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Textbook Food and Feed Safety Systems and Analysis 1St Edition Atungulu Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Food and Feed Safety Systems
and Analysis
This page intentionally left blank
Food and Feed Safety Systems
and Analysis
Edited by
Steven C. Ricke
Griffiths G. Atungulu
Chase E. Rainwater
Si Hong Park
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
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and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-811835-1
v
vi Contents
Physical Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Chemical Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Conclusions�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Section 2: Preharvest Food Safety Systems - Incidence and
Control of Foodborne Pathogens��������������������������������97
Chapter 6: Antimicrobial Resistance in Foodborne
Pathogens���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Corliss A. O’Bryan, Philip G. Crandall and Steven C. Ricke
Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Foodborne Illness and Antimicrobial Resistance������������������������������������������������101
Acquired Antimicrobial Resistance������������������������������������������������������������������101
Mechanisms of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance��������������������������������������������103
Antibiotic Inactivation or Modification������������������������������������������������������������103
Efflux Pumps����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Altered Target���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Reservoirs of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria and Genes��������������������������������������105
Food Animals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Companion Animals�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Wild Animals and Insects���������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Environment�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Intervention Methods to Reduce Antibiotic Resistance��������������������������������������107
Curtail Antibiotic Use in Agriculture����������������������������������������������������������������107
Proper Usage of Antibiotics in Human Medicine���������������������������������������������108
Develop New Drugs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Chapter 7: The First 30 Years of Shiga Toxin–Producing Escherichia coli
in Cattle Production: Incidence, Preharvest Ecology,
and Management������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 117
Christina L. Swaggerty, Nicolae Corcionivoschi, Steven C. Ricke
and Todd R. Callaway
Background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Ecology of Shiga Toxin–Producing Escherichia coli and Gastrointestinal
Colonization��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119
Management Practices and Transportation����������������������������������������������������������121
Biosecurity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122
Cattle Grouping������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122
Bedding and Pen Surfaces��������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Manure Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Transportation and Lairage�������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Stress�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
viii Contents
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
Chapter 8: The First 30 Years of Shiga Toxin–Producing Escherichia coli in
Cattle Production: Preharvest Intervention Strategies������������������������133
Christina L. Swaggerty, Ester Grilli, Andrea Piva, Nicolae Corcionivoschi,
Steven C. Ricke and Todd R. Callaway
Background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133
Water and Feed Management������������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Probiotic Approaches to Influence Microbial Ecology in the
Gastrointestinal Tract of Cattle�������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Probiotics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Direct-Fed Microbials���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
Competitive Exclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Prebiotics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Colicins�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137
Direct Antipathogen Strategies����������������������������������������������������������������������������137
Antibiotics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Sodium Chlorate�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Bacteriophages��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Cattle Hide Washing�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Vaccination�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Organic Acids and Botanicals���������������������������������������������������������������������������142
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������144
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������144
Chapter 9: Foodborne Salmonella in Laying Hens and Egg Production�����������������153
Steven C. Ricke, Turki M. Dawoud, Zhaohao Shi, Pravin Kaldhone and
Young M. Kwon
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153
Salmonella Infections and Poultry�����������������������������������������������������������������������154
Salmonella and the Laying Hen Reproductive Tract�������������������������������������������155
Incidence of Salmonella and Management of Laying Hens��������������������������������157
Control Programs for Salmonella in Laying Hen Flocks—General Concepts������ 158
Interventions for Preharvest Egg Production�������������������������������������������������������159
Interventions for Postharvest Egg Processing�����������������������������������������������������161
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163
Chapter 10: Cereal Grain Fractions as Potential Sources of Prebiotics: Current
Status, Opportunities, and Potential Applications���������������������������173
Xuhui Zhuang, Chen Zhao, Keshun Liu, Peter M. Rubinelli, Steven C. Ricke
and Griffiths G. Atungulu
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������173
Contents ix
Immunological-Based Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������292
Molecular-Based Methods��������������������������������������������������������������������������������293
Salmonella Identification Using Whole Genome Sequencing��������������������������295
