From Classical to Quantum Fields 1st

Edition Laurent Baulieu

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/from-classical-to-quantum-fields-1st-edition-laurent-b
aulieu/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Classical and Quantum Dynamics From Classical Paths to

Path Integrals Fourth Edition Dittrich

https://textbookfull.com/product/classical-and-quantum-dynamics-
from-classical-paths-to-path-integrals-fourth-edition-dittrich/

Lectures on Classical and Quantum Theory of Fields 2nd

Edition Henryk Arodz

https://textbookfull.com/product/lectures-on-classical-and-
quantum-theory-of-fields-2nd-edition-henryk-arodz/

Classical and Quantum Dynamics From Classical Paths to

Path Integrals 5th Edition Walter Dittrich

https://textbookfull.com/product/classical-and-quantum-dynamics-
from-classical-paths-to-path-integrals-5th-edition-walter-
dittrich/

Classical and Quantum Dynamics: From Classical Paths to

Path Integrals 4th Edition Walter Dittrich

https://textbookfull.com/product/classical-and-quantum-dynamics-
from-classical-paths-to-path-integrals-4th-edition-walter-
dittrich/
Classical and Quantum Dynamics -- From Classical Paths
to Path Integrals 6th Edition Walter Dittrich

https://textbookfull.com/product/classical-and-quantum-dynamics-
from-classical-paths-to-path-integrals-6th-edition-walter-
dittrich/

Classical and quantum dynamics From classical paths to

path integrals 6th Edition Dittrich W.

https://textbookfull.com/product/classical-and-quantum-dynamics-
from-classical-paths-to-path-integrals-6th-edition-dittrich-w/

Quantum Fields: From the Hubble to the Planck Scale 1st

Edition Michael Kachelriess

https://textbookfull.com/product/quantum-fields-from-the-hubble-
to-the-planck-scale-1st-edition-michael-kachelriess/

Mass : the quest to understand matter from Greek atoms

to quantum fields First Edition Baggott

https://textbookfull.com/product/mass-the-quest-to-understand-
matter-from-greek-atoms-to-quantum-fields-first-edition-baggott/

Quantum Chemistry: Classical to Computational 1st

Edition Dua

https://textbookfull.com/product/quantum-chemistry-classical-to-
computational-1st-edition-dua/
 OXFORD

UANTUM FIELDS

LAURENT BAULIEU • JOHN ILIOPOULOS

ROLAND SENEOR
FROM CLASSICAL TO QUANTUM FIELDS
From Classical to Quantum Fields

Laurent Baulieu
CNRS and Sorbonne Universites

John Iliopoulos
CNRS and Ecole Normale Superieure

Roland Seneor
CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Laurent Baulieu, John Iliopoulos and Roland Seneor 2017
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016935303
ISBN 978-0-19-878839-3 (hbk.)
ISBN 978-0-19-878840-9 (pbk.)
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 The idea of this collaborative work is due to our late colleague Roland Seneor. The book still
carries part of his style with the quest for precision and rigour. He would have brought
considerable improvements, had he had the chance to see the final version. We miss him.

During the preparation of this work, we have profited from the advice of many among our
colleagues but we want to underline, in particular, the influence of Raymond Stora, a master
and a friend, who first taught physicists the importance of fundamental mathematical
concepts in the formulation of gauge theories. Together with Roland Seneor, we had decided to
dedicate this book to Stora's memory.
Contents

Prologue xviii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Descriptive Layers of Physical Reality 1
1.2 Units and Notations 3
1.3 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Mechanics 4
1.3.1 Review of Variational Calculus 4
1.3.2 Noether's Theorem 6
1.3.3 Applications of Noether's Theorem 7
2 Relativistic Invariance 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 The Three-Dimensional Rotation Group 11
2.3 Three-Dimensional Spinors 14
2.4 Three-Dimensional Spinorial Tensors 18
2.5 The Lorentz Group 20
2.6 Generators and Lie Algebra of the Lorentz Group 23
2.7 The Group SL(2, (C) 25
2.8 The Four-Dimensional Spinors 27
2.9 Space Inversion and Bispinors 30
2.10 Finite-Dimensional Representations of SU(2) and SL(2, (C) 33
2.11 Problems 35
3 The Electromagnetic Field 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Tensor Formulation of Maxwell's Equations 38
3.3 Maxwell's Equations and Differential Forms 40
3.4 Choice of a Gauge 43
3.5 Invariance under Change of Coordinates 45
3.6 Lagrangian Formulation 47
3.6.1 The Euler—Lagrange Equations and Noether's Theorem 48
3.6.2 Examples of Noether Currents 51
3.6.3 Application to Electromagnetism 53
3.7 Interaction with a Charged Particle 56
3.8 Green Functions 58
3.8.1 The Green Functions of the Klein—Gordon Equation 59
3.8.2 The Green Functions of the Electromagnetic Field 63
viii Contents

3.9 Applications 65
3.9.1 The Lienard—Wiechert Potential 65
3.9.2 The Larmor Formula 69
3.9.3 The Thomson Formula 70
3.9.4 The Limits of Classical Electromagnetism 71
4 General Relativity: A Field Theory of Gravitation 73
4.1 The Equivalence Principle 73
4.1.1 Introduction 73
4.1.2 The Principle 74
4.1.3 Deflection of Light by a Gravitational Field 76
4.1.4 Influence of Gravity on Clock Synchronisation 76
4.2 Curved Geometry 77
4.2.1 Introduction 77
4.2.2 Tensorial Calculus for the Reparametrisation Symmetry 78
4.2.3 Affine Connection and Covariant Derivation 80
4.2.4 Parallel Transport and Christoffel Coefficients 83
4.2.5 Geodesics 85
4.2.6 The Curvature Tensor 88
4.3 Reparametrization Gauge Symmetry and Einstein's General Relativity 90
4.3.1 Reparametrisation Invariance as a Gauge Symmetry 90
4.3.2 Reparametrisation Invariance and Energy—Momentum
Tensor 93
4.3.3 The Einstein—Hilbert Equation 95
4.4 The Limits of Our Perception of Space and Time 98
4.4.1 Direct Measurements 99
4.4.2 Possible Large Defects 100
5 The Physical States 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 The Principles 104
5.2.1 Relativistic Invariance and Physical States 105
5.3 The Poincare Group 107
5.3.1 The Irreducible Representations of the Poincare Group 107
5.3.2 The Generators of the Poincare Group 110
5.4 The Space of the Physical States 114
5.4.1 The One-Particle States 114
5.4.2 The Two- or More Particle States without Interaction 115
5.4.3 The Fock Space 116
5.4.4 Introducing Interactions 117
5.5 Problems 118
 Contents ix

6 Relativistic Wave Equations 120

6.1 Introduction 120
6.2 The Klein—Gordon Equation 120
6.3 The Dirac Equation 123
6.3.1 The y Matrices 126
6.3.2 The Conjugate Equation 127
6.3.3 The Relativistic Invariance 128
6.3.4 The Current 129
6.3.5 The Hamiltonian 129
6.3.6 The Standard Representation 129
6.3.7 The Spin 131
6.3.8 The Plane Wave Solutions 132
6.3.9 The Coupling with the Electromagnetic Field 135
6.3.10 The Constants of Motion 136
6.3.11 Lagrangian and Green Functions 137
6.4 Relativistic Equations for Vector Fields 138
7 Towards a Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 142
7.1 Introduction 142
7.2 The Klein—Gordon Equation 142
7.3 The Dirac Equation 144
7.3.1 The Non-relativistic Limit of the Dirac Equation 144
7.3.2 Charge Conjugation 146
7.3.3 PCT Symmetry 149
7.3.4 The Massless Case 150
7.3.5 Weyl and Majorana Spinors 152
7.3.6 Hydrogenoid Systems 153
7.4 Problems 159
8 Functional Integrals and Probabilistic Amplitudes 162
8.1 Introduction 162
8.2 Brief Historical Comments 163
8.3 The Physical Approach 165
8.4 The Reconstruction of Quantum Mechanics 168
8.4.1 The Quantum Mechanics of a Free Particle 169
8.4.2 A Particle in a Potential 170
8.4.3 The Schrodinger Equation 170
8.5 The Feynman Formula 173
8.5.1 The Representations of Quantum Mechanics 173
8.5.2 The Feynman Formula for Systems with One Degree
of Freedom 176
8.6 The Harmonic Oscillator 180
x Contents

