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HANDBOOK OF
VENOUS AND
LYMPHATIC
DISORDERS
HANDBOOK OF
VENOUS AND
LYMPHATIC
DISORDERS
FOURTH EDITION
Guidelines of the
American Venous Forum
Edited by
Peter Gloviczki MD FACS
Joe M. and Ruth Roberts Professor of Surgery, Consultant and Chair, Emeritus,
Division of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Director, Emeritus, Gonda Vascular
Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
Associate Editors
Michael C. Dalsing MD FACS
E. Dale and Susan E. Habegger Professor of Surgery and Chair, Division of Vascular
Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Bo Eklöf MD PhD
Clinical Professor, Emeritus, of Surgery, University of Hawaii, USA, and University of
Lund, Helsingborg, Sweden
Fedor Lurie MD PhD
Adjunct Research Professor University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, and
Associate Director, Jobst Vascular Institute, Toledo, Ohio, USA
Thomas W. Wakefield MD FACS
Stanley Professor of Vascular Surgery and Head, Section of Vascular Surgery,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
Assistant Editor
Monika L. Gloviczki MD PhD
Research Fellow, Emeritus, Department of Internal Medicine and the Gonda Vascular
Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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This book is dedicated to
John J. Bergan, MD
FACS, FACPh, FRCS Hon. (Eng.)
1927–2014
Foreword xi
Preface xiii
Contributors xv
Evidence-based guidelines xxi
Abbreviations xxv
11 Evaluation of hypercoagulable states and molecular markers of acute venous thrombosis 131
Diane M. Nitzki-George and Joseph A. Caprini
12 Duplex ultrasound scanning for acute venous disease 141
Timothy K. Liem
13 Duplex ultrasound scanning for chronic venous obstruction and valvular incompetence 151
Rafael D. Malgor and Nicos Labropoulos
14 Evaluation of venous function by indirect noninvasive testing (plethysmography) 165
Fedor Lurie and Thom W. Rooke
15 Direct contrast venography 169
Haraldur Bjarnason
vii
viii Contents
17 The clinical presentation and natural history of acute deep venous thrombosis 205
Mark H. Meissner
18 Diagnostic algorithms for acute deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism 221
Joann Lohr
19 Medical treatment of acute deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism 239
Andrea T. Obi and Thomas W. Wakefield
20 Catheter-directed thrombolysis, mechanical thrombectomy, and surgery for the treatment of
acute iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis 251
Arthur Delos Reyes and Anthony J. Comerota
21 Endovascular and surgical management of acute pulmonary embolism 265
Erin S. DeMartino and Randall R. DeMartino
22 Treatment algorithms for acute venous thromboembolism: Current guidelines 277
Andrea T. Obi and Thomas W. Wakefield
23 Current recommendations for the prevention of deep venous thrombosis 289
Robert D. McBane and John A. Heit
24 Axillo-subclavian venous thrombosis in the setting of thoracic outlet syndrome 309
Aurelia T. Calero and Karl A. Illig
25 Acute central venous thrombosis in the setting of central lines, pacemaker wires, and dialysis catheters 317
Syed Ali Rizvi, Anil Hingorani, and Enrico Ascher
26 Indications, techniques, and results of inferior vena cava filters 325
Scott T. Robinson, Venkataramu N. Krishnamurthy, and John E. Rectenwald
27 Superficial thrombophlebitis 343
Benjamin Jacobs and Dawn M. Coleman
28 Mesenteric vein thrombosis 349
Waldemar E. Wysokinski and Robert D. McBane
40 Phlebectomy 475
Lowell S. Kabnick and Omar L. Esponda
41 Recurrent varicose veins: Etiology and management 485
Pamela S. Kim, Angela A. Kokkosis, and Antonios P. Gasparis
42 Treatment of varicose veins: Current guidelines 493
Jose I. Almeida
43 Surgical repair of primary deep vein valve incompetence 499
Ramesh K. Tripathi
44 Surgical treatment of post-thrombotic valvular incompetence 513
Oscar Maleti and Marzia Lugli
45 Endovascular reconstruction for primary iliac vein obstruction 523
Peter Neglén
46 Endovascular treatment of post-thrombotic iliofemoral venous obstruction 533
Erin H. Murphy and Seshadri Raju
47 Endovascular reconstruction of inferior vena cava obstructions 541
Young Erben and Haraldur Bjarnason
48 Open surgical reconstructions for non-malignant occlusion of large veins 553
Arjun Jayaraj, Peter Gloviczki, and Mark D. Fleming
49 The management of incompetent perforating veins with open and endoscopic surgery 563
Jeffrey M. Rhodes, Manju Kalra, and Peter Gloviczki
50 Radiofrequency and laser treatment of incompetent perforating veins 577
Michael Harlander-Locke and Peter F. Lawrence
51 Local treatment of venous ulcers 585
William A. Marston and Thomas F. O’Donnell Jr.
