ae o lo g ic al
c u ltu re s ’ - a ra n ge of a rte fa c ts a ss o c ia te d in tim e and sp a c e - and have
linked th e s e to th e n a m es of p e o p le s given in th e w ritte n so u rc e s . T h e
a rc h ae o lo g ic al c u ltu re s a re th u s re g a rd e d as m a te ria l m a n ife sta tio n s of
d is c re te and a u to n o m o u s e th n ic g ro u p s, of p e o p le s .33 T h e im p lication
is th a t ‘p e o p le s ’ in th e p a st signalled th e ir affinity (and prim arily th e ir
e th n ic affinity) d irectly in th e m a te ria l o b je c ts th e y u se d , and th a t we
can tra c e th e p a tte rn of m o v e m e n t of th e se ‘p e o p le s ’ th ro u g h th e
chan ging d is trib u tio n of d istin c tiv e a rte fa c ts .34 T his is a se rio u sly
flawed a rg u m e n t b ut is one w hich c o n trib u te s to th e ‘s tre a m of b lo o d ’
th e o rie s to w hich I re fe rre d e a rlie r. It has to be c ha lle ng ed .
S h en n an show s th a t to link a rch a eo log ic al c u ltu re s w ith historically-
re c o rd e d (so-called) e th n ic g ro u p s is m ista k en sin ce ‘we c a n no t
a ssu m e th a t th e “ p e o p le s ” d e sc rib e d in th e s o u rc e s c o rre sp o n d to th e
self-conscious id e n tity g ro u p s w hich a re e ss e n tia l to th e de finition of
e th n ic ity ’.35 In a d dition , if we a re fixated with th e idea th a t la te a n tiq u e
and M igration P e rio d m a te ria l c u ltu re should be s e e n only as e th n ic
g ro up sig nifiers, we m iss o th e r, p e rh a p s m o re im p o rta n t, m e an in g s
which can be re a d from th is m a te rial, and ig n o re th e a ctive ro le of
m a te rial c u ltu re p o stu la te d by so m any p o st-p ro c e ssu a l a rc h a e o lo g is ts.
We should also be a w are of th e p a rallel a rg u m e n ts c o n c e rn in g th e ways
in w hich a rc h a e o lo g is ts c o n stru c t ‘c u ltu re s ’, and e sp e c ia lly th e fact
that ‘in m any in s ta n c e s such e n titie s a re p urely c o n stru c ts d e vise d by
a rc h a e o lo g is ts ’.3'’ As Siân J o n e s fu rth e r p o in ts out, we have to be
aw are of th e ‘u n fo rtu n a te im p lication . . . th a t a rc h a e o lo g is ts, and o th e r
social s c ie n tis ts , m ay have d e v elo p e d p a rad ig m s to explain th a t w hich
they have th e m se lv e s c r e a te d ’.37
D om inic J a n e s has e xa m in e d th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n b ro oc h form
and im pe rial s ta tu s in late a n tiq u ity .38 He a rg u e s th a t, b e c a u se of th e
pow er of th e S ta te - w hat he calls its ‘g olden c la s p ’ - th e a ris to c ra c y of
th e la te E m p ire w ore g olden cross-bow b ro o c h e s. T h e s e b ro o c h e s
w ere w orn as e m b le m s of a lle gian c e , regardless of e th n ic affiliation.39
They re la te to th e p o w e r s tru c tu re s of th e late R om an e m p ire ra th e r
than to th e e th n ic id e n tity of th e ir w e a re rs . T h e y b e sp e a k id e ntity, b ut
not e th n ic id e n tity . We m iss su ch im p o rta n t in s ig h ts in to th e
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n m a te ria l c u ltu re and o th e r form s of c ollective
id e ntity w hen we a ssu m e a d ire c t and inflexible link b e tw e e n it and
33. S h e n n a n , ‘I n tr o d u c tio n ’, 0.
IN. F o r an e x tr e m e e x a m p le , s e e V. B ie r b ra u e r , H. B u s in g , a n d A. B ü s in g -K o lb e ,
‘D ie D a m e von K ic a ro lo ’, A r c h a r o lo ^ tu M a ti n u ih ' 2 0 (1 9 9 3 ), 0 8 0 .
:tr>. S b r in i,m , ‘I n tr o d u c tio n ’, lb , e m p h a s is a d d e d .
3 0. J o n e s , A r r l u u o l o n y o f E t h m n t y , 108 9. 131.
3 7. U nd.. 139,
38. I). J a n e s , ‘T h e g o ld e n c la s p ol th e ta le U nm an s t a t e ’, E a r l y M n l i r r n l E u r o f u ’ b
(1 9 9 0 ). 12 7 53.
39 l l n d .. 110 8.
e th n ic ity . We m igh t ex am in e th e ‘c hip-c arv e d’ b e lt fitting s from late

R om an B ritain in th e sam e light.
T h e d o c u m e n ta ry s o u rc e s tell us th a t G e rm a nic m e rc e n a rie s w ere
em p loy ed in th e d e fe n ce of late- and sub-R om an B rita in , and a tte m p ts
have b e e n m ade to link th e s e belt-fitting s d ire c tly w ith th e s e e arly
‘G e rm a n ic ’ s e t t l e r s .10 Such o b je c ts a re found th ro u g h o u t th e e m p ire ,
e sp e c ia lly along th e R hine-D anube fr o n tie r ," and it has b e e n argu e d
th a t th e sim ila rity b e tw e e n th o s e from th e la tte r a re a and th o s e in
E ngland w as a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id en c e for e arly G e rm a n ic o c c u p a tio n .40414243
F u r th e r it w as s u g g e s te d th a t th is ‘G e rm a n ic ’ s e ttle m e n t m ight in fact
be ‘A nglo-Saxon’ sin ce ‘it is . . . a ssum e d th a t th e m o st likely so u rc e for
th e G e rm a n ic fo e d e ra ti was th e A nglo-Saxon h o m e la n d s ’.42 T h e ‘chip-
c a rv e d ’ b e lt fittin g s th u s b e ca m e e arly A nglo-Saxon e th n ic id e n tifie rs.
H ow ever, m uch d ou bt has now b e e n c a st on th is in te rp re ta tio n . It
has b e e n p o in te d o ut th a t th e s e a rte fa c ts a re p roba bly from ‘official
is s u e ’ b e lts, w hich m ay have b e e n w orn by th e ‘officials of th e
a d m in is tra tiv e and financial b u re a u c ra c ie s c ha rge d w ith th e sm o o th
ru n n in g of th e d io c e s e ’.44 C a th e rin e H ills a c c e p ts th a t som e ty p e s of
b uc kles m a y have b e e n a ss o c ia te d w ith th e m ilitary, b ut n o te s th a t this
is ‘n ot th e sam e as a c c e p tin g th a t th e y w e re w orn o n ly by G e rm a n ic
s o ld ie rs ’.454
6 Kevin L eahy m a ke s th e p o in t th a t ‘th e re has b e en a
te n d e n c y to o v e re m p h a siz e th e ir G e rm a n ic n a tu r e ’, and a rg u e s tha t
‘th e d olp h in s th a t d e c o ra te th e m a re m o re close ly re la te d to late
R om an, r a th e r th an G e rm a n ic ta s t e s ’.41’
F re q u e n tly , th e s e o b je c ts a re found in th e e xca va tion of b u ria ls, and
S im on F sm o n d e C leary p o in ts o ut th a t a new burial rite a p p e a re d
a rou n d th e m iddle of th e fou rth c en tu ry . M ale g ra ve s c o n ta in e d b e lt
fittin g s a t th e w aist, a cross-bow b ro o ch at th e s h o u ld e r and an
‘o fferin g ’ by th e rig h t fo o t.47 In his stu dy of th e sa m e p h e n o m e n o n in
n o rth e rn G aul, Guy H alsall h a s p o in te d o ut th a t th e burial rite , sim ila r
to th e one w e have b e e n d e sc rib in g - ‘th e sta n d a rd R om an form of
burial but w ith th e a dd itio n of m o re n u m e ro u s grave-goods, including
w e ap o nry and b e lt-se ts for th e m en and je w e lle ry for th e w o m e n ’ - is
4 0. A p rin c ip a l s o u r c e fo r th is d is c u s s io n is still H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n

p e r io d ’.
41. Ib id ., 2 9 8.
4 2. S. H a w k e s a n d G . D u n n in g , ‘S o ld ie rs a n d s e t t l e r s in B rita in , fo u rth to fifth
c e n tu r y ’. M e d ie v a l A rc h a e o lo g y 5 (1 9 6 1 ), 1 - 7 0 ; H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n
p e r io d ’, 2 9 9.
43. E s m o n d e C le a ry , E n d i n g o f R o m a n B r i t a i n , 56.
4 4. Ib id ., 5 5. G. H a ls a ll, T h e o rig in s of th e R e i h e n g r ä b e r z iv ilis a ti o n : fo rty y e a rs o n ’,
in F ift h C e n t u r y C a u l: A C r is is o f I d e n t i t y ? e d s J. D rin k w a te r a n d H. E lto n
(1 9 9 2 ), 2 0 0.
45. H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n p e r io d ’, 3 0 5 , e m p h a s is a d d e d . A lso H a lsa ll,
' R e i h e n g r a b e r z iv il is a t io n ', 2 0 0 - 1 .
46. K. I.e a h y , ‘T h e A n glo-S a xon s e ttle m e n t of L in d s e y ’, in R re V tk in g L in d s e y , e d . A.
V in ce (1 9 9 3 ), 3 0.
4 7. E s m o n d e C le a ry , E n d i n g o l R o m a n B r i t a i n , 55.
significa ntly d iffe re n t from th o se of F re e G e rm a n y .48 H alsall has

e x tra c te d sim ila r b e lt fittin g s from a ‘G e rm a n ic ’ c o n te x t a nd s e e s th e m
in ste a d as ‘sym bols of a u th o rity ’. 49 He a rg u e s th a t th e b u ria ls in w hich
th e y o c c u r to o k place in th e c o n te x t of c h a lle n g e s to R om an a u th o rity
at tim e s w he n th a t a u th o rity w as w e a k e n e d . Im po rtan tly , it is a rg ue d
th a t w hile such o p p o sitio n m ight com e from ‘R o m a n ’ o r ‘G e rm a n ’
s o u rc e s , th e p eo p le w ho m o u n te d th e c h a lle n g e s w e re doing so largely
w ithin ‘th e a c c e p te d im p e ria l idiom s of a u th o rity ’.50 In th is c o n te x t it
should com e as no s u rp ris e th a t th ey , and th e ir c o n te m p o ra rie s in
B ritain, also u se d m a te ria l sym bols of th a t a u tho rity .
T h e re m ay have b e e n ‘G e rm a n ic ’ m e rc e n a rie s in B rita in in th e
fou rth c en tu ry . T h is w ould n o t be u n e x p e c te d and it n e e d n o t have
ta k en an ‘in v ita tio n ’ from V o rtig e rn to b ring th e m . T h e re had b e e n
‘G e rm a n ic ’ so ld ie rs in B rita in in th e p e rio d of R om an o c cu p a tion and it
is p ossib le th a t m any sta ye d at th e e nd of e m p ire . It is g e n era lly
a ssu m e d th a t th e R om an arm y w as w ithdra w n in th e early fifth
c e n tu r y ,51 b u t ‘th e only firm e v id en c e we have for tro o p w ithd ra w a ls
c om e s in 4 0 1 /2 . . . [when] S tilicho re m o v ed a B ritish legion . . . to he lp
in the d e fe n ce of Italy a g a in st A laric’s in v a sio n ’.52 P ro c o p iu s te lls us
th a t a fte r th e s u p p re ss io n of th e rev olt of th e ‘e m p e r o r’ C o n sta n tin e in
409, th e R om ans could no lo n g e r m a inta in th e ir hold on B rita in and it
was th e n ruled by ‘ty ra n ts ’. H ow ever, as Averil C am e ro n p o in ts out, it
is unlikely th a t R om an ru le e n d e d so a b ru p tly .55
We m ight inste ad im agine a situa tion in B ritain in th e late fourth
c en tu ry m uch like th a t argu e d for Italy in the se v e n th c e ntu ry by Tom
Brown. H e re th e s tru c tu re s of th e S tate re m a ine d in place for m uch
longer, but as cash pay m en ts to the arm y becam e a p roblem in the late
sixth and early se v e n th c e n tu rie s, so ld ie rs began to a cquire land and live
off its p roduc e, a p ro c e ss w hich ‘gave tro o p s a m ajor incentive tow ards
th i‘ vigorous de fe nce of th e ir own p ro p e rtie s and c o m m u n itie s’.54
In B ritain, c oins (e sp ec ia lly silv er and gold) a re e x tre m e ly ra re from
3 7 8 .55 In th is c o n te x t we m ight se e R om an so ld ie rs (G e rm a n s and
o th e rs ) im m e rsin g th e m s e lv e s in th e local p o w er s tru c tu re s of late
im p erial B ritain. In c re a sin g ly th e s e w e re p o w e r s tru c tu re s w hich b o re
an a n ta g o n istic but d e p e n d e n t re la tio n sh ip to th e a u th o rity of R om e.
T h e o n e ro u s la te Im p e ria l d e m a n d s for ta xation , am ong o th e rs fa c tors,
had e ro d e d th e e ffe c tiv e n e ss of R o m a n ita s as a b inding m e ch a nism ,
and th e e lite in c re asing ly o p te d out of th e S ta te , p re fe rrin g to dev elop
IS. H a lsa ll. ‘R e i h e n f i m b e r z i v t l i s a t i o n ' , 2 0 2 .