8.7 The Bargmann Representation 186

8.7.1 The Coherent States 186
8.7.2 The Path Integral Formula in the Bargmann Space 191
8.8 Problems 194
9 Functional Integrals and Quantum Mechanics: Formal Developments 196
9.1 T-Pro ducts 196
9.1.1 General Definition 196
9.1.2 Application to the Harmonic Oscillator 197
9.2 S-Matrix and T-Products 201
9.2.1 Three Examples 204
9.3 Elements of Perturbation Theory 206
9.4 Generalizations 211
9.4.1 Three-Dimensional Quantum Mechanics 211
9.4.2 The Free Scalar Field 212
9.5 Problems 217
10 The Euclidean Functional Integrals 218
10.1 Introduction 218
10.1.1 The Wiener Measure 220
10.2 The Gaussian Measures in Euclidean Field Theories 224
10.2.1 Definition 225
10.2.2 The Integration by Parts Formula 228
10.2.3 The Wick Ordering 229
10.3 Application to Interacting Fields 230
10.3.1 The 2-Point Function 231
10.3.2 The 4-Point Function 236
10.3.3 The General Feynman Rules 238
10.4 Problems 239
11 Fermions and Functional Formalism 240
11.1 Introduction 240
11.2 The Grassmann Algebras 243
11.2.1 The Derivative 243
11.2.2 The Integration 244
11.3 The Clifford Algebras 249
11.4 Fermions in Quantum Mechanics 250
11.4.1 Quantum Mechanics and Fermionic Oscillators 250
11.4.2 The Free Fermion Fields 253
11.5 The Path Integrals 254
11.5.1 The Case of Quantum Mechanics 254
11.5.2 The Case of Field Theory 257
 Contents xi

12 Relativistic Quantum Fields 260

12.1 Introduction 260
12.2 Relativistic Field Theories 260
12.2.1 The Axiomatic Field Theory 261
12.3 The Asymptotic States 279
12.3.1 Introduction 279
12.3.2 The Fock Space 281
12.3.3 Existence of Asymptotic States 282
12.4 The Reduction Formulae 286
12.4.1 The Feynman Diagrams 292
12.5 The Case of the Maxwell Field 296
12.5.1 The Classical Maxwell Field 296
12.5.2 The Quantum Field: I. The Functional Integral 298
12.5.3 The Quantum Field: II. The Particle Concept 300
12.5.4 The Casimir Effect 304
12.6 Quantization of a Massive Field of Spin-1 305
12.7 The Reduction Formulae for Photons 308
12.8 The Reduction Formulae for Fermions 309
12.9 Quantum Electrodynamics 310
12.9.1 The Feynman Rules 310
12.10 A Formal Expression for the S-Matrix 311
12.11 Problems 319
13 Applications 320
13.1 On Cross Sections 320
13.2 Formal Theory of Scattering in Quantum Mechanics 324
13.2.1 An Integral Equation for the Green Function 325
13.2.2 The Cross Section in Quantum Mechanics 335
13.3 Scattering in Field Theories 340
13.3.1 The Case of Two Initial Particles 341
13.3.2 The Case of One Initial Particle 343
13.4 Applications 344
13.5 The Feynman Rules for the S-Matrix 353
13.5.1 Feynman Rules for Other Theories 354
13.6 Problems 358
14 Geometry and Quantum Dynamics 360
14.1 Introduction. QED Revisited 360
14.2 Non-Abelian Gauge Invariance and Yang—Mills Theories 362
14.3 Field Theories of Vector Fields 365
14.4 Gauge Fixing and BRST Invariance 369
14.4.1 Introduction 369
14.4.2 The Traditional Faddeev—Popov Method 369
xii Contents

14.4.3 Graded Notation for the Classical and Ghost Yang—Mills

Fields 376
14.4.4 Determination of the BRST Symmetry as the Extension of
the Gauge Symmetry for the Classical and Ghost Fields 378
14.4.5 General BRST Invariant Action for the Yang—Mills
Theory 382
14.5 Feynman Rules for the BRST Invariant Yang—Mills Action 385
14.6 BRST Quantization of Gravity Seen as a Gauge Theory 386
14.7 The Gribov Ambiguity: The Failure of the Gauge-Fixing Process
beyond Perturbation Theory 389
14.7.1 A Simple Example 389
14.7.2 The Gribov Question in a Broader Framework 390
14.8 Historical Notes 393
14.9 Problems 396
15 Broken Symmetries 398
15.1 Introduction 398
15.2 Global Symmetries 399
15.2.1 An Example from Classical Mechanics 399
15.2.2 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in Non-relativistic
Quantum Mechanics 400
15.2.3 A Simple Field Theory Model 403
15.2.4 The Linear a -Model 405
15.2.5 The Non-linear a-Model 408
15.2.6 Goldstone Theorem 410
15.3 Gauge Symmetries 412
15.3.1 The Abelian Model 413
15.3.2 The Non-Abelian Case 416
15.4 Problems 418
16 Quantum Field Theory at Higher Orders 420
16.1 Existence of Divergences in Loop Diagrams. Discussion 420
16.2 Connected and 1-PI Diagrams 421
16.3 Power Counting. Definition of Super-Renormalisable,
Renormalizable, and Non-renormalisable Quantum Field Theories 425
16.4 Regularisation 428
16.5 Renormalisation 433
16.5.1 1-Loop Diagrams 433
16.5.2 Some 2-Loop Examples 441
16.5.3 All Orders 443
16.5.4 An 'Almost' Renormalisable Theory 446
16.5.5 Composite Operators 448
16.6 The Renormalisation Group 450
 Contents xiii

16.6.1 General Discussion 450

16.6.2 The Renormalisation Group in Dimensional
Regularisation 453
16.6.3 Dependence of the 13 and y Functions on the
Renormalization Scheme 456
16.7 Problems 457
17 A First Glance at Renormalisation and Symmetry 462
17.1 Introduction 462
17.2 Global Symmetries 463
17.3 Gauge Symmetries: Examples 468
17.3.1 The Adler—Bell—Jackiw Anomaly 468
17.3.2 A Path Integral Derivation 471
17.3.3 The Axial Anomaly and Renormalisation 476
17.3.4 A Consistency Condition for Anomalies 476
17.4 The Breaking of Conformal Invariance 478
17.5 A Non-Perturbative Anomaly 482
17.6 Problems 485
18 Renormalisation of Yang—Mills Theory and BRST Symmetry 486
18.1 Introduction 486
18.2 Generating Functional of BRST Covariant Green Functions 487
18.2.1 BRST Ward Identities in a Functional Form 489
18.3 Anomaly Condition 490
18.3.1 General Solution for the Anomalies of the Ward Identities 491
18.3.2 The Possible Anomalous Vertices and the Anomaly
Vanishing Condition 495
18.4 Dimensional Regularisation and Multiplicative Renormalisation 497
18.4.1 Introduction 497
18.4.2 Linear Gauges and Ward Identities for the BRST
Symmetry and Ghost Equations of Motion 498
18.4.3 Inverting the Ward Identities in Linear Gauges for a Local
Field and Source Functional 499
18.4.4 The Structure of the Counter-terms within
the Dimensional Regularisation Method 501
18.5 Observables 504
18.6 Problems 505
19 Some Consequences of the Renormalisation Group 507
19.1 Introduction 507
19.2 The Asymptotic Behaviour of Green Functions 508
19.3 Stability and the Renormalization Group 511
19.4 Dimensional Transmutation 514
19.5 Problems 518
xiv Contents

20 Analyticity Properties of Feynman Diagrams 521

20.1 Introduction 521
20.2 Singularities of Tree Diagrams 522
20.3 Loop Diagrams 524
20.4 Unstable Particles 528
20.5 Cutkosky Unitarity Relations 532
20.6 The Analytic S-Matrix Theory 534
20.7 Problems 543
21 Infrared Singularities 544
21.1 Introduction. Physical Origin 544
21.2 The Example of Quantum Electrodynamics 545
21.3 General Discussion 550
21.4 Infrared Singularities in Other Theories 551
21.5 Problems 554
22 Coherent States and Classical Limit of Quantum Electrodynamics 555
22.1 Introduction 555
22.2 The Definition of Coherent States 556
22.3 Fluctuations 559
22.3.1 Time Evolution of Coherent States 560
22.3.2 Dispersion of Coherent States 560
22.4 Coherent States and the Classical Limit of QED towards Maxwell Theory 561
22.5 Squeezed States 563
22.6 Problems 565
23 Quantum Field Theories with a Large Number of Fields 566
23.1 Introduction 566
23.2 Vector Models 567
23.3 Fields in the Adjoint Representation 571
23.4 The Large N Limit as a Classical Field Theory 574
23.5 Problems 578
24 The Existence of Field Theories beyond the Perturbation Expansion 580
24.1 Introduction 580
24.2 The Equivalence between Relativistic and Euclidean Field Theories 582
24.3 Construction of Field Theories 584
24.4 The Zero-Dimensional 44 Model 590
24.4.1 The Divergence of the Perturbation Series 591
24.4.2 The Borel Summability 592
24.5 General Facts about Scalar Field Theories in d = 2 or d = 3 Dimensions 594
24.6 The X04 Theory in d = 2 Dimensions 597
 Contents xv