52 Guidelines for the treatment of chronic venous disease in patients with venous ulcers 597
Thomas F. O’Donnell Jr. and Marc A. Passman
Index 815
Foreword
This fourth edition of the Handbook of Venous and in Zurich, Switzerland, in 1978 and the third meeting in
Lymphatic Disorders: Guidelines of the American Venous Acapulco, Mexico, in 1981 stimulated additional interest
Forum provides a current review and reference source among physician and surgeons in North America, lead-
for managing venous and lymphatic clinical challenges. ing to the fourth meeting in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1987
Arranged in seven parts and including 68 chapters, it is when, with the support of European leaders, including Leo
comprehensive and up to date. An example is the inclusion Widmer of Switzerland and others, in managing venous
of the management of venous trauma under Special Venous and lymphatic diseases, the American effort to establish
Problems. Editor Peter Gloviczki, a widely recognized world the American Venous Forum was supported under the
leader in managing vascular problems, including those of presidency of John J. Bergan. A fifth European–American
the venous and lymphatic systems, is assisted ably by co- Symposium on Venous Diseases was held in 1990 in Vienna,
editors Michael Dalsing, Bo Eklöf, Fedor Lurie, Thomas Austria, under the leadership of Hugo Partsch, and it was
Wakefileld, and Monika Gloviczki, all of whom have estab- agreed that this would be the last with phlebological societ-
lished worldwide credibility in managing venous and lym- ies established throughout the world.
phatic diseases. Through four editions, this effort has been With the majority of the contributors to the fourth
championed by the American Venous Forum over the past edition of the Handbook of Venous and Lymphatic Disorders
20 years now, with the support of other organizations, coming from the membership of the American Venous
including the Society for Vascular Surgery. Comparison to Forum, this is a testament of the progress made over the
the first edition emphasizes the expansion and progress in past 25 years. Nevertheless, international contributions
managing venous and lymphatic diseases. It is most appro- from long-established experts, including Eberhardt Rabe,
priate that the editors have dedicated this fourth edition of Ramesh Tripathi, Peter Neglén, Alun Davies, and Philip
the Handbook of Venous and Lymphatic Disorders to John J. Coleridge-Smith, augment and complement the American
Bergan, the First President of the American Venous Forum. experience. Just as editors Peter Gloviczki, Bo Eklöf, Fedor
Of many productive members of the American Venous Lurie, and others have contributed from both European
Forum in recent years, John J. Bergan stands at the forefront and American bases, the United States as a “melting pot”
in championing the management of lymphatic and venous continues to welcome contributions from multiple sources.
diseases as recognized around the world. As the second Byung-Boong Lee has had extensive experience in both
President of the American Venous Forum, it was a distinct South Korea and in the United States with diagnosing
privilege and pleasure to work closely with and to learn and managing arteriovenous malformations. International
from John J. Bergan. cooperation is noted in this fourth edition, including that
The first meeting of the European–American Symposium of Hugo Partsch, Thomas Proebstle, Oscar Maleti, Marzia
on Venous Diseases in Montreaux, Switzerland, in 1974 Lugli, and Patrick Carpentier.