IU. U n d ., 2or>.
!»(). Ib i,I.. 2 0 4 .
!> I H ig h aiii, R o m e , 2 1 !>.
r>2. M. M i l l c l l , T h e R o m u m z a t t o n o f U n i o n i ( 1 0 0 0 ) . 21T>.
!».'{. A. ( . l i n e i m i , P r o c o p iu s o n ,I I h r S i x t h C e n t u r y (IOSf>). 2 1 2 14.
I>4. I Hi o w n . ( ìe n t le m r n o rn i O ffieers: I m p e r i a i A d m i n i s t r a t i o n u n ii A r is t o c r a ti e
R o w er in H v z a n tin e Ita ly A l l .Ve/ SOO ( l o s t ) . SS
li!». M ille d , R o i ti a n u a li o n , 2 10
th e ir ‘p riv a te ’ pow ers as landow ners and landlords.™ It is in th is c o n te x t

- fra g m e n ta tio n of s ta te a u th o rity and c o nso lid a tio n of p riv a te p o w e r -
th a t th e ‘c hip -c arv ed ’ b e lt fittin g s belong. At th is stag e th e ‘e th n ic ’
id e n tity of th e w ie ld e rs of th is localized p o w er m a tte re d little; n o r w as
it to m a tte r for so m e tim e . W hat did m a tte r w as th e c o n stru c tio n of
p o w e r in and a g a in st a re la tio n s h ip w ith th e a u th o rity of R om e.
We a re th e re fo re now in a p o sitio n to s e e th e s e b e lt s e ts , and th e
b uria ls in w hich th e y a re in c o rp o ra te d , in a la te R om an and n ot
specifically ‘G e rm a n ic ’ c o n te x t. Like th e cross-bow b ro o c h e s stu d ie d
by Ja n e s, th e y have c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e late R om an s ta te . Like th e
c ro ssbo w b ro o c h e s, th e b e lts w e re sym bols of collectiv e id e n tity , but
n o t e th n ic id e n tity . T h e b e lt fittin g s and cross-bow b ro o c h e s be lo n g in
a w orld of tr a n s itio n w h e re id e n titie s and loyalties w ere c om plex and,
a t tim e s, c o n tra d ic to ry . To se e th e m only as sym bols of G e rm a n ic
e th n ic ity is n o t only to ig n o re th e e v id en c e w hile lab ou rin g u n d e r th e
‘ty ra nn y of th e h is to ric a l re c o r d ’,565758 it is also to m is u n d e rsta n d th e
c om plex w eb of id e n titie s th a t e x iste d a t th e tim e.
T ackling this is su e from a n o th e r d ire c tio n , we m ight a c c e p t fo r the
m o m e n t th a t th e m a te ria l re c o rd of th e M igratio n P e rio d in E n g lan d is
in d e ed a re fle c tio n of p a st e th nic ity . If we a ss u m e th a t th e A ngles,
S axons, and J u te s w e re b o un d ed , d is c re te , h o m o g e n e o u s c u ltu ra l
g ro u p s w ho re fle c te d th e ir id e n tity th ro u g h m a te ria l c u ltu re , we m ight
e x p e c t c le a r d is tin c tio n s in th e a rc h ae o lo g y of th e ir re s p e c tiv e
‘s e ttle m e n t a r e a s ’. W hile it is th e c ase th a t th e re a re p a rts of E ngland
w h e re so-called A nglian o r Saxon m a te ria l c u ltu re d o m in a te s, this is
n o t alw ays tru e . H ine s has n o te d th a t in th e p e rio d up to c. 475 e arly
‘S a x o n ’ m a te ria l is found ‘a c ro ss th e w hole of th e a re a from n o rth of
th e H u m be r to S ussex , w ith th e e x c e p tio n of K e nt e a s t of th e M edw ay,
w h e re J u tis h m a te ria l . . . is p re d o m in a n t’.38 B arb ara Y orke su g g e s ts
th a t ‘a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id e nc e s u g g e sts th a t th e m a te ria l c u ltu re of th e
H a m psh ire J u te s w as n o t strik in g ly d iffe re n t from th a t of th e ir Saxon
n e ig h b o u rs ’.596
0On th e sam e th e m e , H ills p o in ts o ut th a t in th e pagan
A nglo-Saxon c e m e te rie s of E a s t A nglia, a ltho ug h th e re a re o b je cts
w hich re s e m b le th o s e from th e ‘c o n tin e n ta l A nglian a re a s . . . T h e re
a re also a p plie d b ro o c h e s of Saxon ty p e s and b one com bs p a rallele d
b oth in th e E lb e-W e se r re g io n and fu rth e r w e s t’. S he c o n clu d e s th a t
a tte m p ts to lo ca te d is c re te A nglian, Saxon and Ju tish g ro u p s in
E ngland is fru itle ss sinc e on th e C o n tin e n t th e s e g ro u p s w e re re ally
‘loose c o n fe d e ra tio n s draw n from a v a rie ty of p e o p le ’.89
5 6. C. W ick h a m , ‘T h e O th e r T ra n s itio n : fro m th e a n c ie n t w o rld to f e u d a lis m ’, P a s t

a n d P r e s e n t 103 (1 9 8 4 ), 3 - 3 6 ; H ig h a m , R o m e , 2 1 3 - 1 4 ; S c ull, ‘E a rly A ng lo -S a x on
s o c ie ty ’, 70.
5 7. C h a m p io n , ‘T y ra n n y o f th e h is to ric a l r e c o r d ’, 91.
5 8. H in e s , ‘P h ilo lo g y ’, 27.
5 9. B. Y o rk e , ‘T h e J u t e s of H a m p s h ire a n d W ig h t a n d th e o rig in s o f W e s s e x ’, in
B a s s e tt, A n ^ to S a x o n K in g d o m s , 92.
60. H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n p e r io d ', 3 1 7 . S e e a lso S cu ll, ‘E a rly A n glo-S a xon
s o c ie ty ’, 7 I .
U sually such ‘a n o m a lie s ’ to th e e x p e c te d ‘B e d a n ’ p a tte rn a re sim ply

n o te d and ign ored ; w h e re e x p lan a tion is a tte m p te d , th is is c ou ch e d in
c u ltu re -h isto ric a l te rm s w ith all th e im p lica tion s to w hich I have
a lre ad y re fe rre d . F o r e xa m p le , L eahy a rg u e s th a t ‘th e p e o p le w ho
s e ttle d L indsey d u rin g th e 5 th c e n tu ry w e re p re d o m in a n tly A ngles b ut
w ith th e a dd itio n of som e Saxons and o th e r e le m e n ts ’.61 F rom tim e to
tim e th e re c o g n itio n of such a n o m a lies w ithin th e c u ltu re -h isto ric a l
fram e w o rk re s u lts in fu rth e r ‘a n o m a lie s’ and n e c e s s ita te s som e w h a t
to rtu o u s e x p la n a tio n s. T h u s, we a re told th a t th e e a rlie s t e v id e nc e for
th e p re s e n c e of ‘S ax o n s’ in W essex is at Hod Hill, w h e re th e y had
‘a rriv e d by th e m id-fifth c e n tu ry ’. H ow ever, it a p p e a rs th a t th e ‘S a x o n ’
finds e m e rg e from a ‘B ritis h ’ c o n te x t and th e s tric t a sso c ia tio n
a ss u m e d b e tw e e n m a te ria l c u ltu re and e th n ic g ro u p n e c e s s ita te s th e
c o nc lu sion th a t ‘th e fifth c e n tu ry o b je c ts from Hod Hill m ay have
b elo n g ed to th e fam ilies of Saxon w a rrio rs in B ritish e m p lo y ’!62 B ruce
F ag le s also a rg u e s th a t a p a rtic u la r type of ‘hand-m ade organic-, ofte n
grass- o r ch aff-tem p e re d p o tte ry ’ p ro v id e s ‘one of th e few p o in te rs to
th e B ritish p o p u la tio n ’. In e s s e n c e , it b e c o m e s an e th n ic id e n tifie r for
an u n d iffe re n tia te d ‘B ritis h ’ p e o ple. H ow ever, we a re also told th a t it
was found on ‘A nglo-Saxon’ site s such as P o rtc h e s te r; w as a ss o c ia te d
with ‘a p o ssib le A nglo-Saxon su n k en -fe a tu re d b u ildin g ’ at H uckles-
b ro o k , a nd w as ‘re c o v e re d from A nglo-S axon b u ria ls a t F o rd ,
P e te rs fin g e r and W in te rb o u rn e G u n n e r’.6'1
H ere we sho uld also n o te th e e v id e nc e for m o re localized ‘m a te ria l
c u ltu re s ’ w ithin th e so-called Anglian and Saxon s e ttle m e n t a re a s.
Yorke p o in ts o ut tha t in th e sixth c e n tu ry in W essex, ‘no two
c e m e te rie s a re id e ntic al and . . . eac h co m m u nity had p a tte rn s of burial
ritual o r d re s s p e c u lia r to it s e l f ’.6164S e v e ral sc h o la rs have p o in te d to th e
e x iste n c e of d iffe re n tia tio n w ithin individual c e m e te rie s .65 E llen P a d e r
well illu s tra te s th e scale and ‘p ro x im ity’ of d ifferen c e -
th e p o pu la tio n s b u rie d a t W estg a rth G a rd e n s and Holywell Row
did not c h o o se to d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n c h ild re n and a du lts in th e
6 I. L e a h y , ‘L in d s e y ’, 37.
6 2. IL E a g le s, ‘T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e for s e ttle m e n t in th e fifth to s e v e n th
c e n tu r ie s A D ’, in T h e M e d ie v a l L a n d s c a p e o f W essex, e d s M . A sto n a n d C. L e w is
( 1 9 94 ), 2 7 .
(»3. Ib id ., 1.3.
64. Y o rk e , VYc.s-.sgx, 4 4 - 4 5 . A lso. R ic h a rd s, ‘S ty le a n d s y m b o l’.
<>r>. S e e II. H a r k e , ‘T h e s h ie ld in th e b u ria l r i t e ’, in E a r l y A n g lo -S a x o n S h ie ld s , e d s T.
D ic k in so n a n d 11. H a rk e ( 1 9 9 2 ), 6 5 ; K. P a d e r , M a te ria l sy m b o lis m a n d so c ia l
r e la tio n s in m o r tu a ry s t u d i e s ’, in A n g lo S a x o n C e m e te rie s 1 9 7 9 , e d s P . K ah tz , T .
D ic k in s o n a n d L. W a tts (1 9 3 0 ), 147 9. 157; C. A rn o ld , ‘T h e A nglo-S a xon
c e m e te r ie s of th e Isle o f W ight; an a p p r a is a l of n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y e x c a v a tio n
d a t a ’, in A n g lo S a x o n C e m e te rie s: /V R e a p p r a is a l, e d . E . S o u th w o rth (1 9 9 0 ), 168;
J. I lu g g e tl, ‘S o cia l a n a ly s is o f e a rly A n glo S a x o n in h u m a tio n b u ria ls : a r c h a e
o lo g ic a l m e th o d o lo g ie s ’, p a n n a i of E u r o p e a n A r ch a e o lo g y 4 ( 1 9 96 ), 3 4 3 5 3, 362 ;
( . S c ull, ‘lle f o re S u tto n 11• ><i : s tin t l u t e s ol p o w e i a n d s o c ie ty in e a rly E a s t
A n g lia ’, in l a l v e i, A g e o l S a l i m i I lo o , I !>.
sam e m a n n e r o r to th e sam e d e g re e . N or did th e y alw ays u se th e

sam e o b je c ts (e.g. knives for fe m a les). Yet b o th a re on tr ib u ta rie s
of th e R iver L ark, a re only som e 19km a p art, and ove rlap
te m p o ra lly .66
H ow ever, th e se a re only anom alies if we p e rsist in believing in bounded
and hom ogeneous ‘e th n ic ’ groups in th e past, and if we continue to
in te rp re t the archaeological re co rd through the m ethodologies of culture-
history. A fresh look at the evidence, com bined w ith a rec on side ra tion of
th e n ature of ethnicity in the early M iddle Ages, suggests th a t p ro c e sse s
o th e r than (as well as?) tho se of eth nic ‘signalling’ w ere at w ork in th e
fifth- and sixth-century regions of England.
Ethnicity and heterogeneity
C o n tra ry to c om m on u n d e rsta n d in g , it w ould be a g ro s s e r r o r to

a ssu m e th a t th e A ngles, Saxons and J u te s p o s se ss e d d is c re te id e n titie s
in th e ir so-called trib a l h o m e la n d s and m a in ta in e d th e m in th e e arly
p a rt of th e ir s e ttle m e n t in E ngland. H ow ever, in his re c e n t volum e on
The E n g lish , Sir G eoffrey E lton te lls us th a t ‘th e A nglo-Saxons did not
in te rm a rry w ith th e in d ig en o us p op u latio n . . . [and] did not mix
significantly w ith th e C elts (B rito n s)’.67 In a sim ila r vein, W elch has
‘rea l p ro b le m s ’ a c c e p tin g th e idea th a t th e a d v e n tu s S a x o n u m w as in
fact m ade up of
a sm all n u m b e r of w ell-arm ed w a rrio r b a nd s . . . [who] m a rrie d
nativ e B ritish w om en and th a t th e y and th e ir m ixed-blood “ Anglo-
S a x on ” p ro g en y a re th e o c c u p a n ts of th e m any so-called Anglo-
Saxon b uria l g ro u n d s stu d ie d by a rc h a e o lo g is ts
and a rg u e s in s te a d th a t th e in v a d e rs b ro u g h t th e ir w ives w ith th e m .68
T h e sam e view is im plicit in th e w ritin g s of th o s e w ho a rg u e for th e
‘s e p a r a te n e s s ’ and ‘d is tin c tiv e n e s s ’ of A nglian and Saxon g ro u p s up to
th e sixth c e n tu ry .697 0
H ow ever, som e a rc ha eo lo g ists and h isto ria n s now q u e stio n the
a ssu m e d racial purity, and integ rity of M igration P erio d g ro u p s .7" T hu s,
H erw ig W olfram re m in d s us of th e v a st a rra y of ‘p e o p le s ’ in th e fo u rth
6 6. P a d e r , ‘M a te ria l s y m b o lis m ’, 158. S e e a lso H o d g e s, A n g lo -S a x o n A c h i e v e m e n t,

