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Fiber Bragg Grating
Sensors
Development and Applications
Fiber Bragg Grating
Sensors
Development and Applications
Authored by
Hisham K. Hisham
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Dedication
To my parents,
To my beloved wife and my children.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgment.................................................................................................... xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 General Introduction.............................................................................1

1.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings..................................................................1
1.2 Fundamentals of Bragg Gratings...............................................2
1.2.1 Physical Descriptions....................................................2
1.2.2 Photosensitivity.............................................................3
1.3 Types of Fiber Bragg Gratings...................................................3
1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector..............................................3
1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating.................................................4
1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating.....................................................5
1.4 Fabrication of Fiber Bragg Grating............................................ 5
1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer................................................ 6
1.4.2 The Phase Mask............................................................7
1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings.......................................8
1.4.4 Slanted Grating........................................................... 11
1.5 Summary.................................................................................. 11
References........................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2 Polymer Fiber Bragg Gratings............................................................ 15

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 15
2.2 Properties of Polymer Optical Fiber......................................... 16
2.3 Photosensitivity in Polymer Optical Fiber................................ 16
2.4 Bragg Gratings in Polymer Fibers............................................ 17
2.5 Tuning Characteristics of Fiber Bragg Gratings...................... 18
2.5.1 Photosensitivity in Optical Fiber................................. 18
2.6 Mode Theory for Optical Fibers..............................................20
2.7 Fiber Modes.............................................................................. 22
2.7.1 Optical Fiber Parameters............................................. 22
2.7.1.1 Numerical Aperture (NA)........................... 22
2.7.1.2 V Number.................................................... 23
2.7.1.3 Cutoff Wavelength....................................... 23
2.8 Coupled-Mode Theory for Bragg Gratings.............................. 23
2.9 Modeling of Fiber Bragg Gratings...........................................25
2.10 Summary..................................................................................26
References...........................................................................................26
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 3 Properties of Fiber Bragg Gratings .................................................... 29

3.1 Reflectivity of Grating Fiber.................................................... 29
3.2 Bandwidth Characteristics........................................................ 33
3.3 Delay and Dispersion Characteristics......................................34
3.4 Temperature Effect...................................................................40
3.5 Summary.................................................................................. 45
References...........................................................................................46
Chapter 4 Sensor Mechanisms in Fiber Bragg Gratings..................................... 47

4.1 Simulation Methods of Fiber Bragg Gratings.......................... 47
4.1.1 Direct Numerical Integration...................................... 47
4.1.2 Transfer Matrix Method.............................................. 47
4.1.3 Discretized Grating Method........................................ 48
4.2 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor...................................................... 49
4.2.1 Temperature Sensitivity............................................... 51
4.2.2 Strain Sensitivity......................................................... 52
4.3 Temperature Dependence of the Strain Sensitivity.................. 54
4.4 Summary.................................................................................. 57
References........................................................................................... 57
Chapter 5 Fiber Optic Sensors for Oil and Gas Applications.............................. 59

5.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 59
5.2 Downhole Monitoring .............................................................60
5.2.1 Reservoir Pressure and Temperature Monitoring.......60
5.2.2 Flow Monitoring......................................................... 61
5.2.3 Seismic Monitoring..................................................... 61
5.2.4 Pipeline Monitoring.................................................... 62
5.2.5 Power Cable and Transformer Monitoring.................. 63
5.2.6 Status Monitoring of Water Mains.............................. 63
5.3 Fiber Optics Sensors for Detection Applications.....................64
5.3.1 Leak Detection............................................................64
5.3.2 Ground Movement Detection......................................64
5.3.3 Fire Detection.............................................................. 65
5.3.4 Pig Position Detection ................................................ 65
5.4 Gas Network Monitoring.......................................................... 65
5.5 Summary..................................................................................66
References...........................................................................................66
Chapter 6 Fiber Optic Sensors for Civil Applications......................................... 69

6.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 69
6.2 Typical Fiber Optic Sensors in Civil Fields.............................. 69
6.2.1 Crack Sensors.............................................................. 69
6.2.2 Strain Sensors.............................................................. 70
Contents ix
6.2.3 Corrosion Sensors....................................................... 71

6.3 Civil Engineering Applications of the Fiber Optic Sensors .......73
6.3.1 Highway Structures..................................................... 73
6.3.1.1 Bridges......................................................... 73
6.3.1.2 Dams............................................................ 75
6.3.2 Buildings..................................................................... 75
6.3.3 Geotechnical Structures.............................................. 76
6.3.4 Historical Buildings.................................................... 76
6.3.5 Pavements.................................................................... 77
6.3.6 Tunnels........................................................................ 78
6.3.7 Embankments and Slopes........................................... 79
6.3.8 Other Applications...................................................... 79
References........................................................................................... 81
Chapter 7 Fiber Optic Sensors for Biomedical Applications............................... 85

7.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 85
7.2 Biomedical Sensors.................................................................. 85
7.3 Biomedical Applications.......................................................... 86
7.3.1 Glucose Sensor............................................................ 86
7.3.2 Laminate Cure Analysis.............................................. 86
7.3.3 Protein Analysis.......................................................... 87
7.3.4 Dosage Form Analysis................................................ 87
7.3.5 Drug Identification...................................................... 87
7.3.6 Determination of DNA Oligomers.............................. 87
7.3.7 Pesticide Detection...................................................... 87
7.3.8 Effluent Monitoring..................................................... 88
7.3.9 Other Applications...................................................... 88
7.4 Summary.................................................................................. 88
References........................................................................................... 89
Chapter 8 Fiber Optic Sensors for Military Applications.................................... 91

8.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 91
8.2 Fiber Optics for Military Applications..................................... 91
8.3 Some Fiber Optics Sensors’ Military Applications..................92
8.3.1 Communications.........................................................92
8.3.2 Weapon Systems.......................................................... 93
8.3.3 Surveillance/Sensors...................................................94
8.3.4 Aboard Vehicles.......................................................... 95
8.4 Summary..................................................................................96
References...........................................................................................97
Chapter 9 Fiber Optic Sensors for Harsh Environment Applications..................99

9.1 Introduction..............................................................................99
9.2 Grating Types for Harsh Environmental Sensing....................99
x Contents
9.2.1 Type I Gratings............................................................99

9.2.2 Type II Gratings........................................................ 100
9.2.3 Type In (Formerly Type IIA).................................... 100
9.2.4 Chemical Composition/Regenerated Gratings.......... 100
9.2.5 Femtosecond Pulse Duration Infrared
Laser‑Induced Gratings............................................. 101
9.3 Harsh Environmental Sensing Applications of FBGs............ 101
9.3.1 High Temperature...................................................... 101
9.3.2 High Radiation.......................................................... 103
9.3.3 Multi-Parameter Sensing in Harsh Environments....... 103
9.3.4 High-Pressure Sensing.............................................. 104
9.3.5 High-Pressure Hydrogen Detection.......................... 104
9.3.6 High Reliability FBGs for High-Strain
Measurements............................................................ 105
9.4 Summary................................................................................ 105
References......................................................................................... 106
Chapter 10 Other Applications............................................................................ 111