Conclusions and Future Prospects�����������������������������������������������������������������������301
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������302
Chapter 17: Use and Impacts of Whole Genome Sequencing in
Retail Food Safety�����������������������������������������������������������������������309
Clara Assisi, Andrea J. Etter and Haley F. Oliver
History of Whole Genome Sequencing���������������������������������������������������������������309
Current and Future Platforms������������������������������������������������������������������������������310
Single-Molecule, Real-Time Sequencing������������������������������������������������������������310
Oxford Nanopore (MinION)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������311
Illumina Platforms�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������311
Whole Genome Sequencing Has Changed the Epidemic Curve for
Food Safety����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������313
Whole Genome Sequencing Projects������������������������������������������������������������������315
The 100,000 Pathogen Genome Project�����������������������������������������������������������315
GenomeTrakr����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������316
Current Applications of Whole Genome Sequencing in the
Retail Food System����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������316
Future Applications of Whole Genome Sequencing in Retail�����������������������������317
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������317
Chapter 18: Historical, Current, and Future Prospects for Food Safety in
Poultry Product Processing Systems�����������������������������������������������323
Rachael E. Blevins, Sun Ae Kim, Si Hong Park, Rafael Rivera and
Steven C. Ricke
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������323
Salmonella and Campylobacter as Major Pathogens in Poultry�������������������������324
Poultry Product Shelf-Life and Spoilage Microbiota������������������������������������������325
Bacterial Contamination/Reduction During Poultry Processing Steps���������������325
Before Scalder��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������325
Scalder��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������326
Picker����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������327
Evisceration������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������329
Inside/Outside Bird Wash and On-Line Reprocessing�������������������������������������330
Chiller���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������331
Food Safety Regulations Regarding Pathogen Reduction�����������������������������������332
Methods of Monitoring Sanitation Effectiveness in the Poultry
Slaughter Facility�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������335
Contents xiii
Proposed Curriculum����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������383
Mapping to a Standard Cybersecurity Framework�������������������������������������������386
Recruitment���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������386
Placement�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������387
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������387
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������388
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������393
List of Contributors
Soohyoun Ahn University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Clara Assisi Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
Griffiths G. Atungulu University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Mushin Aydin Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States
Rachael E. Blevins University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Todd R. Callaway University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
Roger Cochrane Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
Nicolae Corcionivoschi Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Philip G. Crandall University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Morgan L. Davis University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Turki M. Dawoud University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States; King Saud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Jia Di University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Andrea J. Etter Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
Peixin Fan University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Ester Grilli University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Italy
Jessica C. Hacker University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Shakaree Hale Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, Huntsville, AL, United States
Anne Huss BioMatrix International, Princeton, MN, United States
Armitra Jackson-Davis Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, Huntsville, AL,
United States
Jealae Jackson Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, Huntsville, AL, United States
Joy Jackson University of Texas-Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
Kwangcheol C. Jeong University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Billie L. Johnson Simmons Pet Food, Emporia, KS, United States
Michael G. Johnson University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Cassie Jones Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
Pravin Kaldhone University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Sun Ae Kim University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Alescia King Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, Huntsville, AL, United States
Ok Kyung Koo Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Republic of Korea
Young M. Kwon University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
xv
xvi List of Contributors
Food safety is comprised of several rapidly changing research fields and public forums
(including microbiology, ecology, education, epidemiology, bioinformatics, economics,
globalization, among others) with numerous influences at both the scientific and the
economic level driving the directions it takes as these fields progress. In addition, the issues
associated with food safety that are considered of greatest concern continue to evolve as
food production systems become more complicated. Accordingly, food systems have
become more interconnected, resulting in many more potential sites for foodborne patho-
gen contamination that can impact other steps in food production, processing, and retail.