3 7 -8 .
6 7. E lto n , T h e E n g li s h , 3.
6 8. W e lch, A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d , 11 ( e m p h a s is a d d e d ). A lso N . H ig h a m , T h e E n g li s h
C o n q u e st: H ild a s a n d B r it a i n in th e F ift h C e n t u r y (1 9 9 4 ), 168. F o r a u se fu l
c o r r e c tiv e , s e e A rn o ld , A n g lo S a x o n K in g d o m s , 24.
6 9. S e e b e lo w , n o te s 8 9 a n d 9 0.
70. A u stin , ‘P r o p e r s tu d y ’, 16, r e f e r r in g to W. ( >offa i t . B a r b a r ia n s a n d R o m a n s At)
■ IIK SH4: I'lii’ 't e c h n i q u e s o f A c c o m m o d a tio n (1 9 8 0 ). A lso E. J a m e s , ‘B u ria l a n d
s ta tu s in th e e a rly m e d ie v a l W e s t', T r a n s a c tio n s o f th e R o y a l H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty
5 th s o r., 39 (1 9 8 9 ), 25.
century O strogothic ‘kingdom ’ of E rm anaric. M ore generally, he argues

tha t ‘the sou rc es a tte st the basically polyethnic c h ara c te r of the gentes.
Archaic peoples a re mixed . . . T h eir form ation . . . is not a m a tte r of
com m on d e sc e nt but one of political de cision’.71 T h e p re s e n c e of
‘R o m an s’, o r fo rm e r ‘R o m a n s’, in th e s e ‘b a rb a ria n ’ g ro u p s should be
e m p h a s iz e d .727
4T h e situ a tio n d e te c te d by P a tric k A m ory w h e re sm all
3
c u ltiv a to rs w ho jo in ed th e arm y of T h e o d o ric th e G re a t w ould have
become k n o w n as G o th s by 493, w as su re ly m o re w id e sp re a d th a n th e
a re a s of P a nn o nia , M oesia, and n o rth e rn Italy .71 In th is c o n te x t we
m ight re m e m b e r th a t O ro siu s, ‘w riting of th e irru p tio n of G e rm a n s
into G aul and S pain e arly in th e fifth c e ntu ry, could say th a t som e
R om ans p re fe rre d to live am ong th e “ b a rb a ria n s ” , p o o r in lib e rty,
ra th e r th a n e n d u re th e a nx iety of paying ta xe s in th e R om an e m p ire ’.71
In th e chan ging w orld of la te a n tiq u ity p e o ple w e re m aking a ctive
c ho ic es, and th o s e c ho ic es w e re no lo n g e r (if th e y e v e r had b e e n )
b e tw e e n R om an and b a rb a ria n . W ith th e tra n sfo rm a tio n of E m pire, and
of th e in stitu tio n a l s tru c tu re s w hich form ed it, ‘p e o ple w e re forced to
c h oo se loya ltie s from a m ong th e new sm a lle r c o m m u n itie s w ithin
w hich th e y found th e m s e lv e s ’.75 In a dd ition , it is n o t a t all c le a r th a t
e th n ic id e n tity fo rm ed th e b a sis of th e s e new c o m m u n itie s. In th e
B urgundian kingdom m any m e m b e rs of th e R om an e lite p ro s p e re d
u n d e r th e new re g im e . A fter th e fall of th e B u rg u nd ian kingdom in 534
som e re m a in e d p ro m in e n t u n d e r th e F ra n k s. Significantly,
n on e of th e m has left any re c o rd of fe eling d iffe re n t o r spec ia l
due to th e ir R o m a n d e sc e n t. T h e ir p ro m in e n c e and self-c onsc ious
p rid e w e re d ue to th e ir se n a to ria l d e sc e n t, a m o re spe cia liz ed
c a te g o ry th a n an e th n ic g ro u p .76
T he fact th a t th e y re m a in e d in p o sitio n th ro u g h o u t th e c h an g e s in
‘e th n ic ’ c o ntro l in th e re g io n s u g g e sts th a t social and e co n om ic p o w er
ra th e r th a n e th n ic id e ntific atio n o r e xclusio n was an e s s e n tia l e le m e n t
in th e c o n stru c tio n of th e ir id e n tity - as a p e op le a p a rt. S ignificantly, it
a p p e a rs th a t B urgundian o r G e rm a n ic ‘e th n ic ity ’ w as n o t th e m o st
im p o rta n t fa cto r for th o se m e m b e rs of th e e lite w ith G e rm a n ic na m e s.
T hey too lived in and th ro u g h th e s tru c tu re s form ed from th e political
d e m ise of th e R om an e m p ire .77
71. H. W o lfra m , H isto r y o f th e G o th s (1 9 8 8 ;, 7 - 8 ; id e m , ‘O rig o et r e lig w . E th n ic

tr a d itio n s a n d lit e r a tu r e in e a rly m e d ie v a l t e x ts ’, E a r l y M e d ie v a l E u r o p e 3
( 1 9 9 4 ), 2 1. S e e a lso T . A n d e rs o n , J r, ‘R o m a n m ilita ry c o lo n ie s in G au l, S a lia n
e t h n o g e n e s is a n d th e f o rg o tte n m e a n in g o f th e P a c tu s L e g is S a li c a e ’, E a r l y
M e d ie v a l E u r o p e 9 (1 9 9 9 ), 136; a n d E . J a m e s , ‘T h e o rig in s o f b a rb a ria n
k in g d o m s: th e c o n tin e n ta l e v id e n c e ’, in B a s s e tt, A n g lo S a x o n K in g d o m s , 48.
72. W olfra m , H isto r y o f th e G o th s, 8.
73. A m o ry , ‘N a m e s , e th n ic id e n tity ’, 9, e m p h a s is a d d e d .
74. ( i.K .M . d e S te C ro ix , T h e ( la ss S t n ig g l e in th e A n c i e n t ( I reek W o rld (1 9 8 1 ), 4 8 1 .
79. A m o ry, 'N a m e s , e th n ic id e n tity ’, 9.
76. Ib id ., 2 2 .
77. Ib id ., 19
W here th e n do th e A ngles, S axons, and J u te s as c o h e re n t p e o p le s fit

in to th is p ic tu re of ‘b e w ild e rin g h e te r o g e n e ity ’ and o v e rla pp in g
id e n titie s ? A lthough th e p ro m in e n c e given to B e d e ’s s ta te m e n t ab o u t
th e A ngles, Saxons and J u te s has fo re c lo s e d m uch d isc u ssio n of
a lte rn a tiv e s , th e v ery fact th a t all M igratio n P e rio d g ro u p s w ere
c h a ra c te riz e d by fluidity and h e te ro g e n e ity m a kes it e x tre m e ly unlikely
th a t th e ‘a n c e s to rs of th e E n g lish ’ w e re any d iffe re n t. Som e of th e late
A ntique s o u rc e s sp e a k of ‘p e o p le s ’ o th e r than th e A ngles, Saxons and
J u te s tak ing p a rt in th e ‘s e ttle m e n t’ of E n g la n d .78 H in e s h a s s u g g e s te d
th a t th e re is a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id en c e for an u n d o c u m e n te d m o v e m e n t
of p eo p le from ‘s o u th e rn and w e ste rn N orw ay a b o u t th e b e g inn in g of
th e la st q u a rte r of th e fifth c e n tu ry ’,79 a ltho u g h we m u st be m indful
h e re of slip ping in to c u ltu re -h isto ric a l a rg u m e n ts . We m ight also c ite
th e re fe re n c e th a t in 527,
p ag an s cam e o u t of G e rm a ny, and oc cupie d E a s t Anglia . . . from
w h e re som e of th e m invaded M ercia and w aged m any w ars
a g a in st th e B rito n s: b u t b e c a u se th e ir le a d e rs w e re m any, th e y
have no n a m e .80
T his is in te re s tin g n ot b e c a u se it re c o rd s ‘a n o th e r ’ m ig ratio n b ut
b e c a u se of th e im p lic atio n s it has for th e s tru c tu re of th e ‘w a rb a n d s ’.
‘T h e ir le a d e rs w e re m a n y’ m ight su g g e st a h e te ro g e n e o u s g ro u p m ade
up of individuals a tta c h e d to th e ir own ‘w a rle a d e r’. We m ight e nv isa ge
a sim ila r s tru c tu re in th e g ro u p s w hich u ltim a te ly b e ca m e know n as th e
A ngles, Saxons and J u te s . T h e fact th a t th e la tte r ‘had a n a m e ’ (and
th a t th o s e re c o rd e d in 527 did no t) m ay have m o re to do w ith th e late
sev e nth - and e arly e ig h th -c e n tu ry political c irc u m sta n c e s in w hich
B ede w as w riting th a n w ith th e actual h o m o g e n e ity of th e o riginal
g ro u p .81
In E ngland in th e fifth c en tu ry , we do have e viden c e for th e
m igration of pe ople from n o rth -w e ste rn E uro p e . It would be p e rv e rs e to
deny this. B ut it c a n no t be e m ph a siz e d stro ng ly enough th a t th e se
p o p u la tio n m o v e m e n ts w e re p a rt of th e E u ro p e a n p a tte r n of
V ö lkerw a n d eru n g en , and given th e e v id e nc e cite d for th e h e te ro g e n e o u s
78. P ro c o p iu s ( H is to r y o f th e W a rs, 8 .2 0 , tr a n s l a te d by H .B . D ew in g , 1 9 2 8 ) r e c o rd s
th e F r is ia n s a s o n e o f th e p e o p le s of B rita in . F o r d is c u s s io n , s e e E.A .
T h o m p s o n , ‘P ro c o p iu s o n B rittia a n d B r ita n n ia ’, C la s s ic a l Q u a r te r ly 30 (1 9 8 0 ),
4 9 8 - 5 0 7 ; C a m e ro n , P ro co p iu s . S e e a lso H in e s , ‘B e c o m in g of th e E n g lis h ’, 50 fo r
th e p r o b le m s w ith u sin g a n o t h e r c o m m e n t by B e d e ( H E V .9) a s a lis t of th e
M ig ra tio n P e rio d s e t t l e r s o f E n g la n d .
79. H in e s , ‘P h ilo lo g y ’, 2 9. S e e a lso h is T h e S c a n d i n a v ia n C h a r a c te r o f A n g li a n
E n g l a n d in th e P r e -V ik in g P e r io d (1 9 8 4 ) a n d ‘S c a n d in a v ia n c h a r a c te r ; an u p d a t e ’.
80. C ite d in T . W illia m so n , T h e O r ig in s o f N o r fo lk (1 9 9 3 ), 6 3 ; N ic h o la s B ro o k s ( p e r s .
c o m m .) r e m in d s m e of th e r a t h e r d u b io u s a u th o rity o f th e o rig in a l s o u r c e . F o r
d is c u s s io n , s e e W. D a v ie s, ‘A n n a ls a n d th e o rig in of M e rc ia ’, in M e r c ia n S tu d ie s ,
e d . A. D o rn ie r ( 1 9 77 ), 1 7 -2 9 ; S cu ll, ‘B e fo re S u tto n l in o ', 5; P. S ta ffo rd , I'hc E a s t
M id la n d s in th e E a r ly M id d le A g es (1 9 8 5 ), 81.
81. S e e Y o rk e , a n d W oolf, th is v o lu m e .
c o n s titu tio n of th e C o ntin e nta l g en tes, we c a n no t e x p ec t th e ‘p e o p le ’

w ho becam e k n o w n as th e A ngles, Saxons and J u te s to have b e e n any
differen t. A dditionally we have to u n d e rsta n d th a t th e ‘B e d a n ’ a cc ou n t
of th e ‘m ig ra tio n ’ is likely to r e p re s e n t a c o nd en sa tio n in tim e of a long
te rm p ro c e ss .82*T h e fire and sw ord sc e n a rio p a in te d by m any for th e
a d v e n tu s S a x o n u m is u n lik e ly to have o c c u rre d ; th e r e w as no
c o n fro n ta tio n b e tw e e n c o h e re n t, h o m o g en o u s A nglo-Saxons and an
equally c o h e re n t and h o m o g en o u s B ritish ‘p e o p le ’ in a few c ataclysm ic
y e ars.
It is equally im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th e c o n te x t in to w hich th e s e
‘m ig ra n ts ’ in s e rte d th e m s e lv e s . T his w as one of d e c e n tra liz e d p o w e r
held by m e m b e rs of th e ‘R o m a n ’ e lite , and probably th e arm y, som e of
w hom may have b e e n of ‘G e rm a n ic ’ e x tra c tio n . B ut as a lre ad y a rg ue d ,
th e ‘e th n ic ity ’ of th e pow erful w as n ot im p o rta n t; p o w e r w as. And h e re
we m u st u n d e rs ta n d th e n a tu re of th e s o c ie tie s from w hich th e
m ig ra n ts cam e. T h e s e w e re not th e e g alita ria n , fre e , G e rm a nic
c o m m u n itie s of T a c itu s ’ c o n stru c tio n . A rchaeological e v id e nc e from
D en m a rk and n o rth e rn G erm a ny c lea rly show s th a t th e c o m m u n itie s
from w hic h th e ‘A n g le s ’, ‘S a x o n s ’ and ‘J u t e s ’ e m e r g e d w e re
h ie ra rc h ic a lly s tru c tu re d ,88 and th e re is no re a so n to b e liev e th a t th e y
lost th is s tru c tu re in th e jo u rn e y a c ro ss th e N o rth Sea. T h e s e w e re n o t
th e free , G erm a n, y eo m an sto ck of E n g lish m ythology.
N icholas H igham has a rg u e d th a t th e a rc h ae o lo g ic al e v id e n c e from
p a rts of so u th e rn E ngland show s c le a r links w ith s o u th e rn D en m a rk
and n orth -w e st G e rm a ny, a re a s w hich he c o n sid e rs as ‘n o t a lre ad y
m uch affe cted by c ultu ra l c o n ta c ts w ith R o m e ’, and ‘re a c h e d B rita in
u na ffected by R om anizing in flu e n c e s ’.84* It w ould a p p e a r th a t such
c o m m e n ts a re th e p ro d u c t of an overly in su la r p e rs p e c tiv e . It is well
re co g n iz e d by D a nish and o th e r C o n tin e n ta l sc h o la rs th a t a ltho u g h
D en m a rk lay well beyond th e lim es, and beyond th e ‘b u ffer-zo ne ’ of
‘R om anized tr ib e s ’, its p e o ple w ere profoundly affe cted by tra d e and
e xc ha n ge n e tw o rk s and o th e r form s of in te ra c tio n w ith ‘R o m e ’. Som e
of th e m had se rv e d in th e R om an arm y. T h e se c o n n e c tio n s re s u lte d in
th e flow of Rom an o b je c ts in to D en m ark . T h e flow was c o n tro lle d by
D anish e lite s and th e o b je c ts, and th e c o ntro l o v e r th e ir d istrib u tio n ,
w e re u se d in s tra te g ie s w hich re p ro d u c e d and tra n sfo rm e d social
re la tio n s w ithin D a nish so c ie ty .8’’ T h e s e p e o ple w e re n ot R om anized,
8 2. Sc ull, ‘B e fo re S u tto n H o o ', 8. F o r a p a ra lle l s itu a tio n in e a rly h is to r ic S c o tla n d ,