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 111
10.2 Ship Cargo Handling Systems................................................ 111
10.2.1 Longitudinal/Transversal Ship Hull Strength
Monitoring................................................................. 112
10.2.2 Measuring the Mass Loaded or Discharged Cargo......113
10.2.3 Liquid Level Readings in Different Tanks................ 113
10.2.4 Monitoring Temperature/Humidity in a
Ship’s Cargo.............................................................. 114
10.2.5 Load Forces and Strain Effects ................................ 114
10.3 Fiber Optic Sensing for Satellite Communications................ 115
10.4 Summary................................................................................ 115
References......................................................................................... 116
Index....................................................................................................................... 117
Preface
Sensing technologies based on optical fiber have many inherent advantages that
make it an important and attractive option for a wide range of industrial sensing
applications. Many have been published in recent years, including a number of
papers and books. However, given the importance of this advanced and growing
technology in various fields, it is clear that there was need for a more comprehensive
book of various industrial applications. The tremendous development of this technol-
ogy in various fields made the timing of this book extremely important, raising the
challenge. However, the efforts made to collect many research and studies in this
field have made us believe that this is applicable and enabled us to create a great
multi-faceted idea and present it fully. Therefore, our goal was to provide a compre-
hensive and up-to-date overview of the subject, which is the basis for building future
works. As part of this ideal we have included more than 400 references. This work
is primarily suitable for the researcher or academic in the field of optical sensing
technology; however, its independent form is generally suited to engineers or gradu-
ate students and requires only basic knowledge of light properties and fiber Bragg
gratings (FBGs) structure.
The book begins with a brief introduction to fiber Bragg gratings, followed by the
detailed explanation of physical description, photosensitivity, types, and manufac-
turing techniques.
Chapter 2 provides a detailed explanation to the polymer optical fiber (POF).
A brief comparison between silica optical fiber (SOF) and polymer optical fiber
Bragg gratings is made. The polymer properties, photosensitivity, and grating’s
manufacturing are dealt with Chapter 2. The tuning characteristics of fiber grating
and a brief summary for theory that describes the propagation characteristics of light
waves in optical fibers are described in Chapter 2. The relatively simple fiber modes,
optical parameters, coupled-mode theory, and modeling of fiber Bragg grating is
also described in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 is interested in discussing the basic details of Bragg grating properties
(i.e. reflectivity, bandwidth, delay time, and dispersion) of both silica and polymer
fibers. It also provides essential details regarding the temperature-induced wave-
length shift properties. Chapter 4 informs the reader of the most important sensor
mechanisms in fiber Bragg gratings, gratings simulation methods and developments,
while also providing essential details for the treatment of temperature dependence of
the strain sensitivity theory.
Chapter 5 details the basics of fiber optic sensors in the field of oil and gas appli-
cations; the essentials of optical fibers for downhole power transmission and data
measuring remotely; and the distributed sensor for temperature (DTS), the acous-
tics (DAS) and the strain (DSS) measurements; the downhole monitoring (i.e. res-
ervoir pressure and temperature monitoring, flow monitoring, seismic monitoring,
pipeline monitoring, power cable and transformer monitoring, status monitoring of
water mains). It also provides essential details regarding the fiber optic sensors for
xi
xii Preface
detection applications (i.e. leak detection, ground movement detection, fire detec-
tion, pig position detection) and the principles of gas network monitoring.
Chapter 6 explores fiber optic sensors in civil applications, an area where Bragg
gratings have had a tremendous impact. The applications include those related to
infrastructure sensors (i.e. crack, strain, corrosion). Also, this chapter provides
information about the optical sensor application to highway structures (bridges,
dams, buildings), geotechnical structures, historical buildings, pavements, tunnels,
embankments, slopes, and other applications.
An increasingly important field is fiber optic sensors, and an expansive treat-
ment of Bragg grating for biomedical applications is provided in Chapter 7. Essential
information about the basic biomedical instrumentation system and the application
fields of biomedical sensors (i.e. glucose sensor, laminate cure analysis, protein anal-
ysis, dosage form analysis, drug identification, determination of DNA oligomers,
pesticide detection, effluent monitoring) and others are provided.
Chapter 8 discusses the use of optical fiber in one of the most important and
sensitive areas of the sensor, the field of military applications. The chapter provides
information about the benefits of the use of fiber optic technology in military com-
munications systems and sensor fields in various military applications (i.e. commu-
nications, weapon systems, surveillance, aboard vehicles) and others.
Chapter 9 discusses the applications of fiber optic sensors in the field of harsh
environments, the types of optical fibers that are suitable for harsh conditions, how
to use it in the field of sensing, and how the measured data are transmitted. It also
provides very important information about the most important harsh environmental
sensing parameters (i.e. temperature, radiation, pressure, hydrogen detection, high
strain measurements) and others.
Chapter 10 highlights the use of fiber optic sensors in other important industrial
applications, for example, a ship’s cargo handling system, longitudinal/transver-
sal ship’s hull strength monitoring, measuring the mass of cargo loaded or dis-
charged, liquid level readings in different tanks, monitoring temperature/humidity
in a ship’s cargo, load forces and strain effects, and fiber optic sensing for satellite
communications.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the following for permission to produce copyright materials:
Figures 1.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9 from Applications of fiber
optic sensors in civil engineering, Struct. Eng. Mech. 25(5), 577–596, 2007.
In some instances, we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material,
and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
I would like to express my great gratitude for the many comments and to the bril-
liant suggestions which were made by the dedicated reviewers who encouraged and
stimulated improvements to the text.
I would also like to thank the authors of the many journals, conference papers,
articles, theses, and books that have been relied on, as well as the references, publish-
ers, and scientific institutions that have granted us permission to use drawings and
pictures.
I am also very grateful to my family and to my friends who have shown their con-
tinued support and great interest over a long period of work on the book, and here I
must mention my dear friend Dr. Ghafour Amouzad Mahdiraji.
Finally, I would like to thank Marc Gutierrez, for his patience, constant support,
and dedication, which enabled me to complete this mission, and to all those who
helped me to make this a success.
Hisham K. Hisham
xiii
Author
Hisham K. Hisham obtained his Ph.D degree from the Centre of Excellence for
Wireless and Photonic Networks (CEWPN), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM),
Malaysia in 2012. His Ph.D. work on fiber laser design produced a patent.
He has authored and coauthored several technical papers, which include journal
articles and conference proceedings. His research interests are in optical communi-
cations, fiber lasers, devices, and sensors.
xv
1 General Introduction
1.1 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

The discovery of photosensitivity in optical fibers [1] has had major role in the devel-
opment of telecommunication and sensor systems technologies, the effect being used
to develop devices for many applications. The construction of a fiber Bragg grating
(FBG) is usually based on the photosensitivity property of silica fiber doped with
germanium. Photosensitivity means that exposure of ultraviolet (UV) light results
in a rise in the refractive index of certain doped glasses. Therefore, when exposed
to a UV radiation, the fiber exhibits a permanent change in the refractive index of
the core, which depends on the pattern and the properties of the UV exposure beam
[2, 3].
When a side of fiber is exposed to a UV radiation by the interference of two inter-
secting beams, a FBG is fabricated with a user-defined central wavelength indepen-
dent of the wavelength of the writing beam. This UV exposure of the fiber will write
a regular form of a periodicity half the required Bragg wavelength into the fiber core
over lengths in the range of millimeters to centimeters. This flexibility in the fabri-
cation of FBGs allows Bragg wavelengths to change from the visible region to well
beyond the telecommunications wavelength of 1550 nm to be written [2].
When the optical fiber refractive index is changed, the light that is transmitted
through the fiber will be reflected back to the source; thereby, based on this property,
FBGs serve as a wavelength-selective device within the optical fiber. Because of this
selectivity, a narrow band of the incident field within the optical fiber is reflected by
successive, coherent scattering from the index variations, transmitting the rest. This
operation is shown in Figure 1.1. Due to fiber refractive index sensitivity, therefore,
any change in the induced grating period will lead to a shift in the reflected and
transmitted wavelength spectra. This property makes FBGs useful as tuning mecha-
nisms [2, 3].
In recent years, FBGs have been a growing interest due to their ability in design
for wide wavelength-selective range; therefore, they can be used in a variety of appli-
cations. For telecommunications, probably the most promising applications have
been dispersion compensation and wavelength-selective devices such as filters for
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) [4–8].
FBGs have also become popular as sensing devices, ranging from structural mon-
itoring to chemical sensing [9–12]. Any change in the fiber properties, such as strain
or temperature, changes the fiber index or grating pitch, which leads to changing the
Bragg wavelength [13–18]. Therefore, by determining the peak reflectivity wave-
length of the grating, we will get information about the sensing parameters. Another
important application of fiber gratings is to use them as wavelength reflectors for
fiber lasers [15, 18–20].
1
2 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
FIGURE 1.1 Fiber Bragg gratings as a wavelength-selective element within the optical
fiber [37].
1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAGG GRATINGS

1.2.1 Physical Descriptions
A Bragg grating formed by UV exposure without physical trenches is referred to as
a bulk index grating, and a Bragg grating formed by physical deformation is referred
to as a surface relief grating. Bragg gratings can be found in widely photonic compo-
nents and systems, including distributed feedback laser diodes (DFB-LDs), distrib-
uted Bragg reflector laser diodes (DBR-LDs) and can be formed in optical fibers, as
well as in planar waveguides [21]. Two of the most popular forms of Bragg gratings
are shows in Figure 1.2 and 1.3; a fiber Bragg grating, i.e. a Bragg grating formed in
a fiber, and a planar Bragg grating (PBG), i.e. a Bragg grating in a planar waveguide.
An FBG is usually a bulk index grating, while both surface relief and bulk indexing
are used to create a polymer Bragg grating [22–25].
Optical fiber
Grating
Incident Core Transmitted
Wave Wave
Cladding
Reflected
Wave
FIGURE 1.2 Fiber Bragg grating structure [37].