Foodborne pathogens possess the ability to intrude into any phase of food production and
contaminate the food products that they come in contact with. This includes animal feeds
consumed by food animals, resulting in colonization of the gastrointestinal tract and
potentially systemic infection of the host animal. Infected animals can become contami-
nated meat products that in turn can cross-contaminate processing equipment and other
meat products that are in contact with this equipment. As technologies such as whole
genome sequencing have become more common place, the ability for specifically identify-
ing and subsequently tracking a particular foodborne pathogen has vastly improved the
epidemiology and opportunity for a more complete resolution of foodborne disease
outbreaks. However, as the data sets grow, issues such as training the next generation of
food safety professionals to be proficient in data analytics and cybersecurity management
remain challenges for designing academic educational programs to efficiently accomplish
this training.
In this book, chapters have been generated to merge the concept of food safety being highly
integrated with the more recent developments in scientific research on foodborne pathogens
and the new methods developed to study them. Topics are designed to cover food systems and
foodborne ecology and how these approaches can be used to not only conduct research on
food safety and foodborne pathogens but also implement some of the emerging diagnostic
tools. This book will explore and discuss cutting edge research about emerging issues associ-
ated with foodborne pathogens and food safety systems at all levels from pet food to live
animal production, and finally food processing. Topics are designed to cover food systems
and foodborne pathogen ecology and how these approaches can be used to not only conduct
xvii
xviii Preface
research on food safety and foodborne pathogens but also develop educational materials for
training incoming professionals in the field on subjects, such as food systems data analytics
and cybersecurity.
More specifically, topics in this book will not only cover and update current food safety
thinking, but subsections of the book will also explore how to integrate food systems concepts
into pet food manufacturing and preharvest food safety practices and potential dietary amend-
ments to restrict foodborne pathogen colonization. This is followed by chapters on posthar-
vest food safety practices, current issues associated with certain foodborne pathogens, and
recent developments in interventions to limit their contamination in meat products and food
products such as juices. The last section includes chapters on application of emerging tech-
nologies such as whole genome sequencing for detection and microbial community profiling.
Finally, a chapter on the data analyses aspects of food systems as well as discussion on
cross-training education strategies to convey this knowledge to graduate students in food
science and computer engineering programs for preparing them to not only understand the
biological aspects of foodborne pathogens and food production systems but also develop their
ability to integrate these subjects into data analyses and cyberprotection programs. In sum-
mary, this book presents food safety as an integrative science among food production sys-
tems, the biology of pathogens defined by large data sets, their subsequent analyses, and
ultimately the overall interpretation and application in commercial food production.
Steven C. Ricke
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR, United States
SECTION 1
CHAPTE R 1
The industry changed dramatically in the 1950s with the launch of the extruded pet food
Purina Dog Chow, which almost instantly became the #1 brand nationally. Even in the
presence of this shift, wet pet food represented 60% of the volume in 1960, and today
represents closer to 25%. The 1980s brought about the addition of chunk-in-gravy style
canned food, whereas the loaf format formerly predominated. This required some formula-
tion changes to allow for chunk binding and also gravy viscosity. In the 1990s came the
introduction of Purina ONE which was the first product to have actual meat as the #1
ingredient in a dry, extruded formula. As the use of extruders in pet food application
expanded, product offerings extended beyond traditional dry kibble to shelf stable, soft
moist foods with Gaines-Burgers being the first soft moist offering in the 1960s. Soft moist
food formulation actually was an outgrowth of mink diet feeding and required extensive
use of hurdle technologies to ensure food safety at higher moistures. In 1981, Kibbles N’
Bits was introduced, which represented a new pet food format termed soft dry, which
contained dry and soft moist components mixed together in a single offering. This repre-
sented new challenges, namely how to prevent moisture migration from the soft moist
piece to the dry component. In 1996, product design changes were again required for soft
moist cat foods as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibited use of propylene
glycol in cat foods (21 CFR 589.1001) because it had been shown to cause abnormalities
in red blood cells (Christopher et al., 1989). Propylene glycol had been the most common
humectant used in soft moist formulations as it had an added benefit of being a miticide
(EPA, 2004).
