EXPLORING

MINEROLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Mineralogy
Elementary Knowledge on symmetry
elements of crystallographic systems

Physical Properties of Materials

Study of Rock Forming Minerals

Properties and Process of Formation

of All Minerals: Coal and Petroleum
 WHAT IS MINERALOGY?
Mineralogy is a fundamental branch of geology that
focuses on the study of minerals, which are naturally
occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical
composition and a crystalline structure.
Mineralogists who specialize in mineralogy they
investigate various aspects of minerals.
 HISTORY OF
MINEROLOGY
HISTORY OF MINERALOGY?
Europe and Middle East
The ancient Greek writers Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)
and Theophrastus (370-285 B.C.E.) were the first in the
Western tradition to write of minerals and their
properties, as well as metaphysical explanations for
them. The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his
Meteorologica, and in it theorized that all the known
substances were comprised of water, air, earth, and
Aristotle (384-
fire, with the properties of dryness, dampness, heat, 322 B.C.E.) Theophrastus (372
and cold. - 278 B.C.E.)
HISTORY OF MINERALOGY?
China and Far East
In ancient China, the oldest literary listing of minerals
dates to at least the 4th century BC, with the Ji Ni Zi
book listing twenty-four of them. Chinese ideas of
metaphysical mineralogy span back to at least the
ancient Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). From the 2nd
century BC text of the Huai Nan Zi, the Chinese used
ideological Taoist terms to describe meteorology,
precipitation, different types of minerals, metallurgy,
and alchemy.
 HISTORY OF MINERALOGY?
Modern Mineralogy
Mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-
forming minerals; to this end, the International Mineralogical
Association is an organization whose members represent
mineralogists in individual countries. Its activities include
managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New
Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known minerals, etc.
As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of mineral recognized
by the IMA. Of these, perhaps 150 can be called "common,"
another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to
"extremely rare."
 EQUIPMENTS
FOR MINERALOGY
Pan
Separating gold particles from less
dense materials found in loose
deposits like gravel and soil.

Suction Tweezer
It is used for easy extraction
of tiny gold or gold dust.
Magnifier
It is used for closer look and
study small rocks

Rock Hammer
It is used for splitting and
breaking rocks
Shovel
It is a tool used to dig, lift, and
transport bulk materials like dirt, rock,
gravel, snow, sand, or minerals.

Rock Chisel
a cutting tool with a sharpened edge at the
end of a metal blade, is used often by driving
with a mallet or hammer in dressing,
shaping, or working a solid material such as
wood, stone, or metal.
Pick Mattock
It is a very useful instrument that
combines the pointed tip of a pick, used
for digging out hard soil and rock, with
an adze, which may be used to cut
through roots.

Sluices
It is a tiny flow restrictions form low
pressure pockets where the gold collects.
Sluices are an effective tool for collecting
gold, but they don’t work without water.
 IMPROTANCE OF
MINERALOGY
IN CIVIL ENGINEERS
 Importance of Mineralogy in Civil Engineers

Mineralogy holds significant importance for civil

engineers in several key ways. Firstly, understanding the
mineral composition of construction materials such as
rocks, soils, and aggregates is crucial for assessing their
suitability and performance in various engineering
applications. Secondly, mineralogical studies help civil
engineers identify and characterize geological formations
and hazards that may impact construction projects.
Additionally, mineralogy plays a role in the selection and
optimization of construction materials and techniques.
 ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON
SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
 Center of Symmetry

exists in a crystal if an imaginary line

can be extended from any point on its
surface through its center and a similar
point is present along the line
equidistant from the center.

Axinite
 Axis of Symmetry

An imaginary line is drawn through the

center of a crystal that replicates the
exact shape if the crystal is turned to
360°. Minerals can have symmetry on
their x-axis (horizontal symmetry), y-axis
(vertical symmetry), and both their x and
y axes.
 Plane of Symmetry

Fluorite Crystal
When an imaginary plane is passed
through a crystal such that the portion of
the crystal on one side of the crystal is a
reflection, or mirror image, of the
portion on the other side of the crystal.
 Axis of Rotary Inversion (Rotoinversion Axis)

A combination of symmetry operations:

rotation and inversion. Where a crystal
is rotated to a specific degree and
inverted through its center, it will appear
unchanged.

4-Fold Rotoinversion Axis

 Screw-Axis of Symmetry

It combines rotation and translation that

makes a repeated pattern along the
screw axis. It is formed when the crystal
is rotated 180° around an axis and
translated perpendicular to that
direction.

translation

rotation
 Glide-Plane of Symmetry

Combination of symmetry operations:

reflection and translation. It occurs when
a crystal is reflected through and
translated parallel to the plane. This
results in a repeating pattern within the
crystal lattice.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
Hardness
Ability of matter to be rigid and
resist pressure

Brittleness
Ability to break easily.
 Flexibility
Ability of matter to be bent without
breaking.