General Introduction 3
g
din
d
cla
g
tin
Gra
gg
at e
Bra
str
Sub
Core Waveguide
FIGURE 1.3 Planar Bragg grating structure.
1.2.2 Photosensitivity
Photosensitivity in optical fiber usually refers to the permanent change in the refrac-
tive index of the optical fiber core that is induced by exposure to highly UV light
radiation [2]. Photosensitivity is a nonlinear effect, which can be seen as a growth in
intensity of the light that is reflected from an optical fiber after the fiber was exposed
to intense laser radiation. The discovery of this effect led to a revolutionary spread of
the fiber Bragg grating structure. Widespread studies of this effect on an optical fiber
have allowed an absolute control of the characteristics of the refractive index gratings.
There are several techniques for improving the optical fiber photosensitivity;
some of these include: increased concentration of germanium doping, heat treating,
boron co-doping, hydrogen loading, thermal-induced refractive index change, dop-
ing Ge Si fiber with boron and tin and hot hydrogenation, cold hydrogenation under
high pressure [2].
1.3 TYPES OF FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

There are several different kinds of FBG structures: the common Bragg grating
reflector, the chirped Bragg grating, and the tilted Bragg grating [2, 3]. These FBGs
are characterized either through the grating pitch or tilt.
1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector

For a common Bragg reflector, the grating period (Λ) remains constant throughout
the grating length and the reflection is the strongest at the Bragg wavelength λ B . The
Bragg resonant wavelength is a function of Λ and the mode effective reflection index
FIGURE 1.4 Schematic diagram of a common Bragg reflector.
(neff) [2]. Thus, the light at the Bragg wavelengthλ B propagated in the fiber undergoes
reflection and the rest of the light is transmitted through the grating unimpeded. The
spectral characteristics depend on the grating parameters, such as the amplitude of
the refractive modulations, grating length, the coupling strength, and the overlap
integral of the forward- and backward-propagating modes. A typical reflection spec-
trum of a uniform FBG is shown in Figure 1.4 [2].
Bragg grating reflectors are considered to be excellent temperature and strain
sensing elements [26–28] because the measurements are an encoded wavelength.
Due to this, the problems of intensity fluctuations that exist in many other types of
fiber-based sensor systems are eliminated [2].
Because each Bragg grating reflector can be designated its own wavelength-
encoded signature, a series of gratings can be written in the same fiber, each having
a distinct Bragg resonance signal. Moreover, Bragg grating reflector has also proven
to be a very useful element in tunable semiconductor laser [29–31], serving as one or
both ends of the laser cavity, depending on the laser configuration. By changing the
Bragg reflected feedback signal, the grating tunes the laser wavelength.
1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating

The refractive index profile of the grating can be modified to add other features,
such as a linear, quadratic, or jump variation in the grating period. Therefore, the
gratings have a non-uniform period along their length; this form is called a chirp,
as shown in Figure 1.5. In a chirped FBG, the Bragg condition varies as a function
of position along the grating. This is achieved by ensuring that the periodicity, Λ,
varies as a function of position, or that the effective mode index, neff, varies as a func-
tion of position along the FBG, or through a combination of both. In this case, the
reflected wavelength changes with the grating period, which results in a broadening
in the reflected spectrum. A grating possessing a chirp has the property of adding
dispersion, in which different wavelengths reflected from the grating will be subject
to different delays [2, 3].
Chirped gratings have many important applications. Particularly, linearly chirped
grating has found a special place in optics, such as a dispersion-correcting and com-
pensating device [32, 33]. This application has also triggered the fabrication of
Gratings with
different Length Λ1 Λn
Incident Fiber Core

Transmitted
Wave Reflected Wave
Wave
Cladding
Grating Length
FIGURE 1.5 Chirped Bragg grating.
ultra-long, broad-bandwidth gratings of high quality, for high-bit-rate transmission

[34] and in WDM transmission [35]. Some of the other applications include chirped
pulse amplification [23], chirp compensation of gain-switched semiconductor lasers
[27], sensing [26–29], higher-order fiber dispersion compensation [35], amplifier
gain flattening [3], and band-pass filters [2].
1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating

In standard FBG, the gratings or the variations of the fiber core effective refractive
index is along the length of the optical fiber axis and is typically uniform across the
width of the fiber core. In contrast, in a tilted FBG, the variation of the fiber core
effective refractive index is at an angle to the optical axis, as shown in Figure 1.6.
The angle of tilt in tilted FBG has an effect on the reflected wavelength and band-
width; the grating planes tilt and index modulation strength determine the coupling
efficiency and the bandwidth of the light that is tapped out [2, 3].
The condition to satisfy the Bragg criteria of a tilted grating is similar to that of
the uniform Bragg reflector [2]. Tilted Bragg grating has important applications in
communication systems, such as flattening the gain spectrum of the erbium-doped
fiber amplifier and mode conversion [3].
1.4 FABRICATION OF FIBER BRAGG GRATING

Fiber Bragg gratings are fabricated by techniques that are widely divided into two
groups: holographic and non-interferometer, which are based on simple exposure to
Tilted Bragg Gratings

Incident Fiber Core
Transmitted
Wave Wave
Cladding
FIGURE 1.6 Tilted fiber Bragg grating structure.

UV radiation periodically along a piece of fiber [2, 3]. The previous techniques used
a beam splitter to divide a single input UV beam into two, interfering them at the
fiber; the latter depend on periodic exposure of a fiber to pulsed sources or through a
spatially periodic amplitude mask.
1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer

The bulk interferometer method is one classified as a standard holography, with the
UV beam divided into two at a beam splitter and then collected together at a mutual
angle of θ, by reflections from two UV mirrors as shown in Figure 1.7 [3]. This
method allows the Bragg wavelength to be chosen independently of the UV wave-
length as [3]
neff λ uv
λB = (1.1)
nuvsin ( θ / 2 )
where nnv is the refractive index of silica in the UV, λ uv is the wavelength of the
writing radiation, and θ is the mutual angle of the UV beams. This method was
originally successfully used to write gratings at visible wavelengths [2, 3].
The interferometer is ideal for single-pulse writing of short gratings, and extreme
care should be taken in the design of the optical mounts. Mechanical vibrations and
the inherently long path lengths in air can cause the quality of the overlap to change
over a period of time, limiting its application to short exposures. For low-coherence
sources, the path difference between the two interfering beams must be equalized; a
simple method is to introduce a mirror blank in one arm to compensate for the path
imbalance imposed by the beam splitter, as shown in Figure 1.7 [3, 4].
Mirror 1
Li nt
V e
t
gh
U ncid
I
Optical fiber
Mirror 2
gs
in
at
Gr
FIGURE 1.7 UV interferometer for writing Bragg gratings in optical fibers.

1.4.2 The Phase Mask

The phase mask method represents a major step toward easier fiber gratings fabrica-
tion, which is made possible by the application of it as a component of the interfer-
ometer. A phase mask is a relief grating etched in a silica plate [2, 3]. The significant
characteristics of the phase mask are the grooves etched into a UV-transmitting sil-
ica mask plate, with a carefully controlled mark–space ratio as well as etch depth [3].
The principle of operation is based on the diffraction of an incident UV beam into
several orders, m = 0, ±1, ±2. ... This is shown schematically in Figure 1.8. The inci-
dent and diffracted orders satisfy the general diffraction equation, with the period
Λ pm of the phase-mask given as [3, 4]
mλ uv
Λ pm = (1.2)
sin (θ m 2 ) − sin θi
where θ m 2 is the angle of the diffracted order, l uv the wavelength, and θi the angle
of the incident UV beam. In the cases when the period of the grating lies between l uv
and l uv 2 , the incident wave is diffracted into only a single order (m = −1) with the
rest of the power remaining in the transmitted wave (m = 0) [3].
When the UV beam radiation is incident at θi = 0, the diffracted radiation is split
into m = 0 and m = ±1 orders, as shown in Figure 1.9.
The interference pattern at the fiber of two such beams of orders ± 1 brought
together by parallel mirrors has a period Λ g related to the diffraction angle θ m 2
by [3, 4]
λ uv Λ
Λg = = pm (1.3)
2 sin (θ m 2 ) 2
The depth (d) of the etched fiber sections of the grating is a function of the UV beam
wavelength, but the period is dependent only on the Bragg wavelength and the effec-
tive index of the mode. However, in the case of UV writing of gratings, it is neces-
sary to ensure that the intensity of the transmitted zero-order beam is minimized
and, ideally, blocked from arriving at the fiber [3, 4].
Incident UV Light
Mask
Optical Fiber
Negative 1 Order
Zero Order
Bragg Gratings
FIGURE 1.8 Schematic of the diffraction of an incident beam from a phase mask.
Incident UV Light
Mask
Optical Fiber
Negative 1 Order
Positive 1 Order
Bragg Gratings
Zero Order
FIGURE 1.9 Normally incident UV beam diffracted into two ±1 orders.
1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings

Chirped FBGs require a variation of the grating period Λ or a variation of the fiber
effective refractive index neff along the length of the grating. Period chirped FBGs
can be fabricated by bending the fiber with respect to the interferogram, as shown in
Figure 1.10 [2], where the projection of the interference pattern onto the curved fiber
creates a variation in the period. Bending the fiber creates a functional dependence
of the grating period upon the radius of curvature, so that a linear or a quadratic
chirp may be created.
Another technique for fabricating chirped FBGs is more flexible; it is capable of
producing Bragg reflection with wide bandwidth, exploits the interference of beams
with dissimilar wavefronts as shown in Figure 1.11 [4].
By introducing lenses of different focal length into the paths of the two beams
in the holographic arrangement, the wavefront curvatures will differ at the fiber [2].
UV light
Optical fiber
Gratings
FIGURE 1.10 Writing a linearly chirped FBG by bending the optical fiber.
Splitter
UV light
Lens
Mirror Mirror
Optical fiber
Gratings
FIGURE 1.11 Using lens of different focus for writing chirped FBGs.
When the two beams are brought together to interfere, the resulting interferogram
will no longer have constant period; the period varies as a function of distance along
the axis of the fiber. Phase masks with constant period can also be used to fabricate
chirped FBGs, as is shown in Figure 1.11 [2, 3]. By placing the fiber parallel to a
constant period phase mask, a constant period is embossed into the core of the fiber.
If the fiber is tilted, the period embossed is a function of the incident angle [2, 4]. The
angle of incident of the collimated UV beam can be changed by the introduction of
a lens, as shown in Figure 1.12 [4]. In this technique, a periodicity varying with grat-
ing length is produced and the inscribed chirp is determined based upon the mask’s
period, the inclined angle α, and lens characteristics.
The well-known phase mask technique is the simplest and easiest to use; however,
it suffers from a lack of tunability of the Bragg wavelength when compared to the
holographic method [2]. In addition to the common Bragg reflector, phase masks can
be used to inscribe a continuously chirped period FBG [2, 3]. The chirp phase mask
consists of a continuously varying mask period, as is shown in Figure 1.13 [2]. In this
case, the writing process requires the fiber to be in close proximity to the phase mask
but does not require that the fiber is tilted.
UV light
Lens
Mask
Optical fiber
gratings
FIGURE 1.12 Using uniform phase mask to write a linear chirp FBG.
Incident UV Light
Mask
Optical Fiber
Negative 1 Order
Positive 1 Order
Chirp Bragg Gratings
Zero Order
FIGURE 1.13 Using a chirped phase mask for writing a chirped FBG.
Previous sections have shown that a chirp period can be produced by making the
effective refractive index vary periodically along the FBG. Furthermore, chirped
FBGs can also be produced by making the effective refractive index of the propaga-
tion mode vary along the FBG [2, 3, 4, 27]. This can be realized by changing the
guiding properties along the grating length, such as varying the diameter of the clad-
ding of the fiber to a taper. This tapered fiber can be produced by differential etching
by using a timed chemical etching method as shown in Figure 1.14. The taper can
be produced by etching chemical technique [2, 3, 27] or by extending the fiber [36].
When a uniform periodic effective refractive mode index is writing in the fiber core
of the tapered section, the chirped FBG can be created.
Incident UV light
Fiber with different

cross sectional area
FIGURE 1.14 Using a tapered fiber to create a chirped FBG.

Incident UV light
Mask
Mirror Mirror
Fiber
FIGURE 1.15 Method for writing slanted gratings.
1.4.4 Slanted Grating
If the fiber is tilted out of the plane of Figure 1.9, the grating inscribed in the fiber
will be slanted in the direction of propagation of the mode [2, 3]. This, however,
requires the interfering beams to have a large cross-sectional area so that the beams
may overlap. However, this is inconvenient for most interferometers, since the cylin-
drical lens focuses the beams in the plane of the figure, unless the unfocused beam
intensity is already high. An alternative and simple method for inscribing slanted
gratings is to tilt the fiber in the plane of the figure, as shown in Figure 1.15 [3]. In
this case, the coherence properties of the laser will determine the visibility of the
fringes at the fiber. Since the fiber is at an angle to the incoming beams, the inscrip-
tion of the grating depends on the overlap of the two beams [3].
1.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, a brief review on the photosensitivity in optic fiber and an overview
of the fundamental theory of fiber Bragg gratings and their development has been
presented. The chapter also provided a review of the FBG types and the mechanisms
for their fabrications.
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struck Leslie in the face, in the presence of many witnesses. Leslie
appealed to the court, on the strength of an old statute which decreed
death to any one guilty of violence in the presence of the Lords, and
Comrie was apprehended. There then arose many curious and
perplexing questions among the judges as to the various bearings of
the case; but all were suddenly solved by Comrie obtaining a
remission of his offence from the queen.[339]
In this year was published[340] the first intelligent topographical