24.6.1 The Divergence of the A44 Perturbation Series 597

24.6.2 The Existence of the A(4 Theory 601
24.6.3 The Cluster Expansion 607
24.6.4 The Mayer Expansion 617
24.6.5 The Infinite Volume Limit of A44 621
24.6.6 The Borel Summability of the A Theory 622
24.6.7 The Mass Gap for (4 in a Strong External Field 623
24.7 The g(p)4 Theory in d = 3 Dimensions 625
24.7.1 The Expansion: Definition 630
24.7.2 The Expansion Completed 632
24.7.3 The Results 634
24.8 The Massive Gross—Neveu Model in d = 2 Dimensions 635
24.8.1 Definition of the Model 635
24.8.2 The Infinite Volume Limit 639
24.8.3 The Removal of the Ultraviolet Cut-off 639
24.8.4 The Behaviour of the Effective Constants
and the Approximate Renormalization Group
Flow 640
24.9 The Yang—Mills Field Theory in d = 4 644
24.9.1 A Physical Problem 644
24.9.2 Many Technical Problems 645
25 Fundamental Interactions 648
25.1 Introduction. What Is an 'Elementary Particle'? 648
25.2 The Four Interactions 649
25.3 The Standard Model of Weak and Electromagnetic Interactions 651
25.3.1 A Brief Summary of the Phenomenology 651
25.3.2 Model Building 655
25.3.3 The Lepton World 655
25.3.4 Extension to Hadrons 660
25.3.5 The Neutrino Masses 668
25.3.6 Some Sample Calculations 671
25.3.7 Anomalies in the Standard Model 676
25.4 A Gauge Theory for Strong Interactions 680
25.4.1 Are Strong Interactions Simple? 680
25.4.2 Quantum Chromodynamics 683
25.4.3 Quantum Chromodynamics in Perturbation Theory 692
25.4.4 Quantum Chromodynamics on a Space—Time Lattice 712
25.4.5 Instantons 729
25.5 Problems 740
26 Beyond the Standard Model 746
26.1 Why 747
26.1.1 The Standard Model Has Been Enormously Successful 747
xvi Contents

26.1.2 Predictions for New Physics 748

26.1.3 Unsolved Problems of the Standard Model 752
26.2 Grand Unified Theories 752
26.2.1 Generalities 752
26.2.2 The Simplest GUT: SU(5) 754
26.2.3 Dynamics of GUTs 757
26.2.4 Other Grand Unified Theories 764
26.2.5 Magnetic Monopoles 769
26.3 The Trial of Scalars 780
27 Supersymmetry, or the Defence of Scalars 784
27.1 Introduction 784
27.2 The Supersymmetry Algebra 785
27.3 Why This Particular Algebra; or All Possible Supersymmetries of
the S Matrix 786
27.4 Representations in Terms of One-Particle States 787
27.4.1 Massive Case 787
27.4.2 Massless Case 789
27.5 Representations in Terms of Field Operators: Superspace 791
27.6 A Simple Field Theory Model 797
27.7 Supersymmetry and Gauge Invariance 803
27.7.1 The Abelian Case 803
27.7.2 The Non-Abelian Case 806
27.7.3 Extended Supersymmetries 808
27.8 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Supersymmetry 811
27.8.1 Goldstone and BEH Phenomena in the Presence
of Supersymmetry 812
27.8.2 Spontaneous Supersymmetry Breaking in Perturbation
Theory 818
27.8.3 Dynamical Breaking of Supersymmetry 821
27.9 Dualities in Supersymmetric Gauge Theories 823
27.10 Twisted Supersymmetry and Topological Field Theories 833
27.10.1 Introduction 833
27.10.2 A Quantum Mechanical Toy Model 837
27.10.3 Yang—Mills TQFT 839
27.11 Supersymmetry and Particle Physics 848
27.11.1 Supersymmetry and the Standard Model 851
27.11.2 Supersymmetry and Grand Unified Theories 854
27.11.3 The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model 855
27.12 Gauge Supersymmetry 858
27.12.1 N=1 Supergravity 859
27.12.2 N = 8 Supergravity 861
27.13 Problems 862
 Contents xvii

Appendix A Tensor Calculus 863

A.1 Algebraic Theory of Tensors 863
A.1.1 Definitions 863
A.1.2 Examples 864
A.1.3 Algebraic Properties of Tensors 866
A.1.4 Bases 866
A.2 Manifolds and Tensors 868
A.2.1 Manifolds, Tangent, and Cotangent Bundles 868
A.2.2 Differential of a Mapping 869
A.2.3 Vector Fields 870
A.2.4 Cotangent Bundle 871
A.2.5 Tensors 871
A.2.6 Lie Derivative 875
A.2.7 Riemannian Structure 877
Appendix B Differential Calculus 879
B.1 Differential Form 879
B.2 Exterior Differential 883
B.2.1 Integration 884
Appendix C Groups and Lie Algebras 889
C.1 Lie Groups 889
C.1.1 Definitions 889
C.1.2 Representations 890
C.1.3 Lie Groups 892
C.1.4 One Parameter Subgroup. Tangent Space 893
C.2 Lie Algebras 896
C.2.1 Definition 896
C.2.2 Matrix Lie Algebras 898
Appendix D A Collection of Useful Formulae 902
D.1 Units and Notations 902
D.2 Free Fields 903
D.3 Feynman Rules for Scattering Amplitudes 906
D.4 Examples 910
Appendix E Extract from Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism 912

Index 915
Prologue

This book originated in a course at the Ecole Polytechnique which covered approxim-
ately the first third of it. The course was aimed at undergraduate students, some of
whom were majoring in physics and some in mathematics. The problem we had to face
was that, contrary to what happens in some other places, the education these two com-
munities had received was rather unbalanced towards each other. The physicists had a
good training in an advanced mathematical formalism, but mathematics was perceived as
a mere tool to obtain a precise description of physical phenomena. Similarly, the math-
ematicians had used physics only as a demonstration of mathematics' ability to have a
contact with the real world. Our aim was to show the deep entanglement of physics and
mathematics and how these two disciplines through their mutual interactions over the
past hundred years have enriched themselves and both have shaped our understanding
of the fundamental laws of nature. Today, modern theoretical physics interacts with the
mainstream research in pure mathematics and this interaction has resulted in the de-
velopment of new concepts common to both. We chose an approach which attempts
to reconcile the physicists' and the mathematicians', points of view. It is based, on two
ingredients: the concept of field, as it appears primarily in Maxwells' equations, and
that of the path integral, as formulated by Feynman. With these two ingredients we can
make the connection between the classical and the relativistic quantum worlds. We can
introduce the underlying symmetries, including those of general relativity, and show how
some fundamental physical principles, such as relativistic invariance, locality of the inter-
actions, causality, and positivity of the energy, can form the basic elements of a modern
physical theory.
In this approach we were confronted with the fact that practically one can never dir-
ectly give a mathematical meaning to the path integrals. This, however, can be done
indirectly by the axiomatic link between our relativistic space—time and the Euclidean
universe in which, under certain physical conditions, the existence of path integrals
can be shown. This provides the foundation of what follows. We develop the stand-
ard theory of the fundamental forces which is a perfect example of the connection
between physics and mathematics. Based on some abstract concepts, such as group
theory, gauge symmetries, and differential geometry, it gives a detailed model whose
agreement with experiment has been spectacular. This line of approach, from first prin-
ciples, all the way to specific experimental predictions, has been the guiding line all along.
As a consequence, we decided to leave out subjects, such as the attempts to obtain a
quantum theory of gravity based on string theories, because, although they involve very
beautiful modern mathematics, they have not yet been directly connected to concrete
experimental results.
1
Introduction

1.1 The Descriptive Layers of Physical Reality

Figure 1.1 describes how the different degrees of approximation of the physical 'reality'
fit into each other. This course aims to describe a possible progression from bottom
to top.
We assume that the reader is familiar with classical mechanics, classical electromag-
netic theory, and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Although the students to whom
the material of this book was first addressed had a good background in mathematics cov-
ering the standard fields such as analysis, geometry, and group theory, the techniques
we shall use will not exceed what is usually taught in an advanced undergraduate course.
We have added three appendices with some more specialised topics.
We start with a very brief reminder of the basic principles of classical mechanics.
This book will develop the theory of relativistic quantum fields, so we have devoted the
second chapter to the properties of the Lorentz group and, in particular, its spinorial
representations. In the third chapter we present the first successful classical field theory,
namely Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism formulated as a Lagrangian field theory.
It will serve as a model throughout this book. The purpose is not to review classical elec-
tromagnetism, but rather to extract some features which will be useful in the discussion
of more general field theories. In the fourth chapter we give a very brief review of general
relativity, the other 'Classical' field theory. It shares with electrodynamics the property
of gauge invariance, but it goes further because of the non-linearity of the transforma-
tions. These two classical theories have guided our intuition for the understanding of the
fundamental forces of nature.
The main applications we have in mind will be in elementary particle physics, so in
the fifth chapter we present the space of physical states as the Fock space built out of free
particles. We use the invariance under the Poincare group and no knowledge of second
quantisation is required.
In the sixth chapter we present the simplest relativistic wave equations for fields of
spin 0, 1/2, and 1. They are studied as classical differential equations and in the next
chapter we attempt to construct out of them a relativistic version of quantum mechanics.