There are several other emerging pet food formats that currently represent a much smaller
share of the pet food market, including pet treats. Freeze drying is a processing technique that
has been growing steadily at 45.5% per year since 2011 (Phillips-Donaldson, 2016). One pet
food processing category that has primarily been used for treats products is injection molding,
which has origins in the plastics industry. Of interest from a food safety standpoint is
Greenies, an injection molded treat that was launched in 1998 by S&M NuTec, LLC. By 2003
Greenies became the #1 treat by value sales, surpassing the long-standing top seller, Milk
Bone (http://www.petfoodindustry.com/articles/637-success-and-more). The brand was sold
in 2006 amid numerous complaints of choking and digestibility hazards associated with the
treat. Another category of pet treats that has emerged in recent years that represents unique
food safety challenges is dehydrated jerky treats. In the early 2000s, dehydrated chicken jerky
treats for dogs were primarily being produced in China. Between 2007 and 2013, the FDA
received 4500 reports of pet illness and 580 reported pet deaths due to consuming jerky treats
made in China. After extensive investigation, no specific cause was ever identified. However,
in 2013, the state of New York found traces of an antibiotic in the jerky treats made in China,
which was not allowed for consumption, so many major brands voluntarily recalled their
products being made in China, leaving shelf vacancy that was ultimately filled by jerky treats
made in the United States.
Changes in the Food Safety Landscape of Pet Foods in the United States 5
With increased recognition of food sensitivities in pets, there has also been increased use of
alternative meat and vegetable proteins and carbohydrate sources. In addition, the proliferation
6 Chapter 1
of clean label, simple diets with shorter history of use present an increased risk due to increased
predominance of a single ingredient in the food compared with formulas that rely on nutrient
contributions of a variety of ingredients. This issue has been exacerbated by current trends of
“wild” and “paleo” diets for pets, which are based on foods that are eaten by animals in the wild
and consist primarily of meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables and excludes grains.
The growing consumer trends of grain free foods and limited ingredient diets tend to use
alternative starch sources to replace conventional cereal grains. The risk this presents is
two-fold. First, it leads to the sourcing new raw materials outside of the United States and
also demands incorporation of ingredients that have a much less comprehensive food safety
evaluation. Even some of these ingredients that are familiar, such as potatoes, carry food
safety risks such as the presence of glycoalkaloids in coproducts derived from skins
(Nicholson et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1996). Alkaloids are also found in tomatoes and egg-
plant, which have emerged in recent pet food formulations (Friedman et al., 1996).
The trend toward humanization of pet foods has also exposed pets to increased quality and/or food
safety risks. Following human food trends, there has recently been an interest in utilization of
organic, genetically modified (GM)-free, and sustainable ingredients. Meeting these needs
requires the use of a more-restricted raw material stream, which also increases susceptibility to
EMA. Furthermore, although the intent may not be an impact to food safety, negative conse-
quences can occur if harmful diluents or replacements are used. This was demonstrated by the
melamine contamination of wheat gluten and milk in 2007. In a publication by GMA (2010), it
was estimated that economic adulteration and counterfeiting of global food costs the food industry
10–15 billion dollars each year. Moore et al. (2012) reported that olive oil, milk, honey, and saffron
were the most common adulteration targets in a review of incidents occurring between 1980 and
2010. Fruit juices, especially those of superfruits, have also been known to be subject to dilution
with less costly juices. In a Congressional Research Service Report by Renee Johnson (2014), it
was also reported that fish and seafood fraud may be widespread in some markets. Even common
meats like beef were found in 2013 to be adulterated with horsemeat (Walker et al., 2013).
There has been increased recognition of the presence of several human metabolic defects in
pets such as copper storage disease and gluten intolerance in dog breeds and urinary crystals
in dogs and cats which in turn results in special dietary needs and restrictions. Many special-
ized diets with respect to nutrient content are best distributed under the direction of a veteri-
narian as, although they may be helpful to target animals, they may be inadequate for the
general pet population.