book regarding Scotland, being ‘A Description of the Western Isles,
by M. Martin, Gentleman.’ It gives accurate information regarding
the physical peculiarities of these islands, and their numberless relics
of antiquity, besides many sensible hints as to means for improving
the industry of the inhabitants. The author, who seems to have been
a native of Skye, writes like a well-educated man for his age, and as
one who had seen something of life in “busier scenes than those
supplied by his own country. He has also thought proper to give an
ample account of many superstitious practices of the Hebrideans,
and to devote a chapter to the alleged power of second-sight, which
was then commonly attributed to special individuals throughout the
whole of Celtic Scotland. All this he does in the same sober
painstaking manner in which he tells of matters connected with the
rural economy of the people, fully shewing 1703.
that he himself reposed entire faith in the
alleged phenomena. In the whole article, indeed, he scarcely
introduces a single expression of a dogmatic character, either in the
way of defending the belief or ridiculing it, but he very calmly
furnishes answers, based on what he considered as facts, to sundry
objections which had been taken against it. But for his book, we
should have been much in the dark regarding a system which
certainly made a great mark on the Highland mind in the
seventeenth century, and was altogether as remarkable, perhaps, as
the witch superstitions of the Lowlands during the same period.
He tells us—‘The second-sight is a singular faculty of seeing an
otherwise invisible object, without any previous means used by the
person that sees it, for that end. The vision makes such a lively
impression upon the seers, that they neither see nor think of
anything else, except the vision, as long as it continues, and then they
appear pensive or jovial, according to the object which was
represented to them.
‘At the sight of a vision, the eyelids of the person are erected, and
the eyes continue staring until the object vanish. This is obvious to
others who are by, when the persons happen to see a vision, and
occurred more than once to my own observation, and to others who
were with me.’
The seers were persons of both sexes and of all ages, ‘generally
illiterate, well-meaning people;’ not people who desired to make gain
by their supposed faculty, or to attract notice to themselves—not
drunkards or fools—but simple country people, who were rather
more apt to feel uneasy in the possession of a gift so strange, than to
use it for any selfish or unworthy purpose. It really appears to have
been generally regarded as an uncomfortable peculiarity; and there
were many instances of the seers resorting to prayers and other
religious observances in order to get quit of it.
The vision came upon the seer unpremonishedly, and in all
imaginable circumstances. If early in the morning, which was not
frequent, then the prediction was expected to be accomplished
within a few hours; the later in the day, the accomplishment was
expected at the greater distance of time. The things seen were often
of an indifferent nature, as the arrival of a stranger; often of a
character no less important than the death of individuals. If a woman
was seen standing at a man’s left hand, it was a presage that she
would be his wife, even though one of the parties might then be the
mate of another. Sometimes several women would be seen standing
in a row beside a man, in which case it was expected that the one
nearest would be his first wife, and so on 1703.
with the rest in their turns.
When the arrival of a stranger was predicted, his dress, stature,
complexion, and general appearance would be described, although
he might be previously unknown to the seer. If of the seer’s
acquaintance, his name would be told, and the humour he was in
would be described from the countenance he bore. ‘I have been seen
thus myself,’ says Martin, ‘by seers of both sexes at some hundred
miles’ distance; some that saw me in this manner, had never seen me
personally, and it happened according to their visions, without any
previous design of mine to go to those places, my coming there being
purely accidental.’
It will be remembered that, when Dr Johnson and Boswell
travelled through the Hebrides in 1773, the latter was told an
instance of such prediction by the gentleman who was the subject of
the story—namely, M‘Quarrie, the Laird of Ulva. ‘He had gone to
Edinburgh, and taken a man-servant along with him. An old woman
who was in the house said one day: “M‘Quarrie will be at home to-
morrow, and will bring two gentlemen with him;” and she said she
saw his servant return in red and green. He did come home next day.
He had two gentlemen with him, and his servant had a new red and
green livery, which M‘Quarrie had bought for him at Edinburgh,
upon a sudden thought, not having the least intention when he left
home to put his servant in livery; so that the old woman could not
have heard any previous mention of it. This, he assured us, was a
true story.’[341]
Martin tells a story of the same character, but even more striking
in its various features. The seer in this case was Archibald
Macdonald, who lived in the isle of Skye about the time of the
Revolution. One night before supper, at Knockowe, he told the family
he had just then seen the strangest thing he ever saw in his life; to
wit, a man with an ugly long cap, always shaking his head; but the
strangest thing of all was a little harp he had, with only four strings,
and two hart’s horns fixed in the front of it. ‘All that heard this odd
vision fell a laughing at Archibald, telling him that he was dreaming,
or had not his wits about him, since he pretended to see a thing that
had no being, and was not so much as heard of in any part of the
world.’ All this had no effect upon Archibald, ‘who told them that
they must excuse him if he laughed at them after the
accomplishment of the vision.’ Archibald 1703.
returned to his own house, and within three
or four days after, a man exactly answering to the description arrived
at Knockowe. He was a poor man, who made himself a buffoon for
bread, playing on a harp, which was ornamented with a pair of hart’s
horns, and wearing a cap and bells, which he shook in playing. He
was previously unknown at Knockowe, and was found to have been
at the island of Barray, sixty miles off, at the time of the vision. This
story was vouched by Mr Daniel Martin and all his family—relatives,
we may presume, of the author of the book now quoted.
Martin relates a story of a predicted visit of a singular kind to the
island of Egg; and it is an instance more than usually entitled to
notice, as he himself heard of it in the interval between the vision
and its fulfilment. A seer in that island told his neighbours that he
had frequently seen the appearance of a man in a red coat lined with
blue, having on his head a strange kind of blue cap, with a very high
cock on the forepart of it. The figure always appeared in the act of
making rude advances to a young woman who lived in the hamlet,
and he predicted that it would be the fate of this girl to be treated in a
dishonourable way by some such stranger. The inhabitants
considered the affair so extremely unlikely to be realised, that they
treated the seer as a fool. Martin tells that he had the story related to
him in Edinburgh, in September 1688, by Norman Macleod of
Graban, who had just then come from the isle of Skye, there being
present at the time the Laird of Macleod, Mr Alexander Macleod,
advocate, and some other persons. About a year and a half after, a
few government war-vessels were sent into the Western Islands to
reduce some of the people who had been out with Lord Dundee.
Major Fergusson, who commanded a large military party on board,
had no thought of touching at Egg, which is a very sequestered
island, but some natives of that isle, being in Skye, encountered a
party of his men, and one of the latter was slain. He consequently
steered for Egg, to revenge himself on the natives. Among other
outrages, the young woman above alluded to was carried on board
the vessel, and disgracefully treated, thus completely verifying the
vision.
An instance of the second-sight, which fell under the observation
of the clever statesman Viscount Tarbat, is related by Martin as
having been reported to him by Lord Tarbat himself. While travelling
in Ross-shire, his lordship entered a house, and sat down on an arm-
chair. One of his retinue, who possessed the faculty of a seer, spoke
to some of the rest, wishing them to 1703.
persuade his lordship to leave the house,
‘for,’ said he, ‘a great misfortune will attend somebody in it, and that
within a few hours.’ This was told to Lord Tarbat, who did not regard
it. The seer soon after renewed his entreaty with much earnestness,
begging his master to remove out of that unhappy chair; but he was
only snubbed as a fool. Lord Tarbat, at his own pleasure, renewed his
journey, and had not been gone many hours when a trooper, riding
upon ice, fell and broke his thigh, and being brought into that house,
was laid in the arm-chair to have his wound dressed. Thus the vision
was accomplished.
It was considered a rule in second-sight, that a vision seen by one
seer was not necessarily visible to another in his company, unless the
first touched his neighbour. There are, nevertheless, anecdotes of
visions seen by more than one at a time, without any such ceremony.
In one case, two persons, not accustomed to see visions, saw one
together, after which, neither ever enjoyed the privilege again. They
were two simple country men, travelling along a road about two
miles to the north of Snizort church, in Skye. Suddenly they saw what
appeared as a body of men coming from the north, as if bringing a
corpse to Snizort to be buried. They advanced to the river, thinking
to meet the funeral company at the ford, but when they got there, the
visionary scene had vanished. On coming home, they told what they
had seen to their neighbours. ‘About three weeks after, a corpse was
brought along that road from another parish, from which few or
none are brought to Snizort, except persons of distinction.’
A vision of a similar nature is described as occurring to one Daniel
Stewart, an inhabitant of Hole, in the North Parish of St Mary’s, in
the isle of Skye; and it was likewise the man’s only experience of the
kind. One day, at noon, he saw five men riding northward; he ran
down to the road to meet them; but when he got there, all had
vanished. The vision was repeated next day, when he also heard the
men speak. It was concluded that the company he saw was that of Sir
Donald Macdonald of Sleat, who was then at Armadale, forty miles
distant.
The important place which matrimony occupies in social existence,
makes it not surprising that the union of individuals in marriage was
frequently the alleged subject of second-sight. As already mentioned,
when a woman stood at a man’s left hand, she was expected to be his
wife. It was also understood that, when a man was seen at a woman’s
left hand, he was to be her future husband. 1703.
‘Several persons,’ says Martin, ‘living in a
certain family, told me that they had frequently seen two men
standing at a young gentlewoman’s left hand, who was their master’s
daughter. They told the men’s names, and as they were the young
lady’s equals, it was not doubted that she would be married to one of
them, and perhaps to the other, after the death of the first. Some
time after, a third man appeared, and he seemed always to stand
nearest to her of the three; but the seers did not know him, though
they could describe him exactly. Within some months after, this
man, who was last seen, did actually come to the house, and fulfilled
the description given of him by those who never saw him but in a
vision; and he married the woman shortly after. They live in the isle
of Skye; both they and others confirmed the truth of this instance
when I saw them.’
The Rev. Daniel Nicolson, minister of the parish of St Mary’s, in
Skye, was a widower of forty-four, when a noted seer of his flock, the
Archibald Macdonald already spoken of, gave out that he saw a well-
dressed lady frequently standing at the minister’s right hand. He
described her complexion, stature, and dress particularly, and said
he had no doubt such a person would in time become the second Mrs
Nicolson. The minister was rather angry at having this story told, and
bade his people pay no attention to what ‘that foolish dreamer,
Archibald Macdonald,’ had said, ‘for,’ said he, ‘it is twenty to one if
ever I marry again.’ Archibald, nevertheless, persisted in his tale.
While the matter stood in this position, it was related to Martin.
The minister afterwards attended a synod in Bute—met a Mrs
Morison there—fell in love with her, and brought her home to Skye
as his wife. It is affirmed that she was instantly and generally
recognised as answering to the description of the lady in Archibald’s
vision.
About 1652, Captain Alexander Fraser, commonly called the Tutor
of Lovat, being guardian of his nephew, Lord Lovat, married Sybilla
Mackenzie, sister of the Earl of Seaforth, and widow of John Macleod
of Macleod. The Tutor, who had fought gallantly in the preceding
year for King Charles II. at Worcester, was thought a very lucky man
in this match, as the lady had a jointure of three hundred merks per
annum![342] The marriage, however, is more remarkable on account
of its having been seen many years before, 1703.
during the lifetime of the lady’s first
husband. We have the story told with all seriousness, though in very
obscure typography, in a letter which Aubrey prints[343] as having
been sent to him by a ‘learned friend’ of his in the Highlands, about
1694.
Macleod and his wife, while residing, we are to understand, at
their house of Dunvegan in Skye, on returning one day from an
excursion or brief visit, went into their nursery to see their infant
child. To pursue the narration: ‘On their coming in, the nurse falls a-
weeping. They asked the cause, dreading the child was sick, or that
the nurse was scarce of milk. The nurse replied the child was well,
and she had abundance of milk. Yet she still wept. Being pressed to
tell what ailed her, she at last said that Macleod would die, and the
lady would shortly be married to another man. Being asked how she
knew that event, she told them plainly, that, as they came into the
room, she saw a man with a scarlet cloak and white hat betwixt them,
giving the lady a kiss over the shoulder; and this was the cause of her
weeping; all which,’ pursues the narrator, ‘came to pass. After
Macleod’s death [which happened in 1649], the Tutor of Lovat
married the lady in the same dress in which the woman saw him.’
The Bishop of Caithness, a short while before the Revolution, had
five daughters, one of whom spoke grudgingly of the burden of the
family housekeeping lying wholly upon her. A man-servant in the
house, who had the second-sight, told her that ere long she would be
relieved from her task, as he saw a tall gentleman in black walking on
the bishop’s right hand, and whom she was to marry. Before a
quarter of a year had elapsed, the prediction was realised; and all the
man’s vaticinations regarding the marriage-feast and company also
proved true.
A curious class of cases, of importance for any theory on the
subject, was that in which a visionary figure or spectre intervened for
the production of the phenomena. A spirit in great vogue in the
Highlands in old times—as, indeed, in the Lowlands also—was
known by the name of Browny. From the accounts we have of him, it
seems as if he were in a great measure identical with the drudging
goblin of Milton, whose shadowy flail by night would thrash the corn
‘That ten day-labourers could not end.’
Among our Highlanders, he presented himself as a tall man. The