s e e M a rn a rc i N ie k e a n d H olly D u n c a n , ‘D a lria d a : th e e s ta b l is h m e n t an d
m a in te n a n c e of an e a rly h is to ric k in g d o m in n o r th e r n B r ita in ’, in D risc o ll a n d
N ie k e , P o w e r a n d P o litic s , 6 - 2 1 .
8.8. S e e b e lo w , n o le s 8 6 a n d 86 .
8 4. Ilin h a m , P o m e , 173; a lso 2 2 6 .
8 6. T h e s e id e a s a r e d is c u s s e d in d e ta il by L o lle l l c d r a g e r , ‘K m p irc , f ro n tie r a n d
b a r b a ria n h in te rla n d : K o in e an d n o r th e r n K u in p c Al* 1 4 0 0 ’, in C e n tr e a n d
P e rip h ery in th e A m te n t W o rld , e d s M. R ow la n d s, M L a rs e n , a n d K. K ris tia n s e n
(1 6 8 7 ), 12!) 16; 'K in g d o m s , c llin u ily a n d m a le iia l c u llin e : D e n m a rk in a
F u i o p e a u |»ei'H|>eclive’, hi I ’a iv e r , A ^ e o f S u tt o n H oo, 281 2; id e m , Iro n A y e
b u t th e y u s e d R om an m a te ria l c u ltu re and e x p e rie n c e of R om e in th e

c o n stru c tio n of se lf and society.
It is also a p p a re n t from th e a rc hae olog y th a t re la tio n s h ip s w ith th e
R om an E m p ire w e re n o t th e only fa c to rs in th e c o n stru c tio n and
re p ro d u c tio n of th e p o w e r of th e e lite s in D en m ark . T h e m a te ria l
c u ltu re from F u n e n , for exam ple, illu s tra te s th e e sp e cially stro n g
c o n ta c ts w ith th e p e o p le s of s o u th -e a s te rn E u ro p e .80*86T he p o in t is th a t
th e s o c ie tie s from w hich th e ‘G e rm a n ic ’ s e ttle r s of E ngland e m e rg e d
w e re c om plex and s tra tifie d . T h e s e w e re n ot th e ‘hill-billies’ or
‘b a c k w o o d sm e n ’ of th e G e rm a n ic m ig ra tio n s .87 T he b asis of e lite
p ow e r a p p e a rs to have lain in th e ir c o n tro l o v e r th e a cq u isitio n and
d is trib u tio n of o b je c ts and know ledge from O th e r p e o ple s, a c ro ss a
w ide g eo g ra p hica l a re a . T he re c o g n itio n of th e im p o rta n c e and wide-
ra ng in g n a tu re of such re la tio n s h ip s should fu rth e r u n d e rm in e n o tio n s
of th e e x iste n c e of d is c re te and b ou n d ed ‘e th n ic ’ u n its in th e fou rth to
sixth c e n tu rie s , and of th e a rc h e ty p a l yeom an fa rm e r of E nglish
m ythology.
W hat is c le a r is th a t we can no lo n g e r s e e th e ‘p e o p le s ’ of th e
M igration P e rio d as d is c re te , h o m o g e n e o u s, a u to n o m o u s g ro u p s. It is
fairly d e p re ss in g to n o te th a t th is m uch is re c o g n iz e d , and th e n
ig n o re d , by s c h o la rs .88 T h u s Joh n B lair can a s s e rt th a t ‘it w ould be
a n a c h ro n is tic to e n v isag e s e p a ra te ra c e s w ith s e p a ra te c u ltu re s . . . or
to im a gine th e m colonizing E ngland in large, politically c o h e re n t
g ro u p s w hich k e p t th e ir id e n tity in isolatio n from o th e r s ’,8'1 and can
th e n c o n c u r w ith T a nia D ic k in so n ’s s ta te m e n t th a t ‘th e T h a m e s was a
m a jo r line of c o m m u n ic ation for th e U p p e r T h a m e s re gion w ith o th er
S a xo n c o m m u n itie s ’90 - im plying s e p a ra te c o m m u n itie s of Saxons,
u sin g Saxon m a te ria l c u ltu re , c o m m u nicating w ith each o th e r .91 As
c o u ld .
S o cie tie s. S e e a lso th e p a p e r s in T h e A rc h a e o lo g y o f G u d m e a m i L u n d e b o r g , e d s I’.
N ie ls e n , K. R a n d s b o rg a n d H. T h ra n e ( C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 9 4 ); a n d K. R a n d sb o rg ,
‘B e y o n d th e R o m a n E m p ir e : A rc h a e o lo g ic a l d is c o v e r ie s in G u d m e o n F u n e n ,
D e n m a r k ’, O x fo r d J o u r n a l o f A rc h a e o lo g y 9 (1 9 9 0 ). M . T o d d . T h e E a r ly G e r m a n s
(1 9 9 2 ), 8 8 - 1 0 3 g iv e s s o m e id e a of th e ra n g e of R o m a n o b je c ts w h ic h p a s s e d
in to ‘F r e e G e r m a n y ’ a n d b e y o n d .
86. S e e B. S to rg a a r d , ‘T h e A rs le v g ra v e a n d c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n F u n e n a n d th e
C o n tin e n t a t th e e n d of th e la te r R om a n I ro n A g e ’, in A rc h a e o lo g y o f G u d m e a n d
L u n d e b o r g , 1 6 0 - 8 ; C. F a b e c h , ‘R e a d in g s o c ie ty fro m c u ltu ra l la n d s c a p e : S o u th
S c a n d in a v ia b e tw e e n sa c ra l a n d p o litic a l p o w e r ’, in A rc h a e o lo g y o f G u d m e a n d
L u n d e b o r g , 178.
8 7. C o n tr a H ig h a m , R o m e , 2 26 .
88. S im s-W illia m s, ‘S e ttl e m e n t o f E n g la n d ’, 39 .
89. B la ir, A n g l o S a x o n O x fo r d s h ire , 7; s e e a ls o n o te 90.
9 0. 'I'. D ic k in so n , T h e A n g lo S a x o n B u r i a l S ite s o f th e U p p e r T h a m e s R e g io n , a n d
I'h e ir B e a r i n g o n th e H isto r y o f W essex, c. A I ) 4 0 0 - 7 0 0 ( U n p u b lis h e d O xford
D R hil th e s is , 1 9 7 6 ), 4 1 5 - 1 7 e m p h a s is a d d e d , c ite d in B lair, A n g lo -S a x o n
O x fo r d s h ire , 8. F o r th e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n s e e a ls o A rn o ld , A n g lo S a x o n
K in g d o m s , 23 30.
9 1. S e e a lso B lair, A n g lo S a x o n O x fo r d sh ire , 11 16.
R eynolds o b se rv e s , m any sc h o la rs se e m able to a c c e p t th e h e te r o

g e n e o u s n a tu re of th e s e g ro u p s b ut still hold to th e idea th a t ‘e ach
trib e o r p e o ple th a t had (o r h a s) a s e p a ra te n am e form ed som e kind of
c u ltura l e n tity ’.92
C on stru ctin g ethnicity
It is c le a r th a t th e re a re s e rio u s p ro b le m s in u sin g th e c u ltu re -h isto ry

a p p ro a ch as th e b a sis for in te rp re ta tio n , and m a jo r d e fic ie n c ie s in o u r
u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e n a tu re and c o m p o sitio n of ‘G e rm a n ic ’ g ro u p s
(both on th e C o n tin e n t and in E ngland). H ow ever, it is also a p p a re n t
from re c e n t w ork in arch ae olog y, a n th ro p o lo g y and sociology th a t it
would be a d e bilita tin g ste p to m ove from th e re je c tio n of a d ire c t and
inflexible link b e tw e e n e th n ic id e n tity and m a te ria l c u ltu re to a rg u e
th a t th e re is no re la tio n s h ip .93 As I have alre ad y su g g e ste d , m any of th e
p ro b le m s in th is a re a lie in an in a d e q u a te th e o riz a tio n (and th e re fo re
u n d e rs ta n d in g ) of e th n ic ity and m a te ria l c u ltu re .
If we a bandon (as we m u st) th e no tio n of e th n ic g ro u p s as
unc han ging , b ou n de d e n titie s , a m inim al definition of e th n ic ity m ight
be ‘a c olle ctiv e id e n tific a tio n th a t is so cia lly co n stru cted w ith re fe re n c e
to p u ta tiv e c u ltu r a l s im ila r ity a n d d iffe ren c e '.94 T his ‘p u ta tiv e c u ltu ra l
sim ila rity and d iffe re n c e ' is u sed in a s e rie s of social s tra te g ie s to
classify p eo ple as belon ging (or n ot), and to d e fine m e m b e rsh ip (or
o th e rw is e ) of a c ollectivity. As a re s u lt ‘id e n tity is a m a tte r of th e o u ts
as well as th e in s ' ; it is a m a tte r of ‘social c lo s u re ’.95 It is one of th e
s tre n g th s of R ichard J e n k in s ’ w ork th a t he e m p h a s iz e s th e c re a tio n of
‘o u ts id e rs ’ th ro u g h e th n ic c lo su re . H ow ever, he d o e s m o re th a n th is
sin ce he a rg u e s th a t po w er is in h e re n t in this re la tio n s h ip ,96 and th a t
th e p ro c e ss of c lo su re , of c a te g o riz a tio n as ‘o u ts id e r’, can be u se d by
‘o u ts id e rs ’ in th e p ro c e ss of c o n stru c tin g th e ir own id e n tity .97
E th n ic ide ntity, th e re fo re , is co n stru c ted th ro u g h th e p ro c e ss of
in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n p e o p le . C u ltu ra l tr a its a re im p lic a te d and
m a n ip u la ted in th is p ro c e s s .98 A rc h ae o lo g ists u n d e rs ta n d th a t m a te ria l
c u ltu re w as actively draw n upon in th e very crea tio n and re p ro d u c tio n
of re la tio n s of pow er, id e n tity , and g e n d e r.99 It also prov ide d a ‘b a sis
9 2. R e y n o ld s , 'W ha t d o w i‘ m e a n ’, 4 0 0 .
9.4. S e e J e n k in s , R e t h i n k i n g E th n ic ity : J o n e s , A rc h a e o lo g y o f E t h n ic it y .
94. J e n k in s , R e t h in k in g E th n ic it y , 75, e m p h a s is a d d e d .
9.r>. lim i., 10, 11. K m p h a s is in th e o rig in a l.
9 0. U n d ., 5 2 - 6 3 , 71 2.
9 7. U n d ., 70.
9K. Il>nl., 10. S e e a lsn A n io ry, ‘N a m e s ’, 4 5; J o n e s . A rc h a e o lo g y o f E th n ic it y , 12H.
9 9. S e e my ‘M e th o d and th e o ry in m e dieva l a trh a e o ln p y m th e 1 9 9 0 s’, A rt bacologia
M et!icca le IH (1 9 9 1 ). 7 42; and ‘T h ro n p h th e looking p la ss of p ossib ilitie s:
n n d e is ta n d in g th e M iddle Ap.es', in P ic V o litili t i n Ih n g c N en e W ege t u r A n a ly se
in ittcla U c rliih cr S t n h k n ll n r , edn II Ilim d slm I d e i, (. J a iitz , an d I K n h tie ib e i
( I99H), H!» I Hi
and re s o u rc e s for e th n ic c lo s u re ’;100 it w as th e ‘o b je ctific ation of