From Classical to Quantum Fields. Laurent Baulieu, John Iliopoulos and Roland Seneor.
© Laurent Baulieu, John Iliopoulos and Roland Seneor, 2017. Published 2017 by Oxford University Press.
2 Introduction

Relativistic quantum field theory

h —> 0

Non-relativistic quantum mechanics Classical field theory

Schrodinger's equation Relativistic classical particles

h —> 0 c

Classical hamiltonian mechanics

Figure 1.1 The different approximations of the physical reality. h is

the Planck constant, c is the speed of light and h = 11127

We show that all such attempts point unmistakably to a system with an infinite number
of degrees of freedom, a quantum field theory.
This quantum theory is presented using the path integral approach which is gradually
developed in the next chapters. Following Feynman's original presentation, we show
how we can derive Schrodinger's equation in the non-relativistic case. The quantum
mechanical harmonic oscillator is analysed and we establish the connection with the
formalism of canonical quantisation. In order to establish a more concrete mathematical
framework, we pass to the Euclidean version, in which some rigorous definitions can
be given. A special chapter contains elements of the axiomatic formulation including
the two basic theorems which form the foundations of relativistic quantum field theory,
namely PCT and the connection between spin and statistics. Finally, we develop the
asymptotic theory and the Feynman rules for scalar, spinor, and electromagnetic fields.
The extension to Yang—Mills gauge theories is based on the invariance of the effective
Lagrangian under BRST transformations which allow for a unified treatment of the
Ward identities and the gauge independence of physical quantities.
The theory of perturbative renormalisation is developed separately, including its re-
lation to the renormalisation group and the problem of anomalies. Several properties
of the correlation functions in quantum field theory, such as the analyticity properties
in the complex energy plane, the problem of the infrared divergences, and the classical
limit through the use of the coherent state formalism, are presented in separate chapters.
A special chapter summarises the rigorous results which show the existence of some
simplified field theory models beyond the perturbation expansion. The last chapters
show various applications to particle physics. We present the standard model of strong,
electromagnetic, and weak interactions and the various attempts to go beyond.
A word about references and bibliography. This book touches so many subjects,
without exhausting any of them, that a list of references is not practical. We decided
to follow a minimal line and we shall give very few references. The choice is, to a large
extent, arbitrary and the criteria vary in each case. They include: (i) books or articles
 Units and Notations 3

whose arguments we follow very closely, (ii) works which are not widely known, and
(iii) works whose reading is essential for the understanding of the results presented in
the book.

1.2 Units and Notations

The basis for dimensional analysis is given by the mass [M], the length [L], and the time
[T]. The dimensions of other physical quantities can be expressed as a combination of
these three basic ones. For example,

The speed of light c: [c] =

The Planck constant h: [h] — [m[V2
The force F: [F] = [1", 11
[7 ' ]
The charge e: [e] 2 = [M] [1]3
[T]2

The fine-structure constant a = 4 e2hc — th, which is dimensionless.

We will use from now on 'God-given' units, where

h = c = 1. (1.1)

In this system [L] = [T], [M] = [L]-1 ,[F] = [L]-2, and [e2] = [1].
The only unit left is [L].
Spatial vectors will be denoted x or x. Their components will generally be noted with
Roman indices x = (xl , x2, x3) = ( {xi} ).
Four-vectors will be denoted x and their component indices will be Greek letters:
x = (x° , xl , x2 ,x3) = ({x0 }).
We shall adopt the Einstein convention for the summation over repeated indices.
A word about complex conjugation: In physics books the notation is not uniform. We
shall adopt the standard convention according to which z denotes the complex conjugate
of the complex number z. For an operator A we shall write A* or Al' for its Hermitian
conjugate. Since for a c-number function the operations of complex and Hermitian con-
jugation coincide, we shall occasionally write f* for the complex conjugate off, especially
in cases in which the same symbol may denote an operator in the following sections.
Unfortunately, this simple rule has an exception: In the physics literature it has been
established to use the 'bar' notation also in a different context. If @ represents a spinor,
IP is not just the complex conjugate of it. We shall give the precise definition in the ap-
propriate chapter and we shall make sure there is no confusion whenever the symbol
is used.
4 Introduction

1.3 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Mechanics

We will give in this section a brief review of rational mechanics. The high-level concep-
tualisation of classical mechanics has played, since the end of the nineteenth century, an
essential part in the development of physical theories.

1.3.1 Review of Variational Calculus

Given q ER" and let y = {t,q I q = q(t),to < t < t1} be a curve in W' x R such that
q(to) = qo and q(ti) = qi, and let the Lagrangian L:118" xR" x R —> R be a sufficiently
regular function of 2n + 1 variables. We have the following.

Theorem 1. The curve y is extremal for the functional 0(y) = f:01 L(q,q,t)dt in the space
of the curves joining (to, qo) to (t1, q1 ) if and only if the Euler—Lagrange equations are
verified along y.

We recall that the Euler—Lagrange equations are

d (a.L, al, _
(1.2)
dt 34) 84 — 0•
The principle of least action links the Newton equations to the Euler—Lagrange
equations.

Theorem 2 (Least Action Principle). The extrema of the functional 0(y) where L =
T — U, the difference between kinetic energy and potential energy, are given by the
solutions of the equations of motion.

The proof is obvious for T = 1 m(q, q) and U = U (q). Introducing the generalised
momentum p = -- aL
a q ' we have the following.
Theorem 3. The Lagrange system of equations j) = and p =a—
q aLq is equivalent to the
Hamilton system of 2n first-order equations

ax
p = __ (1.3)
aq
ail
q = —, (1.4)
ap

where H(p, q, t) = pii— L(q, 4,0 is the Legendre transform of the Lagrangian.

Proof. The Legendre transform is used to pass from a function L of 4 and q to a

function H of p and q. One can invert the equation describing the generalised
 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Mechanics 5

momentum p from the Lagrangian to express 4 as a function of p and q: 4 =

4(p, q, t). Therefore, we have (we suppose for simplicity that L does not depend
explicitly on time)

HI al-1
dH = — dp + — dg
0p 0g
. a4 aLa4 04 aLa4 0L
= (q + p— — —) dp + (p— — — — —) dq
013 aq ap aq aq aq aq
az,
= qdp — — dq
aq

using Hamilton's equations.

We deduce that a function f (p, q, t) varies with t like

df of of (a1-1 ) =
= + {H , (1.8)
dt at aq ap ap at
where by definition, the Poisson bracket of two functions f and g is given, component-
wise, by

of ag of
_ ag
{f, g} = aqi (1.9)
a.7 apt
If f does not depend explicitly on time, saying that f is a constant of motion is equivalent
to saying that its Poisson bracket with H vanishes.
Hamilton's equations also result from a stationary principle. Indeed, consider the
variation of the action

I L(q, q)dt = f pdq— H(p, q)dt (1.10)

= fto to

with 4(t) = q(t) + q(t) and 13(0 = p(t) + 8p(t) under the condition that 8q(ti ) =
8q(to) = 0. We find that SI is null at first order if Hamilton's equations are verified.
We will now give a global formulation of a Lagrangian system in mechanics.
Given M is a differentiable manifold, T (M) its tangent fibre space, and L :
T (M) —> R a differentiable function, a trajectory of the Lagrangian system (M, L),
of configuration space M and Lagrangian L, is an extremal curve of the functional

tl

(y) = f L()i)dt,
to
6 Introduction

where Y E Ty (t) (M) is the velocity vector. The system of local coordinates q =
(qi , , qm) for a point of y (t) subject to a Lagrangian system verifies the Euler—
Lagrange equations, L(q,q) being the expression, in local coordinates, of the function
L.
If the manifold is Riemannian, the quadratic form on the tangent space T =
1(v, v) , v E Tq(M), is the kinetic energy. The potential energy is a differentiable function
U : M —> R. A Lagrangian system is natural if L = T — U.
These few formulae make it possible to solve problems of mechanics with constraints,
by using the Euler—Lagrange equations.

1.3.2 Noether's Theorem

We will now formulate an invariance theorem. For each one-parameter group of dif-
feomorphisms of the configuration manifold which preserves the Lagrangian there is a
corresponding prime integral of the equations of motion, i.e. a conserved quantity.
Given h : M —> M, a differentiable map, and T (h) : T(M) —> T(M), the induced
map on speeds, a Lagrangian system (M, L) is invariant if Vv E T(M):

L(T(h)v) = L(v) . (1.12)

We then have the following.

Theorem 4 (E. Noether). If the Lagrangian system (M, L) is invariant under the one-
parameter group of diffeomorphisms hs : M —> M, s E R, then the system of the Euler—
Lagrange equations admits a prime integral I : T(M) —> R.
In a local chart

a L dh (q)
I (q, q) — (1.13)
a q ds s= 0

Proof. We only treat the case M = Rm. Letf : R —> M be such that q = f (t) is a solution
of the Euler—Lagrange equations. As L is invariant by T(hs), T (hs) f : R —> M
satisfies also the same equations for any s. Consider the map 0 : R x R —>
given by q = 0 (s, t) = hs(f (t)). By hypothesis

o=
aL(o* =
az, , az, .,
—a) +aq (1.14)
as aq

where the indicate the derivation with respect to s, the dots with respect to t, and
where the derivatives are calculated at the points q = ch (s, t) and 4 = ch (s, t). By
hypothesis, for all constant s, the mapping

(1) s=constant : R )gym (1.15)

 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Mechanics 7

verifies the Euler—Lagrange equations

a _ aL(o,)
(1.16)
at L ag 0g •

By using this equality in (1.14), we have

0= (1.17)
,cit)q 04 ,cTq cT q at.