servants of Sir Norman Macleod of Bernera 1703.
were one night assembled in the hall of the castle in that remote
island, while their master was absent on business, without any
intimation having been given of the time of his probable return. One
of the party, who had the second-sight, saw Browny[344] come in
several times and make a show of carrying an old woman from the
fireside to the door; at last, he seemed to take her by neck and heels,
and bundle her out of the house; at which the seer laughed so
heartily, that his companions thought him mad. He told them they
must remove, for the hall would be required that night for other
company. They knew, of course, that he spoke in consequence of
having had a vision; but they took it upon themselves to express a
doubt that it could be so speedily accomplished. In so dark a night,
and the approach to the island being so dangerous on account of the
rocks, it was most unlikely that their master would arrive. In less
than an hour, a man came in to warn them to get the hall ready for
their master, who had just landed. Martin relates this story from Sir
Norman Macleod’s own report.
The same Sir Norman Macleod was one day playing with some of
his friends at a game called the Tables (in Gaelic, palmermore),
which requires three on a side, each throwing the dice by turns. A
critical difficulty arising as to the placing of 1703.
one of the table-men, seeing that the issue
of the game obviously must depend upon it, the gentleman who was
to play hesitated for a considerable time. At length, Sir Norman’s
butler whispered a direction as to the best site for the man into his
ear; he played in obedience to the suggestion, and won the game. Sir
Norman, having heard the whisper, asked who had advised him so
skilfully. He answered that it was the butler. ‘That is strange,’ quoth
Sir Norman, ‘for the butler is unacquainted with the game.’ On
inquiry, the man told that he had not spoken from any skill of his
own. He had seen the spirit, Browny, reaching his arm over the
player’s head, and touching with his finger the spot where the table-
man was to be placed. ‘This,’ says Martin, ‘was told me by Sir
Norman and others, who happened to be present at the time.’
Sir Norman Macleod relates another case in which his own
knowledge comes in importantly for authentication. A gentleman in
the isle of Harris had always been ‘seen’ with an arrow in his thigh,
and it was expected that he would not go out of the world without the
prediction being fulfilled. Sir Norman heard the matter spoken of for
many years before the death of the gentleman. At length the
gentleman died, without any such occurrence taking place. Sir
Norman was at his funeral, at St Clement’s kirk, in Harris. The
custom of that island being to bury men of importance in a stone
chest in the church, the body was brought on an open bier. A dispute
took place among the friends at the church door as to who should
enter first, and from words it came to blows. One who was armed
with a bow and arrows, let fly amongst them, and after Sir Norman
Macleod had appeased the tumult, one of the arrows was found
sticking in the dead man’s thigh!
Martin was informed by John Morison of Bragir, in Lewis, ‘a
person of unquestionable sincerity and reputation,’ respecting a girl
of twelve years old, living within a mile of his house, who was
troubled with the frequent vision of a person exactly resembling
herself, who seemed to be always employed just as she herself might
be at the moment. At the suggestion of John Morison, prayers were
put up in the family, in which he and the girl joined, entreating that
God would be pleased to relieve her from this unpleasant visitation;
and after that she saw her double no more. Another neighbour of
John Morison was haunted by a spirit resembling himself, who never
spoke to him within doors, but pestered him constantly out of doors
with impertinent questions. At the 1703.
recommendation of a neighbour, the man
threw a live coal in the face of the vision; in consequence of which,
the spirit assailed him in the fields next day, and beat him so sorely,
that he had to keep his bed for fourteen days. Martin adds: ‘Mr
Morison, minister of the parish, and several of his friends, came to
see the man, and joined in prayer that he might be freed from this
trouble; but he was still haunted by that spirit a year after I left
Lewis.’
Another case in which the spirit used personal violence, but of an
impalpable kind, is related by Martin as happening at Knockowe, in
Skye, and as reported to him by the family who were present when
the circumstance occurred. A man-servant, who usually enjoyed
perfect health, was one evening taken violently ill, fell back upon the
floor, and then began to vomit. The family were much concerned,
being totally at a loss to account for so sudden an attack; but in a
short while the man recovered, and declared himself free of pain. A
seer in the family explained the mystery. In a neighbouring village
lived an ill-natured female, who had had some hopes of marriage
from this man, but was likely to be disappointed. He had seen this
woman come in with a furious countenance, and fall a-scolding her
lover in the most violent manner, till the man tumbled from his seat,
albeit unconscious of the assault made upon him.
Several instances of second-sight are recorded in connection with
historical occurrences. Sir John Harrington relates that, at an
interview he had with King James in 1607, the conversation having
turned upon Queen Mary, the king told him that her death had been
seen in Scotland before it happened, ‘being, as he said, “spoken of in
secret by those whose power of sight presented to them a bloody
head dancing in the air.” He then,’ continues Harrington, ‘did remark
much on this gift.’[345] It is related in May’s History of England, that
when the family of King James was leaving Scotland for England, an
old hermit-like seer was brought before them, who took little notice
of Prince Henry, but wept over Prince Charles—then three years old
—lamenting to think of the misfortunes he was to undergo, and
declaring he should be the most miserable of princes. A Scotch
nobleman had a Highland seer brought to London, where he asked
his judgment on the Duke of Buckingham, then at the height of his
fortunes as the king’s favourite. ‘Pish!’ said 1703.
he, ‘he will come to nothing. I see a dagger
in his breast!’ In time the duke, as is well known, was stabbed to the
heart by Lieutenant Felton.
In one of the letters on second-sight, written to Mr Aubrey from
Scotland about 1693–94, reference is made to the seer Archibald
Macdonald, who has already been introduced in connection with
instances occurring in Skye. According to this writer, who was a
divinity student living in Strathspey, Inverness-shire, Archibald
announced a prediction regarding the unfortunate Earl of Argyle. He
mentioned it at Balloch Castle (now Castle-Grant), in the presence of
the Laird of Grant, his lady, and several others, and also in the house
of the narrator’s father. He said of Argyle, of whom few or none then
knew where he was, that he would within two months come to the
West Highlands, and raise a rebellious faction, which would be
divided in itself, and disperse, while the earl would be taken and
beheaded at Edinburgh, and his head set upon the Tolbooth, where
his father’s head was before. All this proved strictly true.
Archibald Macdonald was a friend of Macdonald of Glencoe, and
accompanied him in the expedition of Lord Dundee in 1689 for the
maintenance of King James’s interest in the Highlands. Mr Aubrey’s
correspondent, who was then living in Strathspey, relates that
Dundee’s irregular forces followed General Mackay’s party along
Speyside till they came to Edinglassie, when he turned and marched
up the valley. At the Milltown of Gartenbeg, the Macleans joined, but
remained behind to plunder. Glencoe, with Archibald in his
company, came to drive them forward; and when this had been to
some extent effected, the seer came up and said: ‘Glencoe, if you will
take my advice, you will make off with yourself with all possible
haste. Ere an hour come and go, you’ll be as hard put to it as ever you
were in your life.’ Glencoe took the hint, and, within an hour, Mackay
appeared at Culnakyle, in Abernethy, with a party of horse, and
chased the Macleans up the Morskaith; in which chase Glencoe was
involved, and was hard put to it, as had been foretold. It is added,
that Archibald likewise foretold that Glencoe would be murdered in
the night-time in his own house, three months before it happened.
A well-vouched instance of the second-sight connected with a
historical incident, is related by Drummond of Bohaldy, regarding
the celebrated Highland paladin, Sir Ewen Cameron of Locheil, who
died at the age of ninety in 1719. ‘Very early that morning [December
24, 1715] whereon the Chevalier de St 1703.
George landed at Peterhead, attended only
by Allan Cameron, one of the gentlemen of his bedchamber, Sir
Ewen started, as it were, in a surprise, from his sleep, and called out
so loud to his lady (who lay by him in another bed) that his king was
landed—that his king was arrived—and that his son Allan was with
him, that she awaked.’ She then received his orders to summon the
clan, and make them drink the king’s (that is, the Chevalier’s) health
—a fête they engaged in so heartily, that they spent in it all the next
day. ‘His lady was so curious, that she noted down the words upon
paper, with the date; which she a few days after found verified in
fact, to her great surprise.’ Bohaldy remarks that this case fully
approved itself to the whole clan Cameron, as they heard their chief
speak of scarcely anything else all that day.[346]
Predictions of death formed a large class of cases of second-sight.
The event was usually indicated by the subject of the vision
appearing in a shroud, and the higher the vestment rose on the
figure, the event was the nearer. ‘If it is not seen above the middle,’
says Martin, ‘death is not to be expected for the space of a year, and
perhaps some months longer. When it is seen to ascend higher
towards the head, death is concluded to be at hand within a few days,
if not hours, as daily experience confirms. Examples of this kind were
shewn me, when the person of whom the observation was made
enjoyed perfect health.’ He adds, that sometimes death was foretold
of an individual by hearing a loud cry, as from him, out of doors.
‘Five women were sitting together in the same room, and all of them
heard a loud cry passing by the window. They thought it plainly to be
the voice of a maid who was one of the number. She blushed at the
time, though not sensible of her so doing, contracted a fever next
day, and died that week.’
In a pamphlet on the second-sight, written by Mr John Fraser,
dean of the Isles, and minister of Tiree and Coll, is an instance of
predicted death, which the author reports on his own knowledge.
Having occasion to go to Tobermory, in Mull, to assist in some
government investigations for the recovery of treasure in the vessel
of the Spanish Armada known to have been there sunk, he was
accompanied by a handsome servant-lad, besides other attendants.
[347]
A woman came before he sailed, and, through the medium of a
seaman, endeavoured to dissuade him from 1703.
taking that youth, as he would never bring
him back alive. The seaman declined to communicate her story to Mr
Fraser. The company proceeded on their voyage, and met adverse
weather; the boy fell sick, and died on the eleventh day. Mr Fraser,
on his return, made a point of asking the woman how she had come
to know that this lad, apparently so healthy, was near his death. She
told Mr Fraser that she had seen the boy, as he walked about, ‘sewed
up in his winding-sheets from top to toe;’ this she always found to be
speedily followed by the death of the person so seen.
Martin relates that a woman was accustomed for some time to see
a female figure, with a shroud up to the waist, and a habit resembling
her own; but as the face was turned away, she never could ascertain
who it was. To satisfy her curiosity, she tried an experiment. She
dressed herself with that part of her clothes behind which usually
was before. The vision soon after presented itself with its face
towards the seeress, who found it to be herself. She soon after died.
Although the second-sight had sunk so much in Martin’s time,
that, according to him, there was not one seer for ten that had been
twenty years before, it continued to be so much in vogue down to the
reign of George III., that a separate treatise on the subject,
containing scores of cases, was published in 1763 by an educated
man styling himself Theophilus Insulanus, as a means of checking in
some degree the materialising tendencies of the age, this author
considering the gift as a proof of the immortality of the soul. When
Dr Johnson, a few years later, visited the Highlands, he found the
practice, so to speak, much declined, and the clergy almost all
against it. Proofs could, nevertheless, be adduced that there are even
now, in the remoter parts of the Highlands, occasional alleged
instances of what is called second-sight, with a full popular belief in
their reality.
Charles, Earl of Hopetoun,[348] set forth in 1704. Jan. 25.