revealed the domination of surgeons and physicians from Everyone involved can be justifiably proud of their
Europe and Latin America in treating venous and lym- accomplishments as represented over the past 25 years and
phatic diseases. Of course, there were a few Americans, included in this fourth edition of the Handbook of Venous
including Geza de Takats, John Homan, Robert Linton, and Lymphatic Disorders. As interest in global medicine
and Karl Lofgren, who had an interest in venous diseases continues to expand, cooperative international activities
in the early part of the twentieth century; however, they such as this will benefit patients around the world.
were the exceptions. Subsequently, the second meeting of
the European–American Symposium of Venous Diseases Norman M. Rich, MD, FACS, DMCC
xi
Preface
It is with excitement and great anticipation that we present May–Thurner syndrome and axillary subclavian venous
to you the fourth edition of the Handbook of Venous and thrombosis, are presented in great detail in this edition.
Lymphatic Disorders. Twenty years after the publication of Chapters on vascular malformation, venous trauma, and
the first edition, jointly edited with James S.T. Yao, the cur- the management of venous tumors are included, and the
rent volume serves as testimony to the remarkable progress up-to-date management of chronic lymphedema, chylous
that occurred during the past two decades in the evaluation effusions, and chylous complications is discussed.
and treatment of acute and chronic venous and lymphatic Evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for manag-
disorders. From cover to cover, the fourth edition logically ing the day-to-day practice of venous specialists are the
progresses from basic considerations, epidemiology, clas- hallmark of this book. This fourth edition includes 300 new
sification, diagnostic evaluation, and imaging studies to guidelines, 105 dealing with the management of chronic
current management of the most prevalent venous and lym- venous disorders. The guidelines are aligned with recently
phatic disorders. published recommendations of the American Venous
Almost 1 million people in the United States are affected Forum, the Society for Vascular Surgery, the American
by acute venous thromboembolism, and a third of these College of Chest Physicians, and other important and rel-
will have a frequently fatal pulmonary embolism. This evant organizations. An increasing number of randomized
book discusses the latest advances in the evaluation and controlled studies, many with follow-up periods of five or
treatment of these conditions. Medical therapy, includ- more years, provide high levels of evidence to guidelines on
ing indications and the efficacies of new antithrombotic the management of acute and chronic venous disorders.
medications, are presented. Attention is focused on effec- Written by the world’s foremost venous specialists,
tive, minimally invasive, endovascular techniques to treat leaders of the American Venous Forum, and international
acute deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism with authorities, the handbook has become the most important
catheter-directed thrombolysis, pharmacomechanical and encyclopedic and practical reference for both information
aspiration thrombectomy, and, when needed, venous stent- and the day-to-day management of venous and lymphatic
ing. Few areas in medicine have progressed as quickly as disorders. Together with our enthusiastic and hard-working
the minimally invasive outpatient treatment of chronic group of Associate Editors, including Michael C. Dalsing,
venous disease. Almost a quarter of the adult United States Bo Eklöf, Fedor Lurie, and Thomas W. Wakefield, we express
population has varicose veins, and millions have advanced our most sincere gratitude to those who have contributed to
chronic venous insufficiency. Treatment of this frequently this volume. We are grateful to our publisher, CRC Press,
painful and disabling illness has advanced by leaps and Taylor & Francis Group in England, to Medical Editor
bounds by applying endovenous therapies, laser and radio- Miranda Bromage, Editorial Assistant Cherry Allen, and
frequency ablation, liquid and foam sclerotherapy, mini- to Nick Barber, Project Manager at Techset Composition in
mally invasive surgery, or the latest technologies using Chennai, India, for their efforts, proficiency, and for pro-
cyanoacrylate embolization or mechanico-chemical abla- ducing such a beautiful book in such a short time. For her
tions, among others. expertise, dedication and unwavering commitment to this
An estimated 6–7 million women in the United States project, I am most indebted to Monika L. Gloviczki. Her
suffer from chronic pelvic congestion syndrome. Evaluation support and love inspired me enormously.