Consumption of what would be considered quality human foods by pets can cause a food
safety risk. In some cases, it results from species differences in metabolism, whereas in
others, it is from the fact that food products intended for humans are not meant to be sole
Changes in the Food Safety Landscape of Pet Foods in the United States 7
diets, so presence of high levels of some compounds may be well tolerated by humans but not
by pets. The toxicity of theobromine in dark chocolates, particularly baking chocolate, is well
recognized (Gans et al., 1980). Onions have historically been used in several pet rations;
however, it was found that in 1998 that cats fed baby food with onion powder developed
Heinz body anemia (Robertson et al., 1998) from the organosulfur compounds present in the
onions. In cats this occurred because of the susceptibility of hemoglobin to oxidation
(Christopher et al., 1995). Dogs also have reduced tolerance to organosulfur compounds
relative to humans because of lower erythrocyte catalase activity. In addition, although the
mechanism is not clearly understood, grapes and raisins are also thought to contain harmful
compounds, reportedly causing vomiting, diarrhea, and renal disorders. Furthermore, xylitol,
a sugar alcohol commonly used in food industry as a nonnutritive sweetener, can cause
hepatic failure in dogs (Dunayer and Gwaltney-Brant, 2006). These examples, among others,
demonstrate that care must be taken when developing pet foods intended to mimic human
food trends, as the consequences can be detrimental to the pet.
An area that is often not considered when designing food safety systems is primary or second-
ary nutrient deficiency and toxicity; however, this has been the cause of several recalls in
recent history. Nutrient deficiencies can result from the lack of primary nutrients in the diet or
insufficient bioavailability of the nutrients present in the diet. Insufficient bioavailability can
occur both because of the form of the nutrient in the diet or from nutrient interactions, and
these are addressed in only very limited scope in AAFCO nutrient profiles (Official
Publication, 2016). This is clearly demonstrated by the history of dietary taurine recommen-
dations for cats. In spite of a long history of nutrition research, the fact that taurine was
required by the cat to prevent feline central retinal degeneration was not established until
1975 (Hayes et al., 1975). Further research established that taurine status was influenced by
dietary potassium level and dietary acidification for urine pH control (Dow et al., 1992). In
addition, requirements were higher for canned than for dry diets (Douglass et al., 1991).
Inconsistencies remained in taurine status resulting from food consumption which could not
be answered by total dietary taurine and it was found that bioavailability in raw materials
differed from that of synthetic taurine (Odle et al., 1993). Similarly, copper recommendations
in dry and canned pet foods differ (higher in dry diets) and status can be influenced by
nutrient balance and raw material bioavailability (Shields, 1998). Copper status is also
adversely affected by excess zinc intake (NRC, 2006). Based on some pet research (Morris
and Rogers, 1995), copper oxide was ultimately removed as a nutritional source of copper in
pet food due to lack of bioavailability. Assurance of nutritional adequacy therefore requires
understanding of ingredient nutrient content and bioavailability as well as interactions with
other dietary components. When new nutrient requirements are added which require addition
of unfamiliar ingredients, there remains a risk of nutrient deficiencies in spite of apparently
adequate analyzed dietary content.
8 Chapter 1
In contrast to the aforementioned situation, some sources of nutrients can improve bioavail-
ability relative to standard sources. Shurson et al. (1996) found that stability of vitamins in
premixes containing minerals was greater when the latter were provided as organic com-
plexes. Similarly, nutrient retention and reproductive performance have been reported to be
higher when dogs were fed mineral complexes compared with inorganic sources (Kuhlman
and Rompala, 1998; Lowe and Wiseman, 1998).