1.3.3 Applications of Noether's Theorem

Let us apply the theorem to the Lagrangian of N particles L = EN_' 1;121(q`) 2 —
U(q1 , • • • ,qN ), qt E R3, i = 1, • • • ,N in the following two cases:

1. The Lagrangian is invariant under translations

: —> q`+ sa, a E R3, i= 1, • • • , N. (1.18)

2. The Lagrangian is invariant under rotations

hs : qt —> (R(n, 9 )q`), i = 1, • • • ,N, (1.19)

where R(n, 9) is a rotation of direction n and angle B.

Setting q = (q1 , • • • ,qN ), q E M = (R3)®N, we can define obviously in both cases an

extension of hs to M.
Note that in both cases it is a property of the potential that is expressed, since the
kinetic energy term is invariant under both translations and rotations.

1.3.3.1 Invariance under Translations

Given hs (q1) = qz + sa, therefore

dhs (q1)
= a, (1.20)
ds
SO

,_
aq g z, E
) — miq a _ a = pa (1.21)
8 Introduction

and
d/ dp a dp
0 = — = = a— (1.22)
dt dt dt
since a is a constant.
We thus see that the invariance under translation of the Lagrangian implies the
conservation of the total momentum.
1.3.3.2 Invariance under Rotations
Let us fix the direction of the rotation and take as parameter s the angle of rotation. It is
a one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms. Now with

he(g1 ) = R(n,6)qz = q`(9) (1.23)

we have
d d
(1.24)
c li(9(q) = c q (9)
The conserved quantity is

I = '41(9) d9q1(19)1e=o ,
i=1

and since

R(n,9)q = [cos91 + (1 — cos9)n n + sim9 nn]q , (1.25)

this shows that

d •
sin9 (nq • qi — qi) + cos9 n A qi (1.26)
d9 qt (9) =
and therefore
N (N
I = Em • (n A q1) = min • (qi A )= n• q1 A Y= ) . (1.27)
i=1 i=1 E
i=1

As I is conserved for any n, what follows is the conservation of the total angular
momentum:
N
L= (1.28)
i=
2
Relativistic Invariance

2.1 Introduction
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, physicists postulated the existence of an
absolute time, a Euclidean space, and `Galileo's Principle of Relativity', that is to say the
invariance of the laws of physics by the Galilean group of transformations. The transform-
ations generating this group are space rotations, constant translations in space and time,
and the passage from one reference frame to any other in uniform motion with regard to
the first. Some reference frames, the reference frames of inertia, are privileged. They are
such that the laws of physics are the same there as in absolute space.
The principle of Galilean relativity and the idea of an absolute time are at the origin
of the Principia, written by Newton in 1686. Newton justifies them by the predictive
power of the physical theories that come from them. However, he perceives their limits
by the following consequences: the unobservability of space by any experiment, the in-
stantaneous propagation of signals, and the interaction between corpuscules. He writes
to Richard Bentley in 1687:

`That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the me-
diation of something else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man, who has in
philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it.'

More than any other, with the range of mathematical knowledge of his time, New-
ton knew that he could not go any further in his analysis of space—time. Many of his
writings state his faith in the future generations to deepen the understanding of natural
phenomena, theoretically and experimentally.
The theory of electrodynamics presented by Maxwell in 1864 and the Michelson ex-
periment mark the abandon of the Newtonian theory of space and time. The Maxwell
equations predict that the speed of light in the vacuum is a universal constant c (equal, by
definition, since 1983 to 299, 792, 458 m s-1). Because of the Newtonian law on composi-
tion of speeds, this prediction cannot be true in two frames in relative motion defined by a
Galilean transformation. The existence of an ether serving as support to the propagation

From Classical to Quantum Fields. Laurent Baulieu, John Iliopoulos and Roland Seneor.
© Laurent Baulieu, John Iliopoulos and Roland Seneor, 2017. Published 2017 by Oxford University Press.
10 Relativistic Invariance

of light has allowed for a certain time to admit that only the laws of mechanics obeyed
the Galilean principle of relativity, the laws of electromagnetism being true only for some
particular inertial frames, those at rest with respect to the ether. Faced by the failure of
the experiments to measure the speed of motion of the earth in the ether, and partic-
ularly the Michelson experiment, the proposition from Poincare, Lorentz, and Einstein
to replace the Galilean transformations with the Lorentz transformations led Einstein
to introduce in 1905 a new mechanics in which electrodynamics and mechanics satisfy
a unique principle, the principle of special relativity. This new principle postulates the
invariance of the equations of physics by Lorentz transformations rather than by those
of Galileo. One of the spectacular consequences of this new mechanics is the violation
of the law of composition of velocities predicted by Newton's theory. The principle of
equivalence of the forces of inertia and of gravitation, discovered by Einstein in 1916
makes it possible to incorporate gravitation within the frame of a relativistic theory. This
principle is the basis for the theory of general relativity. It is equivalent to the statement
that no experiment confined to an infinitely small region of space—time could allow us to
distinguish an inertial frame from another one.
Today the hypothesis on space—time is as follows. It should be possible to write the
laws of physics geometrically in a Riemannian manifold of four dimensions, locally equi-
valent to a Minkowskian space with a signature (+, —, —, —). The microscopic particles are
described by local fields. If we introduce a system of local coordinates, the classical equa-
tions of motion are differential equations, deriving by a principle of least action from an
action invariant under local Lorentz transformations. The quantum theory is founded
using the formalism of functional integration, leading back within certain limits to the
classical theory.
Einstein's theory allows coherent classical descriptions of gravity and electrodynam-
ics. Although we will not study the quantum theory of gravitation in this book, it is
still necessary to understand how the force of gravity is linked to the local proper-
ties of space—time. We shall give a brief summary of the classical theory of general
relativity in Chapter 4; here we want only to point out that a simple consequence of
Einstein's equations is that the gravitational attraction between corpuscules is linked to
the curvature of space, itself induced by the corpuscules. Let us take the simplified case
of a two-dimensional curved space, for example a sphere. Let two test particles exist in a
neighbourhood considered as small compared to the curvature of the sphere. According
to Einstein's principle, they must move at a constant speed on geodesics, that is to say
on big circles. If we observe the particles for a sufficiently short time, their trajectories
appear to be parallel and the Newtonian principles are respected. After a certain time,
the observer will see the particles to converge. He will then be able to conclude that there
exists an attractive force between the two particles.
Einstein's analysis on the nature of space—time is confirmed by many experiments
in classical physics. However, the quantum theory of gravitation still escapes our com-
prehension despite the common efforts of physicists and mathematicians. Moreover,
because of the orders of magnitude of physical constants and perhaps because of our
lack of imagination, there do not exist experiments putting into evidence a gravitational
quantum effect.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cambridge natural history, Vol.
05 (of 10)
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the
world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 05 (of 10)

Author: Adam Sedgwick

David Sharp
F. G. Sinclair

Editor: S. F. Harmer
Sir A. E. Shipley

Release date: November 6, 2023 [eBook #72052]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Macmillan and Co, 1895

Credits: Keith Edkins, Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY,
VOL. 05 (OF 10) ***
 THE

CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

S. F. HARMER, M.A., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge; Superintendent of the University

Museum of Zoology

AND

A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge; University Lecturer on the

Morphology of Invertebrates

VOLUME V

PERIPATUS
By Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge

MYRIAPODS
By F. G. Sinclair, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge
INSECTS
PART I. Introduction, Aptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and a portion of Hymenoptera (Sessiliventres and
Parasitica)
By David Sharp, M.A. (Cantab.), M.B. (Edinb.), F.R.S.