c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e ’.101
T h e re c o g n itio n th a t e th n ic id e ntity is fre q u e n tly c o n stru c te d in a
p ro c e ss of c ate g o riz a tio n w hich e xclude s th e ‘O th e rs ’, and th a t m a te ria l
c u lture can be im plic ated in th is p ro c e ss , m ight allow us to p re d ic t the
situ a tio n s in w hich m a te ria l sym bols of sim ilarity and differen c e w ould
be b ro u g h t to th e fore (alth o ug h it should be c lea r th a t m a teria l c u ltu re
is not a ctivated as p a rt of th e p ro c e ss of e th n ic id e n tity c o n stru c tio n
only in such ‘c o n ta c t’ situ a tio n s. T he p ro c e ss is c o n tin u o u s and
c h a n g in g 1021). W ith th e a d v e n tu s S a x o n u m we m igh t e x p e c t b oth th e
4
3
0
‘in v a d e r s /s e ttle r s ’ and th e ‘n a tiv e s ’ to do ju s t th is, sin ce in th e still
d o m in a n t in te rp re ta tio n of th e a d v e n tu s we have th e re m n a n ts of
R o m a n o-B ritish s o c ie ty b e in g c h a lle n g e d by m ig ra tin g ‘p e o p le s ’
( ‘A n g le s’, ‘S a x o n s ’ and ‘J u te s ’) from c o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e . T h e m ig ra n ts
w e re su pp o se d ly c o nfro n te d by th e ‘B ritis h ’ w ho w e re u ltim a te ly
d e fe a te d and e ith e r killed o r d riven into th e fa s tn e s s of W ales and the
W e s t.1():i C onflict and w ar w ith th e ‘b a rb a ria n ’ O th e r m ight be e x p e c te d
to e n h a n c e significantly th e e th n ic id e n tity , and th e feeling of ‘Us-
n e s s ’, a m ong th e first g e n e ra tio n s of ‘A n g le s’, ‘S a x o n s’ and ‘J u te s ’.
T h is, how e ver, d o e s n ot a p p e a r to have b e en th e c ase . T h e de tail of
th e fifth c e n tu ry a rc h ae o lo g ic al m a te ria l from th e so-called s e ttle m e n t
a re a s of th e A ngles, S a xons and J u te s d o e s not su g g e s t th a t ‘m a te ria l
sym bols of sim ila rity and d iffe re n c e ’ w e re b e in g e m p h a siz e d by
‘p e o p le s ’ a t th is e arly d a te. I have a lre ad y re fe rre d to th e fact th a t in
th e p e rio d up to c. 475 ‘S a x o n ’ m a te ria l is found a c ro ss m o st of
E ngland ‘from n o rth of th e H u m b e r to S u s s e x ’, w ith ‘d a tab le Anglian
m a te ria l . . . [b e in g ] la rg e ly c o n fin e d to c ru c if o rm b r o o c h e s ’. 101
S pe ak ing of th e ‘J u te s ’ of K en t and th e Isle of W ight, H ills p o in ts
o u t th a t a lth o u g h th is a re a had a d istin c tiv e m a te ria l c u ltu re , th is was
n o t in th e p e rio d of th e M ig ra tio n s as we w ould e x p e c t if ‘Ju tish
e th n ic ity ’ w as being sign alled in th is p e rio d of ‘c o n ta c t’; r a th e r it w as
in th e sixth c e n tu r y .105 E ven th e a rc h ite c tu re of th e e arly ‘A nglo-Saxon’
h o u se is no lo n g e r s e e n as d istin c tiv e ly G e rm a n ic .106
100. J e n k in s , R e t h i n k i n g E th n ic it y , 10.
1 01. J o n e s , A rc h a e o lo g y o f E t h n ic it y , 120.
102. Ib id ., 122.
103. S e e H ig h a m , R o m e , 2 - 1 5 ; S im s-W illia m s, ‘S e ttl e m e n t o f E n g la n d ’, 2. A lso E.
J o h n , R e a s s e s s in g A n g lo -S a x o n E n g l a n d (1 9 9 6 ), 7 - 8 .
104. H in e s , ‘P h ilo lo g y ’, 2 7 - 8 .
1 05 . H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n p e r io d ’, 3 1 3 ; S e e a lso , H. G e a k e , ‘B u ria l
p r a c tic e in s e v e n th - a n d e ig h th - c e n tu ry E n g la n d ’, in C a rv e r, A g e o f S u tt o n H oo,
92; S im s-W illia m s, ‘S e ttl e m e n t of E n g la n d ’, 2 5 . F o r a E u ro p e a n p e r s p e c tiv e , s e e
I. W ood, T h e E u r o p e a n S c ie n c e F o u n d a tio n ’s p ro g ra m m e o n th e tr a n s f o r m a
tio n of th e R o m a n W o rld a n d th e e m e r g e n c e of e a rly m e d ie v a l E u r o p e ’, E a r ly
M e d ie v a l E u r o p e 6 (1 9 9 7 ), 2 2 4 .
106. S e e a m o n g s e v e r a l o th e r s , P. D ix on , ‘H ow S a xo n is a S a x o n h o u s e ? ’, in
S t r i o tu r a i R e c o n s tr u ih o n , e d . I’. D ru ry (1 9 8 2 ), 2 7 5 - 8 7 ; a n d S. J a m e s , A.
M a rs h a ll, a n d M. M ille t), ‘An «‘a lly m e d ie v a l b u ild in g tr a d i tio n ’, A r c h a e o lo g ic a l
J o u r n a l M l (1 9 8 1 ), 182 2 15 .
G iven o u r e x p e c ta tio n th a t in th e fifth c en tu ry , in th e c o n te x t of

‘c o n ta c t’ w ith th e B ritish O th e r, if a t any tim e , specific A nglian, Saxon
and J u tis h id e n titie s sho u ld be sign alled , o u r failure to find such
e v id en c e fo rc e s us to re c o n s id e r th e tra d itio n a l p ic tu re of th e a d v e n tu s
S a x o n u m , and th e im a ge s of conflict, b a ttle and d e v a s ta tio n w hich have
played su ch an im p o rta n t p a rt in e x pla n a tio n s for th e e m e rg e n c e of th e
E ng lish from G e rm a n ic stock.
A rg u m e nts for e th n ic conflict b e tw e e n h o m o g e n e o u s and c o h e re n t
‘p e o p le s ’ - A ngles, S axons, J u te s and B riton s - le ad in g to e th n ic
c lea n sin g and d ec im atio n a re n ot s u p p o rte d by th e a rc h ae o lo g ic al,
e n v iro n m e n ta l, o r h isto ric a l e v id en c e. E qually we c a n n o t a c c e p t th e
m o re ‘m o d e ra te ’ view w hich d o e s away w ith th e ‘fire and sw o rd ’
im agery b u t still p o s tu la te s c o h e re n t and d is c re te ‘p e o p le s ’ - A ngles,
S axons and J u te s - m a in ta inin g th e ir s e p a ra te and d istin c tiv e id e n titie s
th ro u g h tim e to b e co m e th e E nglish.
We m u st a c c e p t th a t p e o ple c o n stru c te d th e ir id e n titie s th ro u g h a
d ia le ctic b e tw e e n p a st e x p e rie n c e and c u rre n t social, e co n om ic and (in
p a rtic u la r) p o w e r re la tio n s h ip s. We m u st u n d e rs ta n d th a t m a te ria l
c u ltu re w as a ctively draw n upon in th e c o n stru c tio n and re p ro d u c tio n
of th o s e re la tio n s h ip s. T h e p e o ple w ho lived in E ngland in th e fifth and
sixth c e n tu rie s a c te d and c re a te d w ithin th e e m e rg in g s tru c tu re s of
society. If we e x am in e th e sixth -c en tu ry e v id e nc e m o re clo se ly we may
be able to s e e how m a te ria l c u ltu re was actively u sed in th e
c o n s tru c tio n of id e n tity a t th a t tim e . It is su rely n ot c o in c id e n ta l th a t
it is a lso in th e sixth c e n tu ry th a t we g e t a rch a e o lo g ic al and
d o c u m e n ta ry e v id e n c e for th e e m e rg e n c e of o v e ra rc h in g sy ste m s of
p ow e r and a u th o rity .
On page 63 of his A n g lo -S a xo n E n g la n d , W elch p ro v id e s us w ith an
im age of ‘th re e w om en d re s s e d in re gion a l fashion s of th e sixth
c e n tu ry ’. Ig n o rin g th e fact th a t th e w om en a re p re s e n te d as very m uch
alive, w hile th e re c o n s tr u c tio n s a re b a se d on c e m e te ry e v id en c e, we
should pay p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to th e d re s s of th e ‘A nglia n’ w om an -
T h e w e ll-d re ssed w om an in th e Anglian re g io n s . . . w ould be
sim ilarly d re s s e d [to th e Saxon w om an], e x c e p t th a t th e ra n g e of
b ro o c h e s w as so m ew h a t d iffe re n t and th e u n d e rg a rm e n t had long
ta ilo re d s le e v e s fa ste n e d by cuff-link-like fitting s called w rist
c lasp s. T h e s e sm all hook-and-eye m etal fittin g s w e re sow n on
e ith e r sid e of a sp lit sle e v e and a re e x tre m e ly ra re in E ngland
o u ts id e th is re gio n . K eys and m ock keys called gird le h a n g e rs
a lso play a p ro m in e n t ro le in A nglian d r e s s .107
T h e im age p re s e n te d is a s ta tic o n e in w hich m a te ria l c u ltu re (in life as
in d e a th ) reflected Anglian e th n ic id e n tity . In fact, th e a rc h ae o lo g ic al
e v id e nc e show s th a t such a p ic tu re is profoundly m isle ad ing . W hat
a p p e a rs in th e sixth c e n tu ry as ‘A nglian’ d re s s is very m uch a
107. W e lch , A n e .l» S a x o n F u g h im i, (»2 I

c o n stru c tio n , a crea tio n of th a t tim e . It d o es n o t ste m from th e

m ig ratio n in to E n glan d of th e A ngles in th e m iddle of th e fifth c e ntu ry,
b u t from th e c o n s tru c tio n of a s e n s e of id e n tity in th e p a rtic u la r social
and political c irc u m sta n c e s of th e sixth c e n tu ry in E ngland.
H ine s show s how, w ithin a few g e n e ra tio n s of th e a d v e n tu s, a ‘new ,
c o n s is te n t and d istin c tiv e A nglian E nglish c u ltu re w as . . . p u t to g e th e r
o ut of a re m a rk a b ly d iv e rse ra n g e of s o u rc e s ’. los He a rg u e s th a t this
m a te ria l c u ltu re a ss e m b la g e should n ot be s e e n sim ply as an in d ic a to r
of th e e x te n t of A nglian o c cu p a tio n , b u t ra th e r as ‘a m e a n s by w hich
p e o ple could b oth claim th e ir m e m b e rsh ip of th e new g ro u p and
p ro m u lg a te th e c o n d itio n s by w hich m e m b e rsh ip w as e s ta b lis h e d ’. 108109
Scull has p o in te d o ut th a t n ot only w e re m any of th e know n c e m e te rie s
e sta b lis h e d two to th re e g e n e ra tio n s a fte r th e a d v e n tu s, b ut also th a t
m uch of th e m a te ria l c u ltu re had by th e n ta k e n on a ‘d istin c tiv e ly
in s u la r c h a r a c te r ’. 110 In o th e r w o rd s by th e tim e we g e t th e e m e rg e n c e
of th e s e d istin ctiv e ly re g io n a l s e ts of m a te ria l c u ltu re , so m e of the
o b je c ts a re th e p ro d u c t of a m ixtu re of ‘tra d itio n s ’. T h ey have b e en
called ‘G e rm a n ic o ffsho o ts o u t of th e late-R om an c ra ft tra d itio n ’. 111
In th e sixth c e n tu ry m a te ria l c u ltu re w as b e ing a ctivated in th e
c o n stru c tio n and signalling of ‘c ultu ra l sim ila rity and d iffe re n c e ’, n ot
by sim ply draw ing upon a s e t of fixed e th n ic sig n ifie rs ste m m in g from a
su p p o se d C o n tin e n ta l in h e rita n c e , b ut th ro u g h a m ixtu re of a do p tio n ,
se le c tio n , c re a tiv ity and c o ntin uity .
In a re c e n t re a s s e s s m e n t of th e c e m e te ry e v id e n c e from th e Isle of
W ight, C h ris A rnold has e xam in ed th e e v id en c e for a su p p o se d ‘J u tis h ’
s e ttle m e n t of th a t island from K ent. He p o in ts out th a t w hen we look at
th e total a ss e m b la g e s from th e g ra ve s, few of th e m have d istin c tiv e ly
‘K e n tis h ’ o b je c ts, such as b ro o c h e s. In th o s e th a t do, th e se K e ntish
o b je c ts a re ra re ly a ss o c ia te d w ith o th e r ‘K e n tish ’ a rte fa c ts . In a ddition
m any of th e o b je c ts in th e g ra v e s a re of typ es w hich a re g e n e ric to
m o s t of s o u th e rn E n glan d . A rnold c o n clu d e s th a t th e m a te ria l e v id en c e
m ay re p r e s e n t ‘n o th in g m o re th an th e m o v e m e n t of pe ople o r o b je cts
b e tw e e n fa m ilie s m a in ta inin g a tra d itio n a l link b e tw e e n K e nt and th e
is la n d ’. 112
I w ould go fu rth e r, and s u g g e s t th a t if th is ‘tra d itio n a l’ link e x iste d ,
it w as in c o rp o ra te d as one e le m e n t in a s e r ie s of ‘tra d itio n s ’,
‘m e m o rie s ’, o r ‘a s p ir a tio n s ’ w hich w e re u sed in th e c o n stru c tio n of
re g io n a l id e n titie s in th e sixth c e n tu ry . T h e ‘m e m o ry ’ o r m yth of
108. J. H in e s , ‘C u ltu ra l c h a n g e a n d s o c ia l o r g a n is a tio n in e a rly A ng lo -S a x on E n g la n d ’,

in A ft e r E m p ir e : T o w a rd s a n E th n o lo g y o f E u r o p e ’s B a r b a r ia n s , e d . G. A u se n d a
(1 9 9 5 ), 8 1.
1 09. Ib id ., 81.
110. S cu ll, ‘E a rly A n glo-S a xon s o c ie ty ’, 71, e m p h a s is a d d e d ; H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in
lh t‘ p a g a n p e r io d ’, 8 1 0 .
111. H in e s , ‘P h ilo lo g y ’, 2 8. S e e a lso , A rn o ld , A n g lo -S a x o n K i n g d o m s , 192; A rn o ld ,
K o m a n B r it a i n to S a x o n E n g la n d (1 9 8 4 ), 108.
112. A rn o ld , ‘A nglo S a x on c e m e te r ie s of th e Isle of W ig h t’, 170.
44 J o h n M o re la n d
‘J u tis h n e s s ’ may have b e e n one a sp e c t of th a t c o n s tru c tio n . D e tailed