a petition to the Privy Council, that in his
minority, many years ago, his tutors had caused a windmill to be
built at Leith for grinding and refining the ore from his lead-mines.
In consequence of the unsettling of a particular bargain, the mill had
been allowed to lie unused till now, when it required some repair in
order to be fit for service. One John Smith, 1704.
who had set up a saw-mill in Leith, being
the only man seen in this kind of work, had been called into
employment by his lordship for the repair of the windmill; but the
wright-burgesses of Edinburgh interfered violently with the work, on
the ground of their corporation privileges, ‘albeit it is sufficiently
known that none of them have been bred to such work or have any
skill therein.’ Indeed, some part of the original work done by them
had now to be taken down, so ill was it done. It was obviously a
public detriment that such a work should thus be brought to a stand-
still. The Council, entering into the earl’s views, gave him a
protection from the claims of the wright-burgesses.
It is notorious that the purity of the Court Feb.
of Session continued down to this time to be
subject to suspicion. It was generally understood that a judge
favoured his friends and connections, and could be ‘spoken to’ in
behalf of a party in a suit. The time was not yet long past when each
lord had a ‘Pate’—that is, a dependent member of the bar (sometimes
called Peat), who, being largely fee’d by a party, could on that
consideration influence his patron.
A curious case, illustrative of the character of the bench, was now
in dependence. The heritors of the parish of Dalry raised an action
for the realisation of a legacy of £3000, which had been left to them
for the founding of a school by one Dr Johnston. The defender was
John Joissy, surgeon, an executor of the testator, who resisted the
payment of the money on certain pretexts. With the assistance of
Alexander Gibson of Durie, a principal clerk of Session, Joissy gained
favour with a portion of the judges, including the president. On the
other hand, the heritors, under the patronage of the Earl of
Galloway, secured as many on their side. A severe contest was
therefore to be expected. According to a report of the case in the
sederunt-book of the parish, the Lord President managed to have it
judged under circumstances favourable to Joissy. The court having
‘accidentally appointed a peremptor day about the beginning of
February 1704 for reporting and deciding in the cause, both parties
concluded that the parish would then gain it, since one of Mr Joissy’s
lords came to be then absent. For as my Lord Anstruther’s hour in
the Outer House was betwixt nine and ten of the clock in the
morning, so the Earl of Lauderdale, as Lord Ordinary in the Outer
House, behoved to sit from ten to twelve in 1704.
the forenoon: for by the 21st act of the
fourth session of the first parliament of King William and Queen
Mary, it’s statuted expressly, that if the Lord Ordinary in the Outer
Houses sit and vote in any cause in the Inner House after the chap of
ten hours in the clock, he may be declined by either party in the
cause from ever voting thereafter therintill: yet such was the Lord
President’s management, that so soon as my Lord Anstruther
returned from the Outer House at ten of the clock, and that my Lord
Lauderdale was even desired by some of the lords to take his post in
the Outer House in the terms of law: yet his lordship was pleased
after ten to sit and vote against the parish, the president at that
juncture having put the cause to a vote.’
The heritors, by the advice of some of the lords in their interest,
gave in a declinature of Lord Lauderdale, on the ground of the
illegality of his sitting in the Inner House after ten o’clock;
whereupon, next morning, the Lord President came into the court in
a great rage, demanding that all those concerned in the declinature
should be punished as criminals. The leading decliner, Mr Ferguson
of Cairoch, escaped from town on horseback, an hour before the
macer came to summon him. The counsel, John Menzies of Cammo,
and the agent, remained to do what they could to still the storm.
According to the naïve terms of the report, ‘the speat [flood] was so
high against the parish and them all the time, that they behoved to
employ all their friends, and solicit a very particular lord that
morning before they went to the house; and my Lord President was
so high upon’t, that when Cammo told him that my Lord Lauderdale,
contrair to the act of parliament, sat after ten o’clock, his lordship
unmannerly said to Cammo, as good a gentleman as himself, that it
was a damned lie.’
Menzies, though a very eminent counsel, and the agent, found all
their efforts end in an order for their going to jail, while a suitable
punishment should be deliberated upon. After some discussion, a
slight calm ensued, and they were liberated on condition of coming
to the bar as malefactors, and there begging the Earl of Lauderdale’s
pardon. The parish report states that no remedy could be obtained,
for ‘the misery at that time was that the lords were in effect absolute,
for they did as they pleased, and when any took courage to protest
for remeid of law to the Scots parliament, they seldom or never got
any redress there, all the lords being still present, by which the
parliament was so overawed that not ane 1704.
[349]
decreit among a hundred was reduced.’
It is strange to reflect, that among these judges were Lord
Fountainhall and Lord Arniston, with several other men who had
resisted tyrannous proceedings of the old government, to their own
great suffering and loss. Wodrow promises of Halcraig, that, for his
conduct regarding the test in 1684, his memory would be ‘savoury.’
The same author, speaking of the set in 1726 as dying out, says he
wishes their places may be as well filled. ‘King William,’ he says,
‘brought in a good many substantial, honest country gentlemen, well
affected to the government and church, and many of them really
religious, though there might be some greater lawyers than some of
them have been and are. But, being men of integrity and weight,
they have acted a fair and honest part these thirty years, and keep
the bench in great respect. May their successors be equally diligent
and conscientious!’[350] Of course, by fairness and honesty, Wodrow
chiefly meant soundness in revolution politics, and steadfast
adherence to the established church.
Another instance of the vigorous action of the Lords in the
maintenance of their dignity occurred in December 1701. A
gentleman, named Cannon of Headmark, having some litigation with
the Viscount Stair and Sir James Dalrymple, his brother Alexander,
an agent before the court, used some indiscreet expressions
regarding the judges in a paper drawn up by him. Being called before
the Lords, and having acknowledged the authorship of the paper, he
was sent to prison for a month, ordered then to crave pardon of the
court on his knees, and thereafter to be for ever debarred from
carrying on business as an agent.[351]
Some letters regarding a lawsuit of William Foulis of Woodhall in
1735–37, which have been printed,[352] shew that it was even then still
customary to use influence with the Lords in favour of parties, and
the female connections appear as taking a large share in the
business. One sentence is sufficient to reveal the whole system. ‘By
Lord St Clair’s advice, Mrs Kinloch is to wait on Lady Cairnie to-
morrow, to cause her to ask the favour of Lady St Clair to solicit Lady
Betty Elphinston and Lady Dun’—the former being the wife of Lord
Coupar, and the latter of Lord Dun, two of 1704.
the judges. Lord St Clair’s hint to Mrs
Kinloch to get her friend to speak to his own wife—he thus keeping
clear of the affair himself—is a significant particular. Lord Dun, who
wrote a moral volume, entitled Advices,[353] and was distinguished for
his piety, is spoken of by tradition as such a lawyer as might well be
open to any force that was brought to bear upon him. The present Sir
George Sinclair heard Mr Thomas Coutts relate that, when a difficult
case came before the court, where Lord Dun acted alone as
‘ordinary,’ he was heard to say: ‘Eh, Lord, what am I to do? Eh, sirs, I
wiss ye wad mak it up.’
It will be surprising to many to learn that the idea of having
‘friends’ to a cause on the bench was not entirely extinct in a reign
which people in middle life can well recollect. The amiable Charles
Duke of Queensberry, who had been the patron of Gay, was also the
friend of James Burnett of Monboddo, and had exacted a promise
that Burnett should be the next person raised to the bench. ‘On Lord
Milton’s death (1767), the duke waited on his majesty, and reminded
him of his promise, which was at once admitted, and orders were
immediately given to the secretary of state [Conway] to make out the
royal letter. The lady of the secretary was nearly allied to the family
of Hamilton, and being most naturally solicitous about the vote
which Mr Burnett might give in the great cause of which he had
taken so much charge as a counsel, she and the Duchess of Hamilton
and Argyle were supposed to have induced their brother-in-law, Mr
Secretary Conway, to withhold for many weeks the letter of
appointment, and is even supposed to have represented Mr Burnett’s
character in such unfavourable colours to the Lord Chancellor
Henley, that his lordship is reported to have jocosely declared, that if
she could prove her allegations against that gentleman, instead of
making him a judge, he would hang him. This delay gave rise to
much idle conjecture and conversation in Edinburgh, and it was
confidently reported that Mr Burnett’s appointment would not take
place till after the decision of the Douglas cause. Irritated by these
insinuations against his integrity, he wrote to the Duke of
Queensberry, declaring that if his integrity as a judge could be
questioned in this cause, he should positively refuse to be trusted
with any other; and so highly did he resent the opposition made by
the secretary to his promotion, that he took measures for canvassing
his native county, in order to oppose in 1704.
parliament a ministry who had so grossly
affronted him. The Duke of Queensberry, equally indignant at the
delay, requested an audience of his majesty, and tendered a
surrender of his commission as justice-general of Scotland, if the
royal promise was not fulfilled. In a few days the letter was
despatched, and Lord Monboddo took his seat in the court.’[354]
Under the excitement created by the news Feb. 2.