Elasticity
Ability of matter to be stretched and return
to its original shape.
 Conductivity
Ability to let heat and electricity to pass
through.

Malleability
Ability to be hammered into thin
sheets.
 Ductility
Ability to drawn into wires.

Porosity
Ability to absorb liquid rough.
 STUDY OF
ROCK FORMING MINERALS
QUARTZ
Quartz is a common mineral found in many
places around the world, including in sand,
granite, and various types of rocks.
Quartz forms when silica-rich fluids or
molten rock cools and solidifies
underground, creating crystals.
 FELDSPAR
Feldspar is the name given to a group of
naturally occurring alumino-silicate minerals
containing varying amounts of potassium,
sodium, calcium, and lithium. The feldspar group
of minerals is by far the most abundant group of
minerals in the Earth’s crust, making up about
60% of all rocks.
AUGITE
A rock-forming mineral that commonly
occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous
rocks such basalt , gabbro, andesite, and
diorite. Augite can also be found in
ultramafic rocks and some metamorphic
rocks.
HORNBLENDE
Hornblende is a inosilicate amphibole
minerals, which are two type hornblende
minerals. They are ferrohornblende and
magnesiohornblende. They are an
isomorphous mixture of three molecules; a
calcium-iron-magnesium silicate, an
aluminium-iron-magnesium silicate, and an
iron-magnesium silicate.
BIOTITE
A common dark colored mica mineral
found in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. It has a perfect basal
cleavage as it forms as sheets or flakes
with a layered structure. Biotite is used in
the production on fertilizer, cement, and
ceramics. It also provides information
about the geological information of an
area, such as temperature and pressure
conditions during its formation.
MUSCOVITE
often called ‘white mica’, is the lightest
colored mica mineral. Usually colorless,
white or silver, occasionally yellow or
brown. Commonly found in igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
Is used as an excellent electrical and
thermal insulator. Often used in the
manufacture of rubber, plastics, ceramics,
for production of plasters and roof
coverings.
CALCITE
Calcite is a rock- forming mineral with a
chemical formula of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
It is extremely common and found
throughout the world in sedementary,
metamorphic, and igneous rocks.
GARNET
Garnet is commonly found in metamorphic
rocks such as schist, gneiss, and amphibolite.
It also occurs in some igneous rocks like
granite and pegmatite. Additionally, garnet is
often present in certain sedimentary rocks
including some sandstones.

Garnet hardness ranges from 6.5 to 7.5 on

the Mohs scale
PROPERTIES AND PROCESS OF FORMATION OF
ALL MINERALS:
COAL AND PETROLEUM
 COAL: DEFINITION
It is a sedimentary deposit composed
predominantly of carbon that is readily
combustible. Coal is primarily used as
a fuel to generate electric power in the
United States.
COAL: PROPERTIES
Volatile Matter
Sulfur Content
Moisture Content
Grindability
Ash-softening Temperature
 COAL: PROCESS OF FORMATION
STAGE 1: PEAT
It is the surface organic
layer of a soil that consists
of partially decomposed
organic matter.
 COAL: PROCESS OF FORMATION
STAGE 2: LIGNITE
A dark brown combustible
mineral formed over
millions of years by the
partial decomposition of
plant material.
 COAL: PROCESS OF FORMATION
STAGE 3: BITUMINOUS COAL
A tar-like substance called
bitumen or asphalt, usually
has high heating value
and is used in electricity
generation and steel
making.
 COAL: PROCESS OF FORMATION
STAGE 4: ANTHRACITE COAL
highest rank of coal,
which contains a high
percentage of fixed
carbon and low
percentage of volatile
matter.
 PETROLEUM: DEFINITION
Petroleum, also know as crude oil, is
a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural
gas, petroleum was formed from the
remains of ancient marine
organisms, such as plants, algae,
and bacteria.
PETROLEUM: PROPERTIES
Petroleum is a liquid fossil fuel that is
composed of hydrocarbons.
It is a nonrenewable resource because it
takes millions of years to form, and it is
found in limited quantities.
Petroleum is used to produce gasoline,
diesel fuel, and other products that are
essential to modern life
PETROLEUM: PROCESS OF
FORMATION
Petroleum is derived from the remains of dead plants and animals
that settled on the seabed millions of years ago. Over time, these
organic materials decomposed and mixed with sand and silt, aided
by certain bacteria. Limited oxygen at the seabed prevented
complete decomposition, allowing carbon and hydrogen-rich matter
to accumulate. Through millennia of burial under layers of sediment,
high temperature, and pressure, this organic matter eventually
transformed into oil.
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