a nalysis, a t th e re gion a l level, e ls e w h e re in E ngland m ig h t show th e
active c o n stru c tio n of sim ila r ‘m a te ria l c u ltu re s ’. T he p o ssibility of
re c o g niz in g th e s e , and th e n in te rp re tin g th e m , is s e v e re ly h a m p e re d
by th e tra d itio n a l p ra c tic e of focusing on th e highly d ia g no stic a rte fa c ts
(‘A nglia n’, ‘S a xo n ’ o r ‘J u tis h ’) w ithin individual grave a s s e m b la g e s .115A
s p u rio u s u n ifo rm ity is th e re b y im p o s e d on a p o te n tia lly m o re
h e te ro g e n e o u s and ‘c o n s tr u c te d ’ a sse m b lag e , re s u ltin g in an equally
sp u rio u s re a d in g of th e pa st.
If th e s e re gio n a l p a tte rn s really a re m a rk e rs of g rou p id e n tity (and I
think th a t th e y a re ), th e n w e have to re m e m b e r th a t ‘id e n tity is a
m a tte r of th e o u ts as w ell th e in s ; it is a m a tte r of ‘social c lo s u re ’. 111
Who th e n w e re th e ‘o u ts ’; a g ain st w hom w as th e ‘c lo s u re ’ d e sig n e d to
o p e ra te ? A c o nv en tion al re s p o n s e w ould be th e B rito n s. B ut th e n we
would have to ask why it took se v e ra l g e n e ra tio n s (of conflict?) to
p ro d u c e th e s e s tra te g ie s and sym bols of exclusio n . In fact it m ight be
a rg u ed th a t, in th e c o n te x t of th e sixth -c en tu ry Anglo-Saxon w orld, th e
O th e rs m e a n t each other. G iven w hat I have a lre ad y said a b ou t
p ro b le m s w ith h istoric a l s o u rc e s such as th e e arly s e c tio n s of th e
A n g lo -S a xo n C h ro n ic le ,n -' I hardly d a re m e n tio n th a t th e first strife
re c o rd e d b e tw e e n th e ‘E n g lish ’ is in th e sixth c en tu ry , 568 - ‘In th is
y e ar C eaw lin and C utha fought a g a in st E th e lb e rt, and d ro ve him in
flight in to K e n t’. 111’
It can also be a rg ue d th a t th e s tra te g ie s of in c lusion and e xclusio n ,
in w hich th e m a terial c u ltu re we have b e e n c o n sid e rin g played a p a rt,
w ere th e p ro d u c t of th e e m e rg e n c e of re gio n a l s tru c tu re s of pow er. I
shall re tu rn to th is la te r. F o r th e m o m e n t I w ant to e m p h a siz e once
again th a t th e sym bols of g ro u p id e n tity in six th -c en tu ry E ngland w e re
a p ro d u c t of p ro c e s s e s c u rre n t in six th -c en tu ry E ng lan d. It w as in th is
c o n te x t th a t new id e n titie s , e th n ic itie s if you like, w e re c o n stru cted .
Ethnicity and power
If we can a g re e th a t it is a n a c h ro n istic to e nv isag e s e p a ra te ra c e s as

I lie b a sis for a s e n s e of e th n ic id e n tity in th e e arly M iddle A ges, we
have to ask w hat form ed th e b asis for such ide ntity? P a tric k G eary
a rg u e s th a t in th e e a rly M iddle Ages
o n e c o n clu d e s th a t e th n ic ity did not exist as an o b je ctive c a te g o ry
but ra th e r a s a su b jec tiv e and m alle able c a te g o ry by w hich
ita. U n ii.. I <17.

I I l. J e n k in s , lù Iln n k n iH E l h m n t y , I I K m p lia s is in tin* o rig in a l.
I 1 !». S e e Iloti* 2 4 .
11(1. I h r A n g l i i S a x o n < 'It r o u i r I r , l i a n s , a n d r d . 1 > W l i i t e l n r k ( I d<> I ). 12. A l s o , A r n o l d ,
' W e a l t h a n d s o n a i s l i m I m e : a m a l l e i o l h i e a n d d e a l li ’, in K a l i l z , I I n k i n s o n a n d
W a l l s , A n u l o S a x o n ( r o i r l r r t f s , M l R e y n o l d s , ‘W li a l d o w e m e a n , 4 0 2 .
v a rio u s p re e x istin g lik e n e ss e s could be m a n ip u la te d sym bolically

to m old an id e n tity and a c o m m u n ity .117
We have a te n d e n c y to se e e th n ic ity as d is c re te and objective and as a
m a jo r fo rce in th e c o n stru c tio n of individuals and p e o p le s in th e
p a s t.118 By c o n tra st, as Je n k in s d o e s for th e p re s e n t, so G e ary a rg u e s
th a t in e a rly m e dieval E u ro p e e th n ic ity its e lf w as c o n stru cted , ‘m o ld e d ’
in th e c o n te x t of th e o p e ra tio n of po w er re la tio n s h ip s .119 E xam ining th e
h isto ric a l s o u rc e s for th e c o n te x ts in w hich an ‘e th n ic ity ’ is a p p e n d e d
to na m ed individuals, G eary d isc ov e red th a t v e ry few p e op le a re e v e r
so id e n tifie d .120 F u rth e r, it b e ca m e c le a r th a t ‘th e te rm s F ra n c i,
A la m a n n i , B u rg u n d io n e s, G o th i and th e like a p p e a re d in c o n n e c tio n
w ith kings and w ith w a r’.121 G e ary c o n clu d e s th a t
th e p e o p le s of th e m ig ra tion p e rio d a c q u ire d th e ir id e n tity
th ro u g h th e ir a d h e re n c e to p a rtic u la r royal o r ducal fam ilies
a lon g sid e w hom th e y fought and w h o se tra d itio n s they a d o p ted .
T h e a ctua l c irc u m sta n c e s in w hich e th n ic d e sig n a tio n s s e e m to
have b e e n fe lt m o st a cu te ly w ere largely p o litic a l.122
T h is d isc u ssio n ta k e s us back to th e h e a rt of th e q u e stio n of c o n c e p ts
of e th n ic ity in th e e arly M iddle A ges. We have a te n d e n c y to a ssu m e
th a t a ll m e m b e rs of a p a rtic u la r social g ro u p in g c o n s titu te d th e ethnos.
In fact it s e e m s likely th a t such a s e n s e of belo n ging was m o re socially
c irc u m sc rib e d . W olfram te lls us th a t ‘[a jrc ha ic p e o p le s a re m ixed; th e y
n e v e r c o m p rise all p o te n tia l m e m b e rs of a g e n s ;123124 ‘th e g en s is th e
p e o ple in a rm s ’; 121 ‘a g e n s is a large g ro u p as m uch as a clan, a frac tion
of a trib e as m uch as a c o n fe d e ra tio n of se v e ra l e th n ic u n its ’. 125126In th e
B u rg un d ia n law c o d e s the te rm s ‘R o m a n ’ and ‘B u rg u n d ia n ’ always
re fe r to th e u p p e r ra n k s of so cie ty - ‘th e nobiles and m ediocres. T he
co lo n i and slaves, w h a te v e r th e ir fam ilial o rig in s, do n o t g e t e th n ic
a d je c tiv e s ’. 120 M ore g en era lly, w h e re we can e x tra c t ‘id e n titie s ’ from
th e B urgu nd ian s o u rc e s , th e s e a re usually c o n s tr u c te d on th e b asis of
politic s and pow er, n ot ‘b lo o d ’.127
P e te r H e a th e r a rg u e s th a t G othic id e n tity (o r ‘G o th ic n e s s ’) was
focused on a c a ste of ‘fr e e m e n ’ - ‘a d o m in a n t and re s tric te d social
1 17 . P. G e a ry , ‘E th n ic id e n tity a s a s itu a tio n a l c o n s tr u c t in th e e a rly m id d le a g e s ’,

M it te il u n g e n d e r A n th r o p o lo g i s c h e n G e se llsc h a ft in W ien , 113 (1 9 8 3 ), 16. S e e a ls o
A m o ry, ‘N a m e s ’, 2 9.
11 8 . S e e A rn o ld , A n g lo -S a x o n K in g d o m s . 21.
119. G e a ry , ‘E th n ic id e n tity ’, 2 4 - 5 ; J e n k in s , R e t h i n k i n g E th n ic it y .
120. G e a ry , ‘E th n ic id e n tity ’, 2 1 , n o te s 2 6 - 8 . A lso A m o ry , ‘N a m e s ’, 3.
121. G e a ry , ‘E th n ic id e n tity ’, 22.
122. I b i d ., 2 2 - 4 , e m p h a s is a d d e d .
123. W olfram , 'O rig o ', 21.
124. W olfram , H isto r y o f th e G o th s, 7.
125. Ib id ., 11.
126. A m o ry, ‘N a m e s ’, 4, 8.
127. Ib id ., 3.
e lite : a m in o rity . . . w ithin th e total a du lt m ale p o p u la tio n of g ro u p s

calling th e m s e lv e s G o th ic ’.128 He g o e s on to p o in t o u t th a t th is
obviously left th e m a jority of th e p o p u la tio n as an ‘u n d e rc la s s ’. T h e ir
c o m m itm e n t to ‘G o th ic n e s s ’ c a n n o t really be m e a s u re d from th e
h is to ric a l or a rc h ae o lo g ic al s o u rc e s, b u t it is su re ly n o te w o rth y th a t
w hen th e n o ble s w e re killed in b a ttle th e r e s t of th e G o thic p o p u la tio n
sim ply s u r r e n d e r e d .129 We c a n n o t know th e ‘e th n ic a lle g ia n c e ’ (if it
e x iste d ) of th e v a st m a jo rity of th e G othic (or B u rg u n d ia n ) p op u latio n ,
b ut w ith A m ory we can su g g e st th a t ‘for th e lo w e st c la s se s , social ro le
and g e o g rap h ic loc ation w e re m o re im p o rta n t d e fining tra its th a n
e th n ic id e n tity ’.130
T his all s u g g e s ts th a t w h e n th e h is to ric a l s o u rc e s sp e a k of a g e n s - a
pe ople like th e g en s A n g lo ru m - th e y a re n o t re fe rrin g to a ll th e
in h a b ita n ts of E ngland, o r e ven of any of th e ‘s e ttle m e n t a r e a s ’. T h e y
a re re fe rrin g to an elite w ithin th a t la rg e r e n tity . We m ight call this
‘re s tric te d e th n ic ity ’ b ut ultim a te ly , th ey a re talking a b o u t pow er.
T his c o n c e p t of ‘re s tric te d e th n ic ity ’ has im p o rta n t im p lic atio n s for
o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e o p e ra tio n of early ‘E n g lish ’ society. T h e
p ro blem we have in d isc u ssin g ‘re s tric te d e th n ic ity ’ in th e c ase of
Anglo-Saxon E ngland d e riv e s, on c e again, from th e n a tu re of th e
so u rc e s . As I have a lre ad y n o te d , c o n te m p o ra ry E n glish d o c u m e n ta ry
s o u rc e s for th e fifth and sixth c e n tu rie s do not e x ist and la te r s o u rc e s
m ust be re a d w ith a d e e p a w a re n e ss of th e ir c o n te x t.131 As R eynolds
succ inc tly p u ts it,
we do n o t know how c o n sis te n tly th e G e rm a n ic -sp e ak in g in v a de rs
of B rita in b eh av e d like a g roup o r felt th e m se lv e s to be a g rou p
d u rin g th e fifth and sixth c e n tu rie s . We do not know w hat the y
called th e m se lv e s, if in d ee d th e y had any c olle ctiv e n a m e .132
H ow ever, H igham a rg u e s th a t th e re is e v id en c e in B ede for an exclusive
u n d e rs ta n d in g of w ha t/w h o c o n stitu te d th e g e n s A n g lo ru m in th e
se v e n th c e n tu ry . H igham show s th a t th e re a re re m a rk a b ly few
re fe re n c e s to th e low er o rd e rs in B e d e ’s te x t and a rg u e s th a t th e y
w e re b e n e a th B e d e ’s a tte n tio n .133 H e w ould n ot have had th e m in m ind
w hen he sp o k e of th e g e n s A n g lo ru m .
B ede tells us th a t in 679 a b a ttle w as fought, ‘n e a r th e riv e r T r e n t’,
b e tw e e n th e N o rth u m b ria n king E c gfrith and th e M ercian king
12«. I’. H e a th e r . T h e G o th s (1 9 9 6 ), 3 0 1 .
129. H a d ., 3 0 1.
130. A m o ry, ‘N a m e s ’, 4.
131. D u m v ille , ’E s s e x ’, 123. S e e a lso S im s W illia m s, ‘S e ttle m e n t o f E n g la n d ’, 1 -4 1 ;
S e nil, ‘E a rly A nglo S a xo n s o c ie ty ’, 0,r> 6; H o d g e s, A n u lo S a x o n A< h i r m n r n t , 2 2 -
3; It. Y orke , K in n s a n d K i n g d o m s o f E a r ly A n n l o S a x o n E n g l a n d ( 1997, r e p r in t of
1990 o rig in a l), 1 4; u l n n , ‘J u le s of H a m p s h ire a n d W ig h t', 84 8.
132. R e y n o ld s, ‘W hat d o w e m e a n ’, 401.
13.3. N H ig h am , A n E n g lis h I 'm f a n ■ l i n h a n d tin E a r ly A n n lo S a x o n K in n s (1 9 9 5 ),
2 1 « 19.
Æ th e lr e d d u rin g w hich th e fo rm e r’s b ro th e r Æ lfw ine was k ille d .134 In