and management of this highly prevalent venous syndrome,
together with other special venous pathologies, such as Peter Gloviczki
xiii
Contributors
xv
xvi Contributors
Alun H. Davies MD DM DSC FrCS FHEA FEBVS FACPH Omar L. Esponda MD rPVI rPhS
Professor of Vascular Surgery & Honorary Consultant NYU Langone Medical Center, Division of Vascular and
Surgeon, Head of Section of Vascular Surgery, Endovascular Surgery, New York, New York
Division of Surgery, Department of Surgery & Cancer, Cindy L. Felty APrN C.N.P. M.S.N.
Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College School of Assistant Professor of Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of
Medicine, Level 4, Charing Cross Hospital, London, Medicine, Mankato Campus, Mayo Clinic, Minnesota
United Kingdom
Mark D. Fleming MD
Huw Davies BSc (Hons) MB BS MrCS Assistant Professor of Surgery, Mayo Clinic College
Research Fellow, Heart of England NHS Foundation Trust, of Medicine, Consultant, Division of Vascular and
Birmingham, United Kingdom Endovascular Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Steven M. Dean DO FACP rPVI Jeremy L. Friese MD MBA
Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, Division of Founder and Chairman, Evidentia Health Inc.,
Cardiovascular Medicine, Ohio State University Wexner Minneapolis, Minnesota
Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio Antonios P. Gasparis MD
Erin S. DeMartino MD Professor of Surgery, Division of Vascular and
Pulmonary and Critical Care Fellow, Division of Endovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery,
Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Stony Brook University Medical Center, Stony Brook,
Rochester, Minnesota New York
randall r. DeMartino MD MS David L. Gillespie MD rVt FACS
Assistant Professor of Surgery, Mayo Clinic College Affiliated Professor of Surgery Uniformed Services
of Medicine, Consultant, Division of Vascular and University, Chief, Department of Vascular and
Endovascular Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Endovascular Surgery, Southcoast Health System,
Minnesota Fall River, Massachusetts
Jose A. Diaz MD James F. Glockner MD
Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Assistant Professor of Radiology, Mayo Clinic College of
Ann Arbor, Michigan Medicine, Consultant, Department of Radiology, Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Alan M. Dietzek MD rPVI FACS
Clinical Professor of Surgery, University of Vermont Monika L. Gloviczki MD PhD
College of Medicine, Linda and Stephen R Cohen Chair in Research Fellow, Emeritus, Department of Internal
Vascular Surgery, Danbury Hospital–Western CT Health Medicine and the Gonda Vascular Center, Mayo Clinic,
Network, Danbury, Connecticut Rochester, Minnesota
Christine M. Dubberke Peter Gloviczki MD FACS
Texas A&M Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Joe M. and Ruth Roberts Professor of Surgery, Consultant
Bryan, Texas and Chair, Emeritus, Division of Vascular and Endovascular
Surgery, Director, Emeritus, Gonda Vascular Center, Mayo
Audra A. Duncan MD
Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Professor of Surgery, Western University, Chief, Division
of Vascular Surgery, LHSC Victoria Hospital, London, Michael Harlander-Locke MPH
Ontario Division of Vascular Surgery, University of California Los
Angeles, Los Angeles, California
Walter N. Duran MD
Vice Chair and Professor, Department of Pharmacology, Linda Harris MD
Physiology and Surgery, University of Medicine and Professor of Surgery, Chief, Division of Vascular Surgery,
Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey State University of New York, New York
Bo Eklöf MD PhD John A. Heit MD
Clinical Professor, Emeritus, of Surgery, University Professor of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and
of Hawaii and University of Lund, Helsingborg, Medicine, Emeritus, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine,
Sweden Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, Minnesota
Steve Elias MD FACS FACPh
Director, Center for Vein Disease and Wound Healing Peter K. Henke MD
Center, Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Professor of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery,
Englewood, New Jersey University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Young Erben MD Anil Hingorani MD
Assistant Professor of Surgery, Section of Vascular NYU Lutheran Medical Center, Division of Vascular
Surgery, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut Surgery, Brooklyn, New York
Contributors xvii
Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and and lymphatic disorders, is committed to promoting
judicious use of the current best evidence in making decisions research, education, awareness, prevention, and delivery of
about the care of individual patients.1 Listing the evidence- care. The American Venous Forum, jointly with the Society
based guidelines of the American Venous Forum has been for Vascular Surgery and other organizations, has long rec-
a hallmark of this handbook, and the fourth edition is no ognized the need to formulate clinical practice guidelines
exception. At the end of each chapter, a table summarizes the based on scientific evidence in order to aid physicians and
relevant guidelines. The grade of recommendation of a guide- patients to receive the best and latest information regard-
line can be Strong (1) or Weak (2), depending on the risk and ing venous and lymphatic disorders.4–6 Clinical guide-
burden of a particular diagnostic test or a therapeutic pro- lines, as published in the fourth edition of this handbook,
cedure to the patient versus the expected benefit. The words however, should not be used as dogma when a diagnostic
“we recommend” are used for Grade 1, strong recommenda- test is selected or a therapeutic procedure is performed.
tions, if the benefits clearly outweigh risk and burdens, or vice Scientific evidence should always be combined with the
versa, and the words “we suggest” are used for Grade 2, weak clinical experience of the physician and the patient’s pref-
recommendations, when the benefits are closely balanced erence (Figure 0.1).7,8 The correct decision on care requires
with risks and burden. Letters A, B, and C mark the level of patient-centered communication skills from the physician,
evidence (A: high quality; B: moderate quality; C: low or who is well aware of the informed preferences of his or her
very low quality).2 These guidelines of the American Venous patient. Optimal patient care requires both evidence-based
Forum are based on the GRADE system, as was reported medicine and shared decision making.9 The intentions of
previously by Guyatt et al. (Table 0.1).2 When there are no the authors and editors of this volume were to help with
comparable alternatives to a recommendation or evidence the evaluation and treatment of patients, with the ideals in
is lacking, the authors and editors have relied on case series mind, which were suggested by Dr. William J. Mayo already
supplemented by the best opinion of a panel of experts, and in 1910, that “The best interest of the patient is the only
the recommendation was labeled Best Practice. Chapter 68 interest to be considered.”
gives a summary of all 300 guidelines presented in this book.
The American Venous Forum, the first academic organi- Peter Gloviczki
zation in the United States dedicated exclusively to venous
Scientific
evidence
Optimal
patient care
Patient’s
Clinician’s
values and
experience and
informed
communication
preferences
skills
Figure 0.1 A shared clinical decision to select optimal patient care is based on scientific evidence, the clinician’s experi-
ence and communication skills, and the patient’s values and informed preferences.
xxi
xxii Evidence-based guidelines
6. O’Donnell TF Jr., Passman MA, Marston WA et al. 8. Montori VM, Brito JP, and Murad MH. The optimal
Management of venous leg ulcers: Clinical prac- practice of evidence-based medicine: Incorporating
tice guidelines of the Society for Vascular Surgery patient preferences in practice guidelines. JAMA
and the American Venous Forum. J Vasc Surg 2013;310(23):2503–4.
2014;60(2 Suppl.):3S–59S. 9. Hoffmann TC, Montori VM, and Del Mar C.
7. Haynes RB, Devereaux PJ, and Guyatt GH. The connection between evidence-based
Physicians’ and patients’ choices in evidence based medicine and shared decision making. JAMA.
practice. BMJ 2002;324:1350. 2014;312(13):1295–6.
Abbreviations
xxv
xxvi Abbreviations