London
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1895

All rights reserved

"Creavit in cœlo Angelos, in terra vermiculos: non superior in illis, non inferior in istis. Sicut enim nulla manus
Angelum, ita nulla posset creare vermiculum."—Saint Augustine, Liber soliloquiorum animae ad Deum,
Caput IX.
 CONTENTS

PAGE
Scheme of the Classification adopted in this book ix

PERIPATUS
CHAPTER I
Introduction—External Features—Habits—Breeding—Anatomy—Alimentary
Canal—Nervous System—The Body Wall—The Tracheal System—The
Muscular System—The Vascular System—The Body Cavity—Nephridia—
Generative Organs—Development—Synopsis of the Species—Summary of
Distribution 3

MYRIAPODA
CHAPTER II
Introduction—Habits—Classification—Structure—Chilognatha—Chilopoda—
Schizotarsia—Symphyla—Pauropoda—Embryology—Palaeontology 29

INSECTA
CHAPTER III
Characteristic Features of Insect Life—Social Insects—Definition of the Class
Insecta—Composition of Insect Skeleton—Number of Segments—Nature of
Sclerites—Head—Appendages of the Mouth—Eyes—Thorax—Entothorax—
Legs—Wings—Abdomen or Hind Body—Spiracles—Systematic Orientation 83
CHAPTER IV
Arrangement of Internal Organs—Muscles—Nervous System—Ganglionic
Chain—Brain—Sense-Organs—Alimentary Canal—Malpighian Tubes—
Respiration—Tracheal System—Function of Respiration—Blood or Blood-
chyle—Dorsal Vessel or Heart—Fat-body—Ovaries—Testes—
Parthenogenesis—Glands 114
CHAPTER V
DEVELOPMENT
Embryology—Eggs—Micropyles—Formation of Embryo—Ventral Plate—
Ectoderm and Endoderm—Segmentation—Later Stages—Direct
Observation of Embryo—Metamorphosis—Complete and Incomplete—Instar
—Hypermetamorphosis—Metamorphosis of Internal Organs—Integument—
Metamorphosis of Blowfly—Histolysis—Imaginal Discs—Physiology of
Metamorphosis—Ecdysis 143
CHAPTER VI
Classification—The Nine Orders of Insects—Their Characters—Packard's
Arrangement—Brauer's Classification—Classifications based on
Metamorphosis—Super-Orders—The Subdivisions of Orders 171
CHAPTER VII
The Order Aptera—Definition—Chief Characteristics—Thysanura—Campodea 180
 —Japyx—Machilis—Lepisma—Diversity of Internal Structure in Thysanura
—Ectotrophi and Entotrophi—Collembola—Lipuridae—Poduridae—
Smynthuridae—The Spring—The Ventral Tube—Abdominal Appendages—
Prostemmatic Organ—Tracheal System—Anurida maritima—Collembola on
Snow—Life-Histories of Collembola—Fossil Aptera—Apterygogenea—
Antiquity and Distribution of Campodea
CHAPTER VIII
Orthoptera—Forficulidae, Earwigs—Hemimeridae 198
CHAPTER IX
Orthoptera continued—Blattidae, Cockroaches 220
CHAPTER X
Orthoptera continued—Mantidae, Soothsayers 242
CHAPTER XI
Orthoptera continued—Phasmidae, Walking-Leaves, Stick-Insects 260
CHAPTER XII
Orthoptera continued—Acridiidae, Locusts, Grasshoppers 279
CHAPTER XIII
Orthoptera continued—Locustidae, Green Grasshoppers, Katydids 311
CHAPTER XIV
Orthoptera continued—Gryllidae, Crickets 330
CHAPTER XV
Neuroptera—Mallophaga—Embiidae 341
CHAPTER XVI
Neuroptera continued—Termitidae, Termites or White Ants 356
CHAPTER XVII
Neuroptera continued—Psocidae (Book-Lice and Death-Watches)—The First
Family of Amphibious Neuroptera (Perlidae, Stone-Flies) 390
CHAPTER XVIII
Amphibious Neuroptera continued—Odonata, Dragon-Flies 409
CHAPTER XIX
Amphibious Neuroptera continued—Ephemeridae, May-Flies 429
CHAPTER XX
Neuroptera Planipennia—Sialidae, Alder-Flies, Snake-Flies—Panorpidae,
Scorpion-Flies—Hemerobiidae, Ant-Lions, Lacewings, etc. 444
CHAPTER XXI
Neuroptera continued—Trichoptera, the Phryganeidae or Caddis-Flies 473
CHAPTER XXII
Hymenoptera—Hymenoptera Sessiliventres—Cephidae—Oryssidae—Siricidae—
Tenthredinidae or Sawflies 487
 CHAPTER XXIII
Hymenoptera Petiolata—Parasitic Hymenoptera—Cynipidae or Gall-Flies—
Proctotrypidae—Chalcididae—Ichneumonidae—Braconidae—Stephanidae—
Megalyridae—Evaniidae—Pelecinidae—Trigonalidae 519
Index 567
 SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION (RECENT FORMS) ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK

PROTOTRACHEATA
Peripatus (p. 1)

MYRIAPODA
Order. Family.
Polyxenidae (p. 43).
Glomeridae (p. 43).
Sphaerotheriidae (p. 43).
Julidae (p. 43).
CHILOGNATHA (= DIPLOPODA)
Blanjulidae (p. 44).
Chordeumidae (p. 44).
Polydesmidae (p. 44).
Polyzoniidae (p. 44).

Lithobiidae (p. 45).

Scolopendridae (p. 45).
CHILOPODA
Notophilidae (p. 45).
Geophilidae (p. 46).

SCHIZOTARSIA Cermatiidae (= Scutigeridae) (p. 46).

SYMPHYLA. Scolopendrellidae (p. 46).

PAUROPODA Pauropidae (p. 47).

INSECTA
Division, Series, or Tribe or Sub-
Order. Family. Group.
Sub-Order. Family.
Campodeidae (p. 183).
Japygidae (p. 184).
Thysanura (p. 182)
Machilidae (p. 184).
APTERA
Lepismidae (p. 185).
(p. 180)
Lipuridae (p. 190).
Collembola
Poduridae (p. 190).
(p. 189)
Smynthuridae (p. 191).
ORTHOPTERA Orthoptera Forficulidae (p. 202).
(p. 198) cursoria Hemimeridae (p. 217).
Blattidae Ectobiides.
(p. 220) Phyllodromiides.
Nyctiborides.
Epilamprides.
Periplanetides.
Panchlorides.
 Blaberides.
Corydiides.
Oxyhaloides.
Perisphaeriides.
Panesthiides.
? Geoscapheusides.
Amorphoscelides.
Orthoderides.
Mantidae Mantides.
(p. 242) Harpagides.
Vatides.
Empusides.
Lonchodides.
Bacunculides.
Bacteriides.
Necroscides.
Clitumnides.
Phasmidae Acrophyllides.
(p. 260) Cladomorphides.
Anisomorphides.
Phasmides.
Aschipasmides.
Bacillides.
Phylliides.
Orthoptera Tettigides.
saltatoria Pneumorides.
Mastacides.
Proscopiides.
Acridiidae
Tryxalides.
(p. 279)
Oedipodides.
Pyrgomorphides.
Pamphagides.
Acridiides.
Phaneropterides.
Meconemides.
Mecopodides.
Prochilides.
Pseudophyllides.
Conocephalides.
Tympanophorides.
Locustidae
Sagides.
(p. 311)
Locustides.
Decticides.
Callimenides.
Ephippigerides.
Hetrodides.
Gryllacrides.
Stenopelmatides.
Gryllidae Tridactylides.
(p. 330) Gryllotalpides.
Myrmecophilides.
Gryllides.
Oecanthides.
 Trigonidiides.
Eneopterides.
Leiotheides.
Mallophaga (p. 345)
Philopterides.
Embiidae (p. 351).
Pseudoneuroptera Termitidae (p. 356).
Psocidae (p. 390).
Perlidae (p. 398).
Gomphinae.
Cordulegasterinae.
Anisopterides Aeschninae.
Neuroptera Odonata
Corduliinae.
Amphibiotica (p. 409)
Libellulinae.
Calepteryginae.
Zygopterides
Agrioninae.
Ephemeridae (p. 429).
Sialidae Sialides.
(p. 444) Raphidiides.
Panorpidae (p. 449).
NEUROPTERA
(p. 341) Myrmeleonides (p. 454).
Ascalaphides Holophthalmi.
(p. 459) Schizophthalmi.
Neuroptera Nemopterides (p. 462).
planipennia Mantispides (p. 463).
Hemerobiidae
(p. 453) Dilarina.
Hemerobiides Nymphidina.
(p. 465) Osmylina.
Hemerobiina.
Chrysopides (p. 469).
Coniopterygides (p. 471).
Phryganeides (p. 480).
Limnophilides (p. 481).
Sericostomatides (p. 482).
Phryganeidae
Trichoptera Leptocerides (p. 482).
(p. 473)
Hydropsychides (p. 482).
Rhyacophilides (p. 483).
Hydroptilides (p. 484).
Cephidae (p. 504).
Hymenoptera Oryssidae (p. 506).
Sessiliventres Siricidae (p. 507).
Tenthredinidae (p. 510).
Cynipidae (p. 523).
Proctotrypidae (p. 533).
HYMENOPTERA Chalcididae (p. 539).
(p. 487) Ichneumonidae (p. 551).
Hymenoptera
Braconidae (p. 558).
Petiolata
Stephanidae (p. 561).
(part)
Megalyridae (p. 562).
Evaniidae (p. 562).
Pelecinidae (p. 563).
Trigonalidae (p. 564).
(To be continued in Vol. VI.)
 PERIPATUS

BY

ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

CHAPTER I

PERIPATUS

INTRODUCTION–EXTERNAL FEATURES–HABITS–BREEDING–ANATOMY–ALIMENTARY CANAL–NERVOUS

SYSTEM–THE BODY WALL–THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM–THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM–THE VASCULAR SYSTEM–
THE BODY CAVITY–NEPHRIDIA–GENERATIVE ORGANS–DEVELOPMENT–SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES–
SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION.

The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by Guilding,[1] who first obtained specimens of it
from St. Vincent in the Antilles. He regarded it as a Mollusc, being no doubt deceived by the slug-
like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens were subsequently obtained from other parts
of the Neotropical region and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal was variously
assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Annelida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system,
as a primitive member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874 by Moseley,[2] who
discovered the tracheae. The genus has been monographed by Sedgwick,[3] who has also written
an account of the development of the Cape species.[4] A bibliography will be found in Sedgwick's
Monograph.