th e c o u rs e of th e b a ttle Im m a, a m iles of Æ lfw ine , w as w ou nd e d, and
a fte r lying for som e tim e a m ong th e dead on th e b a ttle fie ld
he w as found and c a p tu re d by m e n of th e e n e m y arm y, and ta ke n
to th e ir lord, w ho w as a g e sith of king Æ th e lre d . On being a sk ed
w ho he w as, he w as afraid to a dm it th a t he w as a th e g n; b ut he
a n sw e re d in s te a d th a t h e w as a p o o r p e a s a n t and m a rrie d ; and he
d e c la re d th a t he had com e to th e arm y in com pany w ith o th e r
p e a s a n ts to b rin g food to th e so ld ie rs. T h e g e sith took him and
had his w ounds a tte n d e d to . . . W hen he had b e e n a p ris o n e r w ith
th e g e sith for so m e tim e , th o s e w ho w atch ed him closely re a lize d
by his a p p e a ra n c e , his b e aring , and his s p e e c h th a t he w as n o t of
co m m o n sto ck as he had said, but of noble fa m ily .135
H igham a rg u e s th a t th e d e c e p tio n p e rp e tra te d by Im m a w as d e sig ne d
to p re v e n t his being killed by th e M e rc ia n s in re v e n g e for th e lo s se s
th e y had in c u rre d . M o re significantly for o u r p u rp o s e s, th e fact th a t
th e m ile s w as c o n sid e re d by b oth p a rtie s to be an a p p ro p ria te
o b je c t of such re v e n g e , b ut th e ru stic u s not, im plies th a t th e
fo rm e r, but not th e la tte r, was c o n s id e re d to be a full m e m b e r of
th e a p p ro p ria te g e n s (p e o p le ) - so v u ln e ra b le to a blood feud
w hich th a t g e n s had in c u rre d en m a s s e d 36
It is also sign ific a nt th a t th e M e rc ia n s e v en tua lly re c o g n iz e d Im m a to
be of noble b irth from ‘his a p p e a ra n c e , clo th ing and s p e e c h ’. We m ight
c o nclud e th a t such sig n s d is tin g u ish e d him from th e low er o rd e rs who
s u p p o rte d him in b a ttle , if only by way of bring in g p ro v ision s to the
arm y.
Such p e rc e p tio n s of th e sign ific an ce of th e lo w e r o rd e rs w e re not
r e s tr ic te d to B e de . In a le tte r to Æ th e lh e a r d , A rc h b is h o p of
C a n te rb u ry , w ritte n a fte r th e Viking d e stru c tio n of th e m o n a ste ry a t
L in d isfarne in 793, A lcuin u rg e s th e E nglish to re fo rm th e m se lv e s so
th a t th e sam e m ight not h a p p en again. T h e c lerg y a re re m in d e d of
th e ir sp iritu a l d u tie s; th o s e b e s t able to do b a ttle (we m ight call th e m
th e bellatores) a re to p ro te c t th e c lergy {oratores). H ow ever, Alcuin
‘d o es n o t na m e th o s e w ho labor; they have no ro le d urin g a tim e of
c ris is ’.13718T h e s e m ay only be th e p e rc e p tio n s of th e clergy, b ut th e y a re
3
re in fo rc e d by th e e v id e nc e of th e sev e nth- and e ig h th -c e n tu ry law-
c o d es of kings Æ th e lb e r h t of K e nt and Ine of W e s s e x ,13* and in any
c a se th e y a re th e only lite ra ry p e rc e p tio n s we have. W hat th e y su g g e st
is th a t in th e se v e n th c e n tu ry th e g en s A n g lo ru m c o m p rise d a
134. Ik 'd o , H E 1V.21.

13 5 . B e d e , H E IV .22.
130. M i^liam , E n g lis h E m p ir e , 2 2 5 <>.
137. Ilo w c , M ig r a tio n , 21.
138. H ic h a m , E n g lis h E m p i r e , 2 3 5 40.
r e s tric te d se c u la r and e c c le sia s tic a l e lite w ho e x e rc is e d e x te n siv e

p ow e r o v e r th e v a st m ajority of th e p o p u la tio n .139
In th is su m m a ry H igham r e tu rn s us to th e link b e tw e e n th e
‘p e o p le s ’ n am ed in th e h isto ric a l s o u rc e s and re la tio n s h ip s of p o w er
and d om ina tio n - Im m a c laim ed he w as a p e a sa n t b rin g in g p ro v isio ns
to th e N o rth u m b ria n m ilitia . H ow ever, he d o e s so by im p o sing a c ru d e
‘e th n ic ’ (in its biological s e n s e ) h ie ra rc h y on to w ha t is c lea rly a soc ia l/
c u ltura l o ne . T h u s he a rg u e s th a t th e ‘g e n s A n g lo ru m w as a political,
m ilitary and c u ltura l e lite , a to p a com m u nity w hich re m a in e d o th e rw ise
q u ite B ritish ev en up u ntil th e e a rly e ig h th c e n tu ry ’. 140 I w ould su g g e st
th a t th e social and political h ie ra rc h y w as n ot so c lea rly c o n s tr u c te d on
biological g ro u n d s.
H igh a m ’s a rg u m e n t for a socially re s tric te d s e n s e of g e n s A n g lo ru m
is e c h o e d by o th e r s .I*111 At a d iffe re n t level, H ine s, d is c u ssin g th e
m e an in g of n am ed la te sixth- and e a rlie r se v e n th -c e n tu ry political u n its
for th e ir in h a b ita n ts, s u g g e sts th a t
we have little re a so n to su p p o se th a t th e y e x p re s s e d in any
c o n se n s u a l way th e g ro up -id en tity of m ost of th e s e in h a b ita n ts,
and th a t c o n se q u e n tly a g roup n a m e like th e H æ stin g a s is n ot to
be c o nce iv ed of as r e p re s e n tin g som e com fo rtab ly c la nn ish
sy ste m in w hich all th e p e op le of H æ st w e re one as if p a rt of
som e e x te n d e d family and th u s u n ite d by th e ir e th n ic id e n tity at
le ast: it could ra th e r be an a d m in istra tiv e , possessive, im p o sed
d e sc rip tio n - th e p e op le who b elong to N .142
In th e p a st it w as th o u g h t th a t th e s e -ingas n a m e s w e re e v id e n c e for
tin* e a r lie s t s e ttle m e n t of E ngland by G e rm a n ic fam ilies, w ith th e
family h ead providing th e p re fix (H æ stin g a s - th e kin of H æ sta ). It is
now re c o gn iz ed th a t th e y b e lo n g to a ra th e r la te r p h a se of e arly
E nglish h istory, one a ss o c ia te d w ith ‘c o n so lid atio n and d e m a rc a
tio n ’. 113 H in e s ’ o b s e rv a tio n re m o v e s th e a ss u m p tio n of ‘fa m ilia rity ’ and
c o n se n s u s w hich h as fre q u e n tly b e en a sso c ia te d w ith th e s e na m e s, and
p la ce s th e m in th e c o n te x t of develop in g pow e r re la tio n s , w hich also
involved ‘c o n so lid atio n and d e m a rc a tio n ’. T h e su g g e stio n th a t it could
have b e e n an im p ose d te rm also re m o v e s th e n e c e s sity to a ssu m e
‘b lo o d’ links b e tw e e n (for e xa m p le) th e m e m b e rs of th e H æ stin g a s.
T h e re a re , th e re fo re , in d ic a tio n s th a t in th e se v e n th c e n tu ry and
la ter, th e te rm g e n s re fe rre d to e lite id e n tity . T h e C o n tin e n ta l e v id en c e
s u g g e s ts th a t it w ould n o t be su rp ris in g if th e c o n c e p t of re s tric te d
e th n ic ity (in w hich th e m e m b e rsh ip of a g e n s w as socially c irc u m
sc rib e d ) d id apply in E ngland in th e fifth and sixth c e n tu rie s . D e sp ite
I a*>. l im i., 2 5 5 .
I II). lim i., 2 5 4, e m p h a s i s a d d e d .
Ill S e e , Ini e x a m p l e , S i m s W i l l i a m s , ‘S e t t l e m e n t of K u r l a n d . Z I .
142. l i m e s , ‘( u l l i i i . i l ( l i a n t e ' . S 2 , e m p h a s i s a d d e d .
ltd HI.n i , A n x i o S a x o n ( ) \ l o n l \ h i n \ !!!». A l s o Y m k e , Wcvvim, ID .1.
th e ofte n c ite d d iffe re n c e s in th e eco n om ic and political situ a tio n in

fifth-century B rita in and G aul (for e x a m p le ),114 and in th e ‘non-
R o m a n ize d ’ n a tu re of th e ‘in v a d e rs ’ of E ngland, ‘it se e m s im p lau sib le
th a t th e c u sto m s of . . . [the G erm a nic-spe ak in g s e ttle r s of E ngland]
d iffered so m uch from th o se of o th e r G e rm a n ic -sp e ak in g b a rb a ria n s of
n o rth -w e ste rn E u ro p e ’14145 as to re n d e r in a p p ro p ria te th e a p plic atio n of
in s ig h ts draw n from th e C o n tin e n t.
Conclusion: Germ anic kin?
T h e m a te ria l c u ltu re s w hich c u ltu re -h isto ria n s link w ith th e p e o p le s

nam ed in B e d e ’s one p a ra g ra p h on th e G e rm a n ic a n c e s to rs of th e
E nglish w e re th e p ro d u c t of a ctio n s ta k e n in E ngland in th e sixth and
s e v e n th c e n tu rie s . T h e y w e re th e p ro d u c t of in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n
e m e rg in g re gio n a l n e tw o rk s of pow er, b oth ‘A nglo-Saxon’ and ‘B ritis h ’.
T h e ir style w as d e te rm in e d by la te R om an form s a ss o c ia te d w ith th e
a u th o rity of R om e and by m e m o rie s and m yths of a ‘G e rm a n ic ’
ho m e la nd . B ut th e m ain p o in t is th a t th e y w e re co n stru c ted in th e
c o n te x t of sixth- and se v e n th -c e n tu ry re gion a l p o w er s tru c tu re s . T he
e m e rg e n c e of such s tru c tu re s is m a n ife st in th e a rc h ae o lo g y of
c e m e te ry and s e ttle m e n t. In th e c e m e te rie s th e re is in c re a sin g
e v id e n c e for s tra tific a tio n and h ie ra rc h y in th e sec o nd half of th e sixth
c e n tu r y ,14'’ w hile in th e s e v e n th c e n tu ry th is is m o re c lea rly m a rk ed ,
e sp e c ia lly in th e individual b a rro w b u ria ls .147 T h e s e ttle m e n ts of th e
fifth and e arly sixth c e n tu ry a re m a rke d by a profound lack of
d iffe re n tia tio n , both in te rn a lly and a c ro ss re g io n s. R ichard H odges
p o in ts to th e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th e fortified hill-top c e n tre s of w e ste rn
B ritain w h e re th e sca le of re fu rb is h m e n t, th e p re s e n c e of ‘high s ta tu s ’
im p o rts from th e M e d ite rra n e a n , and th e n a tu re of so m e of the
s tru c tu re s and a rg u e s for th e ir o c cu p a tio n by an e lite , and th e
‘e g a lita ria n quality of . . . [the] m o d e st fa rm s te a d s ’ of c o n te m p o ra ry
e arly Anglo-Saxon E n g la n d .148 J u s t such an a p p a re n tly e g alita rian
p ic tu re e m e rg e s from th e e xc av a tio n s of th e m id-fifth-century p h a se s of
th e s e ttle m e n t a t M ucking in E sse x . H e re th e ‘a b se n c e of large , “ high
144. M a ny o f th e s e d if fe r e n c e s a r e s u m m a riz e d in H.K . L oy n , T h e M a k i n g o f th e

E n g li s h N a t i o n : F ro m th e A n g lo -S a x o n s to E d w a r d 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ), 1 0 -1 7 ; a lso W e lch ,
A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d , 104.
145. S. R e y n o ld s, F ie fs a n d V a ssa ls: T h e M e d ie v a l E v id e n c e R e i n te r p r e te d (1 9 9 4 ), 3 2 5 .
140. H o d g e s , A n g lo -S a x o n A c h ie v e m e n t, 38.
147. J. S h e p h a r d , ‘T h e so c ia l id e n tity o f th e in d iv id u a l in is o la te d h a rro w s a n d b a r ro w
c e m e te r ie s in A n glo-S a x on E n g la n d ’, in S p a ce , H ie r a r c h y a n d S o c ie ty , e d s B.
B u rn h a m a n d J. K in g sb u ry ( 1 9 7 9 ), 4 7 - 7 9 ; M . C a rv e r, S u t t o n H oo: F u n a i G r o u n d
o f K i n g s ? (1 9 9 8 ).
148. H o d g e s, A n g lo S a x o n A c h i e v e m e n t, 34; a lso S cu ll, 'E a r ly A nglo-S a xon s o c ie ty ’,
72; l>. H in to n , A rc h a e o lo g y . E c o n o m y a n d S o ciety : E n g l a n d fr o m th e F ift h to th e
F ifte e n th C e n tu r ie s (1 9 9 0 ), 2; York«', W essex, 22; E. A lcoc k, C a d b u r y C a stle,
S o m e r s e t The E a r ly M a l le v a i S e tt le m e n t (1 9 9 5 ), 150.
s ta tu s ” , o r obviously c e n tra l b u ild in g s ’ and th e ‘lack of any obvious