Besides nutrient deficiencies, excesses can also be of concern. Thyroid hormones are orally
active, and therefore, care must be taken to remove thyroid glands from food and feed ingre-
dients. Hamburger thyrotoxicosis has been found in humans fed ground beef contaminated
with bovine thyroid gland (Hedberg et al., 1987). Similarly, Stengel and Neiger (2012)
identified hyperthyroidism in dogs fed raw meat or fresh or dried gullets. Hyperthyroidism
has also been identified in cats, and Johnson et al. (1992) concluded that thyroid disorders
may result from wide swings in dietary iodine levels present in commercial cat diets.
Fat soluble vitamin excesses are also of concern because of the fact that they can accumulate
over time. With respect to vitamin D, there is some familiarity with toxicity because of expo-
sure of pets to rodenticides containing high levels of vitamin D. Morris and Rogers (1995)
expressed concerns regarding high levels of vitamin D in some cat foods. Subsequent analyti-
cal research by this same author, specifically with tuna, suggested that fish viscera and espe-
cially liver contain extremely high levels of vitamin D. The concern regarding excess vitamin
D has also expanded to dog foods with the reduction in allowed dietary maximums in the 2016
AAFCO Official Publication, likely resulting from the most recent research summary by NRC
(2006). Fortunately, some tissues contain high levels of vitamin A, which is known to help
ameliorate vitamin D toxicity in some animal species, including dogs (Aburto et al., 1998).
A portion of the vitamin D concern relates to impairment of calcium metabolism. An addi-
tional concern for canine diets is excess calcium, for which the maximum allowed levels for
large breed puppies was significantly lowered in the most recent AAFCO Official Publication
as a result of several articles in peer-reviewed publications. This research demonstrated that
large breed puppies may be unable to protect themselves against excessive calcium intake
(Hazewinkel et al., 1991).
Antinutritional Factors
Another food safety concern related to nutrient composition of foods is the potential presence
of antinutritional factors. Fish and some meat products are known potentially to contain
biogenic amines which arise from bacterial fermentation of amino acids. Although histamine
(from histidine) has received the most attention, especially with tuna, several others can arise
from other amino acids. The term “biogenic amines” refers to the nonvolatile amines, such as
cadaverine, putrescine, spermidine, spermine, tyramine, tryptamine, and histamine, produced
in fish and shellfish products harvested and not kept at ideal temperature conditions to prevent
Changes in the Food Safety Landscape of Pet Foods in the United States 9
spoilage. Spoilage microorganisms break down the amino acids and the toxic compounds
originate from the decarboxylation of specific free amino acids in fish or shellfish tissue
(Rawles et al., 1996). The most well-known health impact of biogenic amines is histamine
poisoning, which occurs a few minutes to several hours after the ingestion of foods containing
high levels of histamine. Primary symptoms in humans are skin rash, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, and so forth, which are mimicked in the companion animals symptoms as well. The
toxicity of histamine is potentiated by the other biogenic amines present such as putrescine,
cadaverine, and spermidine (Radosevich, 2016). A review of biogenic amines in fish species
was authored by Shalaby (1996). These biogenic amines appear to be stable to processing
(Veciana-Nogues et al., 1997a), and canned cat foods have been found to have measurable
levels of histamine (Guraya and Koehler, 1991). There is a multitude of biogenic amines that
can be present in these products, so Veciana-Nogues et al. (1997b) recommended using the
sum of biogenic amines as a quality attribute.
Some species of fish such as herring, alewives, anchovies, mackerel, and clams also contain
thiaminase which degrades thiamine (vitamin B1) and increases the dietary requirement of
thiamine, particularly if raw fish sources are used (Smith and Proutt, 1944). This antithiamine
effect in the diet can be exacerbated by the preservation of meats using sulfur dioxide as a
preservative as it also degrades the vitamin (Studdert and Labuc, 1991). Sodium metabisulfite
is another sulfur-containing preservative which has been recognized by FDA in 21 CFR
182.3766 as an antithiamine compound. Many vegetables are treated with sulfites to prevent
browning and this must be monitored as well.
Dioxin contamination has affected animal feeds globally on numerous occasions. Dioxins are
a group of chemically related compounds that are persistent environmental pollutants. The
World Health Organization reports that dioxins are highly toxic and can cause reproductive
and developmental problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones, and also
cause cancer (WHO, 2016). Although not specifically affecting pet foods, the use of ball clay,
which contains dioxins, as a conditioning and flow agent in soybean meal did impact ingredi-
ents which could have impacted the pet food supply. An instance of dioxin contamination in
soybean meal in Mississippi impacted the poultry feed supply in 1997. As a result, ball clay
was eliminated by FDA as an allowed conditioning agent in feed ingredients (FDA, 1999).
Numerous dioxin contamination cases have also occurred in the European Union (EU) feed
supply from contamination of fat sources with industrial oils not designed for food use. An
isolated contamination of zinc oxide in some mineral premixes designed for livestock
occurred in 2003. With many premix manufacturers preparing products for multiple species,
this represented an additional risk to the pet food industry at the time. There was also an
incident in 2007 where dioxin contamination was detected in guar gum used in the human
food supply in the EU. With the globalization of the raw material supply chain, this presented
a true risk to the US supply as this material is a commonly used thickener for both pet and
human foods, and, as a result, close monitoring of the supply was initiated.
10 Chapter 1
Prion Diseases
Prion diseases, also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are neuro-
degenerative diseases that affect humans and animals and represent another significant food
safety concern in pet foods. Even sourcing from countries with effective food safety systems
was shaken with the discovery of TSEs including those of bovine origin (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy) where the infective agent was not of traditional microbial origin and was not
destroyed even with traditional rendering processes. Although no TSE has been identified in
dogs, a cat form has been identified (Gruffydd-Jones et al., 1991). This occurrence which
started in Western Europe and was later identified in Canada and then in the United States
caused trade disruptions and changes in the sources of meat materials used for pet food,
including discontinuation of the use of mechanically deboned ruminant materials. FDA
published research (Adam and Reeves, 1998; Heller et al., 2001) relating to the presence of
pentobarbital in dog foods. The presumption was that this resulted from rendering of eutha-
nized pets as a component of rendered meals and fat. This was not confirmed on species
identification and may have in fact resulted from formation of heterocyclic amines or other
compounds during processing which were identified as pentobarbital in the assay procedure.
With the concerns about TSEs at the time, recycling of animal species components being
placed into the food supply of the same species understandably caused concerns.
A key aspect of many pet food safety systems is the use of additives as hurdles to slow or
inhibit the potential for negative chemical or biochemical reactions. Some additives are used
to lower water activity, whereas others may lessen redox potential, lower acidity, control
oxidation, or reduce bacterial load (Leistner, 2000). Alternatively, some hurdles such as
microbial cultures and prebiotics are added to impart indirect health benefits for the animal.
One such additive is propylene glycol, which was once a commonly used humectant in soft
moist food formulations. After a long history of use, research results of Bauer et al. (1991)
found that consumption of this ingredient by cats resulted in Heinz body anemia. The “no
effect” level was found to be well below that required for humectants action; therefore, the
FDA banned it from use in cat food formulations. Earlier research with dogs did not result in
such effects (Weil et al., 1971), likely because of differences in the susceptibility of cats’ and
dogs’ erythrocytes to oxidative damage.
Besides humectants, the type of antioxidants has also shifted throughout pet food history.
Although antioxidants are generally thought to provide protection both in the food and in the
animal if absorbed, high levels or specific cellular conditions can result in these same com-
pounds acting as prooxidants (Palozza, 1998). At one time, ethoxyquin was the most commonly
used antioxidant in feed and pet food products as it was extremely effective. This compound
remains approved today at a maximum usage level of 150 parts per million (ppm) (21 CFR
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quills on their upper surface. There are also a few slight lanceolate
dark spots on the sides of the body, and on the tibial feathers.