There can be no doubt that Peripatus is an Arthropod, for it possesses the following features, all
characteristic of that group, and all of first-class morphological importance: (1) The presence of
appendages modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia perforating the wall of the
heart and putting its cavity in communication with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular
body cavity and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a perivisceral section of
the coelom. Finally, the tracheae, though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda, are
found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very important additional reason for uniting
Peripatus with it.

Peripatus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such important respects from all the old-
established Arthropod classes, that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called
Prototracheata, has had to be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other Arthropoda
is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it presents, but in part to the presence of the
following peculiar features: (1) The number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures; (2) the
restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the disposition of the generative organs; (4) the texture
of the skin; and (5) the simplicity and similarity of all the segments of the body behind the head.

The Annelidan affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a manner by the thinness of the
cuticle, the dermo-muscular body wall, the hollow appendages, that, as already stated, many of
the earlier zoologists who examined Peripatus placed it amongst the segmented worms; and the
discovery that there is some solid morphological basis for this determination constitutes one of the
most interesting points of the recent work on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (1) The
paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind the first two (Saenger, Balfour[5]); (2) the
presence of cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true that neither of these features are
absolutely distinctive of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with the Annelidan disposition
of the chief systems of organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main vascular trunk or
heart, may be considered as indicating affinities in that direction. Peripatus, therefore, is
zoologically of extreme interest from the fact that, though in the main Arthropodan, it possesses
features which are possessed by no other Arthropod, and which connect it to the group to which
the Arthropoda are in the general plan of their organisation most closely related. It must, therefore,
according to our present lights, be regarded as a very primitive form; and this view of it is borne
out by its extreme isolation at the present day. Peripatus stands absolutely alone as a kind of half-
way animal between the Arthropoda and Annelida. There is no gradation of structure within the
genus; the species are very limited in number, and in all of them the peculiar features above
mentioned are equally sharply marked.

Peripatus, though a lowly organised animal, and of remarkable sluggishness, with but slight
development of the higher organs of sense, with eyes the only function of which is to enable it to
avoid the light—though related to those animals most repulsive to the aesthetic sense of man,
animals which crawl upon their bellies and spit at, or poison, their prey—is yet, strange to say, an
animal of striking beauty. The exquisite sensitiveness and constantly changing form of the
antennae, the well-rounded plump body, the eyes set like small diamonds on the side of the head,
the delicate feet, and, above all, the rich colouring and velvety texture of the skin, all combine to
give these animals an aspect of quite exceptional beauty. Of all the species which I have seen
alive, the most beautiful are the dark green individuals of Capensis, and the species which I have
called Balfouri. These animals, so far as skin is concerned, are not surpassed in the animal
kingdom. I shall never forget my astonishment and delight when on bearing away the bark of a
rotten tree-stump in the forest on Table Mountain, I first came upon one of these animals in its
natural haunts, or when Mr. Trimen showed me in confinement at the South African Museum a
fine fat, full-grown female, accompanied by her large family of thirty or more just-born but pretty
young, some of which were luxuriously creeping about on the beautiful skin of their mother's back.

External Features.

The anterior part of the body may be called the head, though it is not sharply marked off from the
rest of the body (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.—Peripatus capensis, drawn from life. Life size. (After Sedgwick.)
 Fig. 2.—Ventral view of hind-end of P. Novae-Zealandiae. (After Sedgwick.) g, Generative opening;
a, anus.
Fig. 3.—Ventral view of the head of P. capensis. (After Sedgwick.) ant, Antennae; or.p, oral papillae;
F.1, first leg; T, tongue.

The head carries three pairs of appendages, a pair of simple eyes, and a ventrally placed mouth.
The body is elongated and vermiform; it bears a number of paired appendages, each terminating
in a pair of claws, and all exactly alike. The number varies in the different species. The anus is
always at the posterior end of the body, and the generative opening is on the ventral surface just
in front of the anus; it may be between the legs of the last pair (Fig. 2), or it may be behind them.
There is in most species a thin median white line extending the whole length of the dorsal surface
of the body, on each side of which the skin pigment is darker than elsewhere. The colour varies
considerably in the different species, and even in different individuals of the same species. The
ventral surface is nearly always flesh-coloured, while the dorsal surface has a darker colour. In the
South African species the colour of the dorsal surface varies from a dark green graduating to a
bluish gray, to a brown varying to a red orange. The colour of the Australasian species varies in
like manner, while that of the Neotropical species (S. American and W. Indian) is less variable.
The skin is thrown into a number of transverse ridges, along which wart-like papillae are placed.
The papillae, which are found everywhere, are specially developed on the dorsal surface, less so
on the ventral. Each papilla carries at its extremity a well-marked spine.

The appendages of the head are the antennae, the jaws and the oral papillae.

The antennae, which are prolongations of the dorso-lateral parts of the head, are ringed, and taper
slightly till near their termination, where they are slightly enlarged. The rings bear a number of
spines, and the free end of the antennae is covered by a cap of spiniferous tissue like that of the
rings.

Fig. 4.—Inner jaw-claw of P. capensis. (After Balfour.)

Fig. 5.—Outer jaw-claw of P. capensis. (After Balfour.)

The mouth is at the hinder end of a depression called the buccal cavity, and is surrounded by an
annular tumid lip, raised into papilliform ridges and bearing a few spines (Fig. 3). Within the buccal
cavity are the two jaws. They are short, stump-like, muscular structures, armed at their free
extremities by a pair of cutting blades or claws, and are placed one on each side of the mouth. In
the median line of the buccal cavity in front is placed a thick muscular protuberance, which may be
called the tongue, though attached to the dorsal instead of to the ventral wall of the mouth (Fig. 3).
The tongue bears a row of small chitinous teeth. The jaw-claws (Figs. 4 and 5), which resemble in
all essential points the claws borne by the feet, and like these are thickenings of the cuticle, are
sickle-shaped. They have their convex edge directed forwards and their concave or cutting edge
turned backwards. The inner cutting plate (Fig. 4) usually bears a number of cutting teeth. The
jaws appear to be used for tearing the food, to which the mouth adheres by means of the tumid
suctorial lips. The oral papillae are placed at the sides of the head (Fig. 3). The ducts of the slime-
glands open at their free end. They possess two main rings of projecting tissue, and their
extremities bear papillae irregularly arranged.

The ambulatory appendages vary in number. There are seventeen pairs in P. capensis and
eighteen in P. Balfouri, while in P. Edwardsii the number varies from twenty-nine to thirty-four
pairs. They consist of two main divisions, which we may call the leg and the foot (Figs. 6 and 7).
The leg (l) has the form of a truncated cone, the broad end of which is attached to the ventro-
lateral wall of the body, of which it is a prolongation. It is marked by a number of rings of papillae
placed transversely to its long axis, the dorsal of which are pigmented like the dorsal surface of
the body, and the ventral like the ventral surface. At the narrow distal end of the leg there are on
the ventral surface three spiniferous pads, each of which is continued dorsally into a row of
papillae.

Fig. 6.—Ventral view of last leg of a male P. capensis. (After Sedgwick.) f, Foot; l, leg; p, spiniferous
pads. The white papilla on the proximal part of this leg is characteristic of the male of this
species.

Fig. 7.—Leg of P. capensis seen from the front. (After Sedgwick.) f, Foot; l, leg; p, spiniferous pads.

The foot is attached to the distal end of the leg. It is slightly narrower at its attached extremity than
at its free end. It bears two sickle-shaped claws and a few papillae. The part of the foot which
carries the claws is especially retractile, and is generally found more or less telescoped into the
proximal part. The legs of the fourth and fifth pairs differ from the others in the fact that the
proximal pad is broken up into three, a small central and two larger lateral. The enlarged nephridia
of these legs open on the small central division.

The males are generally rather smaller than the females. In those species in which the number of
legs varies, the male has a smaller number of legs than the female.
 Habits.

They live beneath the bark of rotten stumps of trees, in the crevices of rock, and beneath stones.
They require a moist atmosphere, and are exceedingly susceptible to drought. They avoid light,
and are therefore rarely seen. They move with great deliberation, picking their course by means of
their antennae and eyes. It is by the former that they acquire a knowledge of the ground over
which they are travelling, and by the latter that they avoid the light. The antennae are
extraordinarily sensitive, and so delicate, indeed, that they seem to be able to perceive the nature
of objects without actual contact. When irritated they eject with considerable force the contents of
their slime reservoirs from the oral papillae. The force is supplied by the sudden contraction of the
muscular body wall. They can squirt the slime to the distance of almost a foot. The slime, which
appears to be perfectly harmless, is extremely sticky, but it easily comes away from the skin of the
animal itself.

I have never seen them use this apparatus for the capture of prey, but Hutton describes the New
Zealand species as using it for this purpose. So far as I can judge, it is used as a defensive
weapon; but this of course will not exclude its offensive use. They will turn their heads to any part
of the body which is being irritated and violently discharge their slime at the offending object.
Locomotion is effected entirely by means of the legs, with the body fully extended.

Of their food in the natural state we know little; but it is probably mainly, if not entirely, animal.
Hutton describes his specimens as sucking the juices of flies which they had stuck down with their
slime, and those which I kept in captivity eagerly devoured the entrails of their fellows, and the
developing young from the uterus. They also like raw sheep's liver. They move their mouths in a
suctorial manner, tearing the food with their jaws. They have the power of extruding their jaws
from the mouth, and of working them alternately backwards or forwards. This is readily observed
in individuals immersed in water.

Breeding.

All species are viviparous. It has been lately stated that one of the Australian species is normally
oviparous, but this has not been proved. The Australasian species come nearest to laying eggs,
inasmuch as the eggs are large, full of yolk, and enclosed in a shell; but development normally
takes place in the uterus, though, abnormally, incompletely developed eggs are extruded.

The young of P. capensis are born in April and May. They are almost colourless at birth, excepting
the antennae, which are green, and their length is 10 to 15 mm. A large female will produce thirty
to forty young in one year. The period of gestation is thirteen months, that is to say, the ova pass
into the oviducts about one month before the young of the preceding year are born. They are born
one by one, and it takes some time for a female to get rid of her whole stock of embryos; in fact,
the embryos in any given female differ slightly in age, those next the oviduct being a little older (a
few hours) than those next the vagina. The mother does not appear to pay any special attention to
her young, which wander away and get their own food.

There does not appear to be any true copulation. The male deposits small, white, oval
spermatophores, which consist of small bundles of spermatozoa cemented together by some
glutinous substance, indiscriminately on any part of the body of the female. Such spermatophores
are found on the bodies of both males and females from July to January, but they appear to be
most numerous in our autumn. It seems probable that the spermatozoa make their way from the
adherent spermatophore through the body wall into the body, and so by traversing the tissues
reach the ovary. The testes are active from June to the following March. From March to June the
vesiculae of the male are empty.

There are no other sexual differences except in some of the South African species, in which the
last or penultimate leg of the male bears a small white papilla on its ventral surface (Fig. 6).

Whereas in the Cape species embryos in the same uterus are all practically of the same age
(except in the month of April, when two broods overlap in P. capensis), and birth takes place at a
fixed season; in the Neotropical species the uterus, which is always pregnant, contains embryos of
different ages, and births probably take place all the year round.

In all species of Peripatus the young are fully formed at birth, and differ from the adults only in size
and colour.

ANATOMY

The Alimentary Canal (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.—Peripatus capensis dissected so as to show the alimentary canal, slime glands, and
salivary glands. (After Balfour.) The dissection is viewed from the ventral side, and the lips (L)
have been cut through in the middle line behind and pulled outwards so as to expose the jaws
(j), which have been turned outwards, and the tongue (T) bearing a median row of chitinous
teeth, which branches behind into two. The muscular pharynx, extending back into the space
between the first and second pairs of legs, is followed by a short tubular oesophagus. The
latter opens into the large stomach with plicated walls, extending almost to the hind end of the
animal. The stomach at its point of junction with the rectum presents an S-shaped ventro-
dorsal curve. A, Anus; at, antenna; F.1, F.2, first and second feet; j, jaws; L, lips; oe,
oesophagus; or.p, oral papilla; ph, pharynx; R, rectum; s.d, salivary duct; s.g, salivary gland;
sl.d, slime reservoir; sl.g, portion of tubules of slime gland; st, stomach; T, tongue in roof of
mouth.

The buccal cavity, as explained above, is a secondary formation around the true mouth, which is
at its dorsal posterior end. It contains the tongue and the jaws, which have already been
described, and into the hind end of it there opens ventrally by a median opening the salivary
glands (s.g). The mouth leads into a muscular pharynx (ph), which is connected by a short
oesophagus (oe) with a stomach (st). The stomach forms by far the largest part of the alimentary
canal. It is a dilated soft-walled tube, and leads behind into the short narrow rectum (R), which
opens at the anus. There are no glands opening into the alimentary canal.

Nervous System.

The central nervous system consists of a pair of supra-oesophageal ganglia united in the middle
line, and of a pair of widely divaricated ventral cords, continuous in front with the supra-
oesophageal ganglia (Fig. 9).

The ventral cords at first sight appear to be without ganglionic thickenings, but on more careful
examination they are found to be enlarged at each pair of legs (Fig. 9). These enlargements may
be regarded as imperfect ganglia. There are, therefore, as many pairs of ganglia as there are pairs
of legs. There is in addition a ganglionic enlargement at the commencement of the oesophageal
commissures, where the nerves to the oral papillae are given off (Fig. 9, or.g).

Fig. 9.—Brain and anterior part of the ventral nerve-cords of Peripatus capensis enlarged and
viewed from the ventral surface. (After Balfour.) The paired appendages (d) of the ventral
surface of the brain are seen, and the pair of sympathetic nerves (sy) arising from the ventral
surface of the hinder part. From the commencement of the oesophageal commissures pass off
on each side a pair of nerves to the jaws (Jn). The three anterior commissures between the
ventral nerve-cords are placed close together; immediately behind them the nerve-cords are
swollen, to form the ganglionic enlargements from which pass off to the oral papillae a pair of
large nerves on each side (orn). Behind this the cords present a series of enlargements, one
pair for each pair of feet, from which a pair of large nerves pass off on each side to the feet
(pn). atn, Antennary nerves; co, commissures between ventral cords; d, ventral appendages of
brain; E, eye; en, nerves passing outwards from ventral cord; F.g.1, ganglionic enlargements
from which nerves to feet pass off; jn, nerves to jaws; org, ganglionic enlargement from which
nerves to oral papillae pass off; orn, nerves to oral papillae; pc, posterior lobe of brain; pn,
nerves to feet; sy, sympathetic nerves.

The ventral cords are placed each in the lateral compartments of the body cavity, immediately
within the longitudinal layer of muscles. They are connected with each other, rather like the pedal
nerves of Chiton and the lower Prosobranchiata, by a number of commissures. These
commissures exhibit a fairly regular arrangement from the region included between the first and
the last pair of true feet. There are nine or ten of them between each pair of feet. They pass along
the ventral wall of the body, perforating the ventral mass of longitudinal muscles. On their way they
give off nerves which innervate the skin.

Posteriorly the two nerve-cords nearly meet immediately in front of the generative aperture, and
then, bending upwards, fall into each other dorsally to the rectum. They give off a series of nerves
from their outer borders, which present throughout the trunk a fairly regular arrangement. From
each ganglion two large nerves (pn) are given off, which, diverging somewhat from each other,
pass into the feet.

From the oesophageal commissures, close to their junction with the supra-oesophageal ganglia, a
nerve arises on each side which passes to the jaws, and a little in front of this, apparently from the
supra-oesophageal ganglion itself, a second nerve to the jaws also takes its origin.

The supra-oesophageal ganglia (Fig. 9) are large, somewhat oval masses, broader in front than
behind, completely fused in the middle, but free at their extremities. Each of them is prolonged
anteriorly into an antennary nerve, and is continuous behind with one of the oesophageal
commissures. On the ventral surface of each, rather behind the level of the eye, is placed a hollow
protuberance (Fig. 9, d), of which I shall say more in dealing with the development. About one-
third of the way back the two large optic nerves take their origin, arising laterally, but rather from
the dorsal surface (Fig. 9). Each of them joins a large ganglionic mass placed immediately behind
the retina.

The histology of the ventral cords and oesophageal commissures is very simple and uniform. They
consist of a cord almost wholly formed of nerve-fibres placed dorsally, and of a ventral layer of
ganglion cells.

The Body Wall.

The skin is formed of three layers.

(1) The cuticle.

(2) The epidermis or hypodermis.
(3) The dermis.

The cuticle is a thin layer. The spines, jaws, and claws are special developments of it. Its surface
is not, however, smooth, but is everywhere, with the exception of the perioral region, raised into
minute secondary papillae, which in most instances bear at their free extremity a somewhat
prominent spine. The whole surface of each of the secondary papillae just described is in its turn
covered by numerous minute spinous tubercles.

The epidermis, placed immediately within the cuticle, is composed of a single layer of cells, which
vary, however, a good deal in size in different regions of the body. The cells excrete the cuticle,
and they stand in a very remarkable relation to the secondary papillae of the cuticle just described.
Each epidermis cell is in fact placed within one of these secondary papillae, so that the cuticle of
each secondary papilla is the product of a single epidermis cell. The pigment which gives the
characteristic colour to the skin is deposited in the protoplasm of the outer ends of the cells in the
form of small granules.

At the apex of most, if not all, the primary wart-like papillae there are present oval aggregations, or
masses of epidermis cells, each such mass being enclosed in a thickish capsule and bearing a
long projecting spine. These structures are probably tactile organs. In certain regions of the body
they are extremely numerous; more especially is this the case in the antennae, lips, and oral
papillae. On the ventral surface of the peripheral rings of the thicker sections of the feet they are
also very thickly set and fused together so as to form a kind of pad (Figs. 6 and 7). In the