s tru c tu re o r plan n in g w ithin th e s e ttle m e n t’ w e re u sed to a rg u e for
‘th e a b se n c e of an overall, re g u la tin g a u th o rity ’.” -' T h e re is e v id en c e
for d iffe re n tia tio n w ithin A nglo-Saxon p e rio d s e ttle m e n ts , and for th e
kind of s tru c tu re and p lan ning so e v id en tly a b se n t at W est Stow and
th e e arly p h a se s a t M ucking, b ut th is a p p e a rs in th e la te sixth and
s e v e n th c e n tu r ie s ;151' at th e sam e tim e as we g e t th e c o n stru c tio n of
d istin c tiv e re gion a l m a te ria l c u ltu re s. I w ould a rgu e th a t th e re is an
in tim a te c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e s e two p h e n o m e n a , and th a t th e form s
of id e n tity we find e x p re s s e d in th e re gion a l m a te ria l c u ltu re s a re
th o s e of affiliation and alle gian ce to re gion a l ‘a ris to c r a tic ’ e lite s.
Five g e n e ra tio n s a fte r th e su p p o se d a d v e n tu s S a x o n u m th e ‘blood
e th n ic ity ’ of th e s e e lite s w ould have b e e n hard to d e te rm in e , even if it
m a tte r e d .151 G iven th e lack of e v id e nc e for a m a ssiv e ru p tu re in th e
c o u n try sid e of late R om an B rita in , how e ver, we m u st a ss u m e th a t th e
vast m a jority of th e p o p u la tio n w as n o t of G e rm a n ic o rig in /d e s c e n t.
A bandoning th e n o tio n s of h o m o g e n e o u s g ro u p s of A nglo-Saxons
‘inv ad in g ’ and d e stro y in g a c o h e re n t e n tity , in favour of a m o re
c o n tin u o u s p ro c e s s of a s s im ila tio n in to th e d e c e n tra liz e d and
p e rs o n a liz e d p ow e r s tru c tu re s of sub-R om an B ritain, m e an s th a t we
c a n n o t e ven a ssu m e th a t th e e lite s w e re prim arily G e rm a n ic .152 W hat
m a tte rs is th a t th e h e te ro g e n e o u s p e o p le s of th e re g io n s of E ngland
cam e to see th em selves as having a com m on id e ntity. T h e y did so as a
c o n se q u e n c e of c o llectiv e a ction and in te ra c tio n with o th e r B ritish and
Anglo-Saxon e n titie s . It m a y be a t th is tim e (in th e la te sixth and
s e v e n th c e n tu rie s ) th a t th is id e n tity cam e to be s e e n as A nglian,
Saxon, e tc . but we still have to re c o g n iz e th a t we have no idea w ha t th e
p e o p le s of fifth- and six th -c en tu ry E ngland called th e m s e lv e s ‘if in d e ed
they had any colle ctive n a m e ’.153 It m a y be th a t th is s e n s e of id e n tity -
of ‘A nglia n-ne ss’, ‘S a x o n -n e ss’ e tc. - w as re s tric te d to a social e lite ,
and it se e m s th a t th is c o n c e p t of ‘re s tric te d e th n ic ity ’ e x iste d by th e
end of th e se v e n th c e n tu r y .154 It is probably of som e im p o rta n c e th a t,
in th e e ig h th c e n tu ry , su c c e ssio n to th e th ro n e was linked to d e sc e n t
from a six th -c en tu ry ‘a n c e s to r’.155 B ut as we have a lre ad y n o te d , a
c o n c o m ita n t of e th n ic ity is po w er and this m u st be e sp e c ia lly tr u e of
‘re s tric te d e th n ic ity ’. T h e e lite s of th e kingdom s of ‘A nglo-Saxon’
E ngland m ay have e m p h a siz e d th e ir Anglo-Saxon o rigin s from the
MU. II. lla m e ro w , ‘S e ttl e m e n t m o b ility a n d th e m id d le -S a x o n sh ift: ru ra l s e t tle m e n t s

a n d s e ttle m e n t p a t te r n s in A ng lo-S a xon E n g la n d ’, A n g lo -S a x o n E n g l a n d 20
(1 9 9 1 ). 8 9; a n d h e r E x c a v a tio n s a t M u c k in g . V o lu m e 2 : T h e A n g lo -S a x o n
S e t tl e m e n t (1 9 9 3 ), 8 9.
150. H o d g e s, A n g lo S a x o n A c h ie v e m e n t, 58 0 5 . Si tili, ‘B e fo re S u tto n H o o ’, 21;
M inton, A rch a e o lo g y , E c o n o m y a n d S o c ie ty , 27.
I !il R e y n o ld s , 'W h.il d o w e m e a n ’, 102 3.
152. C o n tr a H igh.tin E n g lis h E m /n r c , 2 54.
153. R e y n o ld s, 'W h a t d o w e m e a n ', till
154. S e e llig h a n i, E n g lis h E m /n r c , 2 2 5 <•
155. I in u m ile , 'K in g s h ip ', 73.
E th n ic ity , P o w e r a n d the E n g lis h 51
s e v e n th c e n tu ry o nw ards, draw ing upon a com m on m ythical p a st to

p ro m o te a c om m on s e n s e of be lo ng ing and so c re a te w hat S he n n a n has
called ‘th e self-c onsc ious id e n tity g ro u p s w hich a re e s s e n tia l to th e
d e finition of e th n ic ity ’156; but, as w ith H e a th e r’s G oths, th e e th n ic
id e ntity of th e m a ss of th e p op u latio n is u n c le a r and likely to have b e en
at le a s t a m b iv a len t. T h e re ality for th e m , as it w as for Im m a, was
e co no m ic , social and political su b o rd in a tio n .
I .'»<». S lu 'iiii.m , ‘ I n i i o d il i I k h i ’ . If).

Social Identity in Early Medieval
Britain
E d i t e d by W il lia m 0. F r a z e r a n d A n d r e w T y r r e ll
L eicester U niversity Press

L ondon and N ew York
L e ic e s te r U n iv e rsity P re s s
/\ C ontinuum im print
W ellington H ou se, 125 S tra n d , L ondon WC2R OBB
5 70 L ex in gton A venue, New York, NY 10017-6505
Birst P u b lish e d 2000
( W illiam (). F ra z e r, A ndrew T yrre ll and c o n trib u to rs 2000
All rig h ts re s e rv e d . No p a rt of th is p u b lic a tio n may be re p ro d u c e d or

tra n s m itte d in any form or by any m ea n s, e le c tro n ic or m ec h an ic a l, including
photoco py in g, re c o rd in g o r any in fo rm a tio n sto ra g e o r re trie v a l sy ste m ,
w ithout p e rm issio n in w riting from th e p u b lish e rs.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A c a talo gu e re c o rd for th is book is available from th e B ritish L ibrary.
ISBN 0 71 Mb 0081 9 (h a rd b a ck )
Library of Congress C'ataloging-in-Publication Data
Social id e ntity in early M edieval B rita in /e d ite d by W illiam 0 . P'razer and

A ndrew Tyrrell.
p. cm. (S tu d ie s in th e e arly h isto ry of B rita in )
In clu de s b iblio g ra ph ica l r e fe re n c e s and index.
ISBN 0 -7 1 8 5 -0 0 8 4 9 (IIB)
1. (iro u p id e n tity —G re a t B rita in —H istory. 2. C om m unity life—G re a t
B rita in —H istory. 5. E th n ic ity —G re a t B rita in—H istory. 4. Social c la s s e s —
G re a t B rita in —H istory. 5. G re a t B rita in —H isto ry —M ed iev a l p e rio d,
1 0 6 6 -1 4 8 5 . 6. C ivilization, M edieval. I. F ra z e r, W illiam O. II. T y rre ll,
A ndrew , 1 9 7 0 - III. S e rie s .
H N 385.5 .S577 2000

3 0 5 .5 ’0 9 4 1 -d c 2 1
99-086100
I VI > r s r t by B o o k E u s L t d , B o y n t o n . I l e i i s
P u n t e d a n d b o u n d In G i r a t B u t . u n
Contents
F on'w o n i vii
A t kn o w led g em en ts ix
( 'o n trib u to rs xi
F igures xii
A b b revia tio n s xiii
1 In tro d u ctio n : Id e n titie s in E arly M edieval B rita in 1

W illia m O. F ra ze r
2 E thnicity, P o w e r and th e E n g lish 23

Jo h n M o re la n d
3 Self-w orth and P ro p e rty : E qu ip ag e and E arly M edieval

P e rso n h o o d 53
N erys T h o m a s P a tterso n
•I Political and E th n ic Id e n tity : A C ase Study of

Anglo-Saxon P ra c tic e 69
P a r bara Yorke
!> C om m unity, Id e n tity and K ingship in E a rly E ngland 91

A lex W o o lf
6 ‘C ockle a m o ng st th e W h e a t’: T h e S candinavian

S e ttle m e n t of E n glan d 111
D a w n H adley
7 C o rp u s S a x o n u m : E arly M edieval B odies and C o rp o re al

Id e ntity 137
A n d re w T yrrell
<S The P erdaehe o r Man w om an in Anglo-Saxon E ngland

and Early M edieval Europi* 157
( 'h risto fd ier K n u se ! a n d K a th ry n R ipley

Ethnicity Power and The English

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2 Ethnicity, Power and the

‘The eternal stream of blood binds us across the ages ’2

In his T ra vels in H y p errea lity, U m b e rto Eco s u g g e s te d th a t all o u r

1. I d e d ic a te th is a r tic le to m y u n c le S e a n R itc h ie w h o d ie d w h ile it w as b e in g

w ant to b egin a stu dy of th e way in w hich th e s e ‘d re a m s ’ of th e M iddle

as?) a re lig io u s conflict. H ow ever, we have a te n d e n c y to s e e e th n ic ity

Of c o u rse , h is to ria n s have q u e stio n e d th e m yth, in w hole o r in

IS. P. S im s W illia m s, T h e s e ttle m e n t of E n g la n d in B e d e a n d th e C h r o n ic le ’, A n g lo -

In a d ditio n , I will a rg u e th a t m uch m is u n d e rsta n d in g of M igration

Archaeological cultures and ‘p eop les’

S u sa n R eynolds h as s u g g e ste d th a t th e ‘m o st difficult p ro b le m s of all in

In th e e arly e ig h th c e ntu ry , B ede, in his H isto ria E c clesia stica G en tis

T h e s e a rc h a e o lo g ists w rite w ithin w ha t is know n as th e c u ltu re -

28. S o m e of th e p r o b le m s w ith th e c u l t u r e - h i s t o r y a p p ro a c h a re d is c u s s e d be low ,

e th n ic ity . We m igh t ex am in e th e ‘c hip-c arv e d’ b e lt fitting s from late

4 0. A p rin c ip a l s o u r c e fo r th is d is c u s s io n is still H ills, ‘A rc h a e o lo g y in th e p a g a n

significa ntly d iffe re n t from th o se of F re e G e rm a n y .48 H alsall has

IS. H a lsa ll. ‘R e i h e n f i m b e r z i v t l i s a t i o n ' , 2 0 2 .

th e ir ‘p riv a te ’ pow ers as landow ners and landlords.™ It is in th is c o n te x t

5 6. C. W ick h a m , ‘T h e O th e r T ra n s itio n : fro m th e a n c ie n t w o rld to f e u d a lis m ’, P a s t

U sually such ‘a n o m a lie s ’ to th e e x p e c te d ‘B e d a n ’ p a tte rn a re sim ply

sam e m a n n e r o r to th e sam e d e g re e . N or did th e y alw ays u se th e

Ethnicity and heterogeneity

C o n tra ry to c om m on u n d e rsta n d in g , it w ould be a g ro s s e r r o r to

6 6. P a d e r , ‘M a te ria l s y m b o lis m ’, 158. S e e a lso H o d g e s, A n g lo -S a x o n A c h i e v e m e n t,

century O strogothic ‘kingdom ’ of E rm anaric. M ore generally, he argues

71. H. W o lfra m , H isto r y o f th e G o th s (1 9 8 8 ;, 7 - 8 ; id e m , ‘O rig o et r e lig w . E th n ic

W here th e n do th e A ngles, S axons, and J u te s as c o h e re n t p e o p le s fit

c o n s titu tio n of th e C o ntin e nta l g en tes, we c a n no t e x p ec t th e ‘p e o p le ’

8 2. Sc ull, ‘B e fo re S u tto n H o o ', 8. F o r a p a ra lle l s itu a tio n in e a rly h is to r ic S c o tla n d ,

b u t th e y u s e d R om an m a te ria l c u ltu re and e x p e rie n c e of R om e in th e

R eynolds o b se rv e s , m any sc h o la rs se e m able to a c c e p t th e h e te r o ­

C on stru ctin g ethnicity

It is c le a r th a t th e re a re s e rio u s p ro b le m s in u sin g th e c u ltu re -h isto ry

and re s o u rc e s for e th n ic c lo s u re ’;100 it w as th e ‘o b je ctific ation of

G iven o u r e x p e c ta tio n th a t in th e fifth c en tu ry , in th e c o n te x t of

107. W e lch , A n e .l» S a x o n F u g h im i, (»2 I

c o n stru c tio n , a crea tio n of th a t tim e . It d o es n o t ste m from th e

108. J. H in e s , ‘C u ltu ra l c h a n g e a n d s o c ia l o r g a n is a tio n in e a rly A ng lo -S a x on E n g la n d ’,

‘J u tis h n e s s ’ may have b e e n one a sp e c t of th a t c o n s tru c tio n . D e tailed

Ethnicity and power

If we can a g re e th a t it is a n a c h ro n istic to e nv isag e s e p a ra te ra c e s as

ita. U n ii.. I <17.

v a rio u s p re e x istin g lik e n e ss e s could be m a n ip u la te d sym bolically

1 17 . P. G e a ry , ‘E th n ic id e n tity a s a s itu a tio n a l c o n s tr u c t in th e e a rly m id d le a g e s ’,

e lite : a m in o rity . . . w ithin th e total a du lt m ale p o p u la tio n of g ro u p s

Æ th e lr e d d u rin g w hich th e fo rm e r’s b ro th e r Æ lfw ine was k ille d .134 In

134. Ik 'd o , H E 1V.21.

r e s tric te d se c u la r and e c c le sia s tic a l e lite w ho e x e rc is e d e x te n siv e

th e ofte n c ite d d iffe re n c e s in th e eco n om ic and political situ a tio n in

Conclusion: Germ anic kin?

T h e m a te ria l c u ltu re s w hich c u ltu re -h isto ria n s link w ith th e p e o p le s

144. M a ny o f th e s e d if fe r e n c e s a r e s u m m a riz e d in H.K . L oy n , T h e M a k i n g o f th e

s ta tu s ” , o r obviously c e n tra l b u ild in g s ’ and th e ‘lack of any obvious

MU. II. lla m e ro w , ‘S e ttl e m e n t m o b ility a n d th e m id d le -S a x o n sh ift: ru ra l s e t tle m e n t s

s e v e n th c e n tu ry o nw ards, draw ing upon a com m on m ythical p a st to

I .'»<». S lu 'iiii.m , ‘ I n i i o d il i I k h i ’ . If).

L eicester U niversity Press

Birst P u b lish e d 2000

( W illiam (). F ra z e r, A ndrew T yrre ll and c o n trib u to rs 2000

All rig h ts re s e rv e d . No p a rt of th is p u b lic a tio n may be re p ro d u c e d or

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A c a talo gu e re c o rd for th is book is available from th e B ritish L ibrary.

R eynolds o b se rv e s , m any sc h o la rs se e m able to a c c e p t th e h e te r o