Length to end of tail 23 1/2 inches, to end of wings 21 1/2, to end of
claws 18 3/4, to carpal joint 5 1/2; extent of wings 51 1/4; breadth of
gape 1 1/8; wing from flexure 17; tail 9 3/4; bill along the ridge 1 5/12;
tarsus 2 4/12; hind toe 1 1/12, its claw 1 5/12; middle toe 2 1/12, its claw
(worn) 11/12. Weight 2 lb., it being much emaciated.
Columba fasciata, Say, in Long’s Exped. to Rocky Mountains, vol. ii. p. 10.
Band-tailed Pigeon, Columba fasciata, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith. pl.
viii, fig. 3, vol. i. p. 77.
Columba fasciata, Bonap. Synops. p. 119.
Band-tailed Pigeon, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 64.
It was omitted to mention that the minute spots on the eggs are
white.
Nuttall’s Dog-wood.
Length to end of tail 13 1/2 inches, to end of wings 11 1/2; wing from
flexure 7 10/12; tail 4 1/2; bill along the ridge 7/12; tarsus 1 2/12; middle
toe 1 1/2/12, its claw 6/12.
Turdus montanus.
PLATE CCCLXIX. Male.
Of this beautiful Thrush, of which a figure not having the black band
running quite across the breast, as is the case in the adult male, is
given by Mr Swainson, in the Fauna Boreali-Americana, Dr
Richardson speaks as follows:—“This species was discovered at
Nootka Sound, in Captain COOK’S third voyage, and male and
female specimens, in the possession of Sir Joseph Banks, were
described by Latham: Pennant has also described and figured the
same male. The specimen represented in this work was procured at
Fort Franklin, lat. 65 1/4°, in the spring of 1826. We did not hear its
song, nor acquire any information respecting its habits, except that it
built its nest in a bush, similar to that of the Merula migratoria. It was
not seen by us on the banks of the Saskatchewan; and, as it has not
appeared in the list of the Birds of the United States, it most probably
does not go far to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains in its
migrations north and south. It may perhaps be more common to the
westward of that ridge.”
Dr Richardson’s conjecture as to the line of march followed by it
has proved to be correct, Dr Townsend and Mr Nuttall having
found it abundant on the western sides of the Rocky Mountains. The
former of these zealous naturalists informs me that he “first found
this Thrush on the Columbia River in the month of October, and that
it becomes more numerous in winter, which it spends in that region,
though some remove farther south. It there associates with the
Common Robin, Turdus migratorius, but possesses a very different
note, it being louder, sharper, and quicker than those of the latter,
and in the spring, before it sets out for its yet unascertained
breeding-place, it warbles very sweetly. It is called Ammeskuk by the
Chinooks.”
Mr Nuttall’s notice respecting it is as follows:—“Of this bird, whose
manners so entirely resemble those of the Common Robin, we know
almost nothing. They probably breed as far north as Nootka, where
they were first seen by the naturalists of Cook’s expedition. On the
Columbia they are only winter birds of passage, arriving about
October, and continuing more or less frequently throughout the
winter. At this time they flit through the forest in small flocks,
frequenting usually low trees, on which they perch in perfect silence,
and are at times very timorous and difficult of approach, having all
the shy sagacity of the Robin, and appearing at all times in a very
desultory manner.”
The numerous specimens of this Thrush in my possession have
enabled me to compare it with Turdus migratorius, and another new
Thrush from Chili. On examining the tail, from the shape of which Mr
Swainson considers this species allied to our Mocking Bird, I found
its form, length, and extent beyond the wings, to correspond almost
exactly with those of the tail of our Robin; and, if it proves true that
the Varied Thrush forms a nest bedded with mud, it will strengthen
my opinion that both these and the Chilian species are as nearly
allied as possible, and therefore ought to be considered as true
Thrushes, of which, to assume the language of systematic writers,
Turdus migratorius is the type in America, whilst Turdus Merula is
that of Europe.
The two figures in my plate were taken from adult males shot in
spring. You will find a figure of the female in Plate CCCCXXXIII.
Turdus nævius, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 817.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p.
331.
Orpheus meruloides, Thrush-like Mock-bird, Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 187.