of a Jacobite plot, the zealous Presbyterians
of Dumfriesshire rose to wreak out their long pent-up feelings
against the Catholic gentry of their district. Having fallen upon
sundry houses, and pillaged them of popish books, images, &c., they
marched in warlike manner to Dumfries, under the conduct of James
Affleck of Adamghame and John M‘Jore of Kirkland, and there made
solemn incremation of their spoil at the Cross.
A number of ‘popish vestments, trinkets, and other articles’ having
been found about the same time in and about Edinburgh, the Privy
Council (March 14) ordered such of them as were not intrinsically
valuable to be burned next day at the Cross; but the chalice, patine,
and other articles in silver and gold, to be melted down, and the
proceeds given to the kirk-treasurer.[355]
Notwithstanding this treatment, we find it reported in 1709, that
‘papists do openly and avowedly practise within the city of
Edinburgh and suburbs.’ It was intimated at the same time, that
there is ‘now also a profane and deluded crew of enthusiasts, set up
in this place, who, under pretence to the spirit of prophecy, do utter
most horrid blasphemies against the ever-glorious Trinity, such as
ought not to be suffered in any Christian church or nation.’[356]
Sir George Maxwell of Orchardton, in the stewartry of
Kirkcudbright, having gone over to the Church of Rome, and the next
heir, who was a Protestant, being empowered by the statute of 1700
to claim his estate, his uncle, Thomas Maxwell of Gelstoun, a man of
seventy years of age, came forward on this adventure (June 1704),
further demanding that the young baronet should be decerned to pay
him six thousand merks as a year’s rent of his estate for employing
George Maxwell of Munshes, a known 1704.
papist, to be his factor, and five hundred
more from Munshes himself for accepting the trust.
A petition presented by the worthy Protestant uncle to the Privy
Council, makes us aware that George Maxwell of Munshes, ‘finding
he would be reached for accepting the said factory, out of malice
raised a lawburrows,’ in which Orchardton concurred, though out of
the kingdom, against Gelstoun and his son, as a mere pretext for
stopping proceedings; but he trusted the Lords would see through
the trick, and defeat it by accepting the cautioners he offered for its
suspension. The Council, doubtless duly indignant that a papist
should so try to save his property, complied with Gelstoun’s petition.
[357]
A statute of the Sixth James, anno 1621— Apr. 12.

said to have been borrowed from one of
Louis XIII. of France—had made it unlawful for any tavern-keeper to
allow individuals to play in his house at cards and dice, or for any
one to play at such games in a private house, unless where the master
of the house was himself playing; likewise ordaining, that any sum
above a hundred merks gained at horse-racing, or in less than
twenty-four hours at other play, should be forfeited to the poor of the
district. During the ensuing period of religious strictness, we hear
little of gambling in Scotland, but when the spring was relaxed, it
began to reappear with other vices of ease and prosperity. A case,
reported in the law-books under July 1688, makes us aware, as by a
peep through a curtain, that gentlemen were accustomed at that time
to win and lose at play sums which appear large in comparison with
incomes and means then general. It appears that Captain Straiton,
who was well known afterwards as a busy Jacobite partisan, won
from Sir Alexander Gilmour of Craigmillar, at cards, in one night, no
less than six thousand merks, or £338, 6s. 8d. sterling. The captain
first gained four thousand, for which he obtained a bond from Sir
Alexander; then he gained two thousand more, and got a new bond
for the whole. An effort was made to reduce the bond, but without
success.
Francis Charteris, a cadet of an ancient and honourable family in
Dumfriesshire, and who had served in Marlborough’s wars, was now
figuring in Edinburgh as a member of the beau monde, with the
reputation of being a highly successful gambler. There is a story told
of him—but I cannot say with what truth—that, being at the Duke of
Queensberry’s one evening, and playing with the duchess, he was
enabled, by means of a mirror, or more 1704.
probably a couple of mirrors placed
opposite each other, to see what cards she had in her hand, through
which means he gained from her Grace no less a sum than three
thousand pounds. It is added that the duke was provoked by this
incident to get a bill passed through the parliament over which he
presided, for prohibiting gambling beyond a certain moderate sum;
but this must be a mistake, as no such act was then passed by the
Scottish Estates; nor was any such statute necessary, while that of
1621 remained in force. We find, however, that the Town Council at
this date issued an act of theirs, threatening vigorous action upon the
statute of 1621, as concerned playing at cards and dice in public
houses, as ‘the occasion of horrid cursing, quarrelling, tippling, loss
of time, and neglect of necessary business—the constables to be
diligent in detecting offenders, on pain of having to pay the fines
themselves.’ Perhaps it was at the instigation of the duke that this
step was taken.
From Fountainhall we learn that, about 1707, Sir Andrew Ramsay
of Abbotshall lost 28,000 merks, to Sir Scipio Hill, at cards and dice,
and granted a bond upon his estate for the amount. This being in
contravention of the act of 1621, the kirk-treasurer put in his claim
for all above 100 merks on behalf of the poor, but we do not learn
with what success.
Sir Thomas Dalyell of Binns—grandson of July 4.

the old bearded persecutor of the times of
the Charleses—had for a long time past been ‘troubled with a sore
disease which affects his reason, whereby he is continually exposed
to great dangers to his own person, by mobs, and others that does
trouble him.’ It was also found that ‘by the force of his disease, he is
liable to squander away and dilapidate his best and readiest effects,
as is too notourly known.’ Such is the statement of Sir Thomas’s
nephew, Robert Earl of Carnwath; his sister, Magdalen Dalyell; and
her husband, James Monteith of Auldcathie, craving authority, ‘for
the preservation of his person and estate, and also for the public
peace,’ to take him into custody in his house of Binns, ‘till means be
used for his recovery;’ likewise power to employ a factor ‘for uplifting
so much of his rents as may be necessar for his subsistence, and the
employing doctors and apothecaries, according to the exigence of his
present condition.’
The Council not only granted the petition, but ordained that the
petitioners might order up a soldier or two at any time from
Blackness, to assist in restraining the 1704.
unfortunate gentleman.

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Fiber Plants Biology Biotechnology and Applications 1st

Magnetic Sensors and Devices: Technologies and

Smart Sensors for Environmental and Medical

Wearable Sensors: Fundamentals, Implementation and

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-367-22485-1 (Hardback)

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

Chapter 1 General Introduction.............................................................................1

Chapter 2 Polymer Fiber Bragg Gratings............................................................ 15

Chapter 3 Properties of Fiber Bragg Gratings .................................................... 29

Chapter 4 Sensor Mechanisms in Fiber Bragg Gratings..................................... 47

Chapter 5 Fiber Optic Sensors for Oil and Gas Applications.............................. 59

Chapter 6 Fiber Optic Sensors for Civil Applications......................................... 69

6.2.3 Corrosion Sensors....................................................... 71

Chapter 7 Fiber Optic Sensors for Biomedical Applications............................... 85

Chapter 8 Fiber Optic Sensors for Military Applications.................................... 91

Chapter 9 Fiber Optic Sensors for Harsh Environment Applications..................99

9.2.1 Type I Gratings............................................................99

Chapter 10 Other Applications............................................................................ 111

1.1 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAGG GRATINGS

FIGURE 1.2 Fiber Bragg grating structure [37].

FIGURE 1.3 Planar Bragg grating structure.

1.3 TYPES OF FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector

FIGURE 1.4 Schematic diagram of a common Bragg reflector.

1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating

Incident Fiber Core

FIGURE 1.5 Chirped Bragg grating.

ultra-long, broad-bandwidth gratings of high quality, for high-bit-rate transmission

1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating

1.4 FABRICATION OF FIBER BRAGG GRATING

Tilted Bragg Gratings

FIGURE 1.6 Tilted fiber Bragg grating structure.

1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer

FIGURE 1.7 UV interferometer for writing Bragg gratings in optical fibers.

1.4.2 The Phase Mask

FIGURE 1.9 Normally incident UV beam diffracted into two ±1 orders.

1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings

Fiber with different

FIGURE 1.14 Using a tapered fiber to create a chirped FBG.

FIGURE 1.15 Method for writing slanted gratings.

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Among our Highlanders, he presented himself as a tall man. The

Charles, Earl of Hopetoun,[348] set forth in 1704. Jan. 25.

Under the excitement created by the news Feb. 2.

A statute of the Sixth James, anno 1621— Apr. 12.

Sir Thomas Dalyell of Binns—grandson of July 4.

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1.1 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAGG GRATINGS

1.3 TYPES OF FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector

1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating

1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating

1.4 FABRICATION OF FIBER BRAGG GRATING

1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer

1.4.2 The Phase Mask

1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings