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Sustainable Development Goals Series
Partnership for the Goals

Shiro Hori
Yukari Takamura
Toshiyuki Fujita
Norichika Kanie Editors

International
Development and
the Environment
Social Consensus and Cooperative
Measures for Sustainability
Sustainable Development Goals Series

Series Editors
R. B. Singh, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Suraj Mal, Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Michael E. Meadows, EGS, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch,
Western Cape, South Africa
World leaders adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Providing in-depth knowledge,
this series fosters comprehensive research on these global targets to end
poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change.
The sustainability of our planet is currently a major concern for the global
community and has been a central theme for a number of major global
initiatives in recent years. Perceiving a dire need for concrete benchmarks
toward sustainable development, the United Nations and world leaders
formulated the targets that make up the seventeen goals. The SDGs call for
action by all countries to promote prosperity while protecting Earth and its
life support systems. This series on the Sustainable Development Goals aims
to provide a comprehensive platform for scientific, teaching and research
communities working on various global issues in the field of geography,
earth sciences, environmental science, social sciences, engineering, policy,
planning, and human geosciences in order to contribute knowledge towards
achieving the current 17 Sustainable Development Goals.
This Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one based around each
of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth
subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes
addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is
guided by an expert Subseries Advisor.
Contributions are welcome from scientists, policy makers and researchers
working in fields related to any of the SDGs. If you are interested in
contributing to the series, please contact the Publisher: Zachary Romano
[Zachary.Romano@springer.com].

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15486

Shiro Hori Yukari Takamura
• •

Toshiyuki Fujita Norichika Kanie

•

Editors

International
Development
and the Environment
Social Consensus and Cooperative
Measures for Sustainability

123
Editors
Shiro Hori Yukari Takamura
Central Research Institute Institute for Future Initiatives
Fukuoka University The University of Tokyo
Fukuoka, Japan Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

Toshiyuki Fujita Norichika Kanie

Faculty of Economics Graduate School of Media
Kyushu University and Governance
Fukuoka, Japan Keio University Shonan Fujisawa
Campus
Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan

ISSN 2523-3084 ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic)

Sustainable Development Goals Series
ISBN 978-981-13-3593-8 ISBN 978-981-13-3594-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3594-5

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

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Preface

In the last few decades, development and environmental goals have been
integrated to create new sustainable development goals. For many years, the
main goals of the international community are related only to development.
To that end, the international community promoted economic development,
but many criticisms were raised as economic development does not always
improve people’s lives, and subsequently, sustainable development is now
emphasized instead.
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED) published a report, Our Common Future, which presented sus-
tainable development for the first time. After this report was published, by
balancing the development and the protection of the natural environment,
sustainable development has become a common approach for sustaining our
planet. The sustainable development is a concept from the past that is
important for the present and was defined as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” in the WCED report.
This suggests that our generation is responsible for the well-being of
future generations. With climate change, current abatement efforts have not
directly yielded any visible improvements, but are expected to have future
benefits, for future generations.
In 2008, the OECD suggested that sustainable development requires a
consideration of the factors that influence the economics, the natural envi-
ronment, and the societies. Amongst them, society is the key driver of sus-
tainable development. The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16.7 calls
for “responsive, inclusive participatory and representative decision-making at
all levels”. A sustainable society is a society in which all stakeholders
understand the meaning of “sustainable development” and have a consensus
on the importance of respecting sustainable development. These approaches
and fully involving stakeholders in society are essential if the global devel-
opment goals are to be achieved.
The international climate regime is a typical case of a social dilemma in
which collective, cooperative actions under social consensus are inevitable
but difficult. This book aims to demonstrate the methods available to
effectively implement the international environmental frameworks using an
interdisciplinary analysis that includes law, economics and politics.

v
vi Preface

Since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, several international agreements

have been adopted to combat issues such as climate change. The SDGs were
adopted as common objectives, and the Paris Agreement was adopted as a
subsequent outcome. In the light of today’s globalized world, how to best
achieve sustainable development—prioritizing climate change in particular—
is an issue involving various perspectives on the environment and economic
development in the global community.
However, in practice, without common values on sustainability, the
international community does not always function well. Without these
common values, related stakeholders cannot work together towards sus-
tainable development and a sustainable society cannot be realized. Devel-
oping a sustainable society through consensus achieved via social norms an
enlarged reproduction cycle based on sustainable rules.
This book provides students, business people and government officials
with information on sustainable development by applying academic theory to
practical activities. It is divided into three parts, the first of which focuses on
the goals and progress required to achieve sustainable development—Chap. 1
illustrates the role of societies, businesses and communities; Chapter 2
focuses on global governance arising from the SDGs; and Chap. 3 refers to
environmental management systems. The second part explores the measures
working towards sustainable development—Chap. 4 analyses the role of the
business sector in enhancing SDGs and climate change treaties; Chapter 5
explains the social standard-setters in global forest governance; and
Chap. 6 discusses China’s climate policy and international climate approach.
The third part highlights the current climate change issues related to the
effective implementation of international frameworks—Chap. 7 illustrates the
global environmental treaty as a balancer; and Chap. 8, using game theory,
explains the rules necessary to realize stable international environmental
agreements.
The authors hope that each chapter of this book provides readers with an
understanding of the role of social rules in achieving sustainable
development.

On behalf of the editors

Fukuoka, Japan Shiro Hori
Contents

Part I Integration of Development and the Environment

1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business,

and Social Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Shiro Hori
2 Sustainable Development Goals and International
Governance: Indicators as a Key Mechanism for Success . . . . 17
Norichika Kanie
3 Social Development and the Environment—A View from
Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Mitsuo Yoshida

Part II The Measures Toward Sustainable Development

4 Engaging Business: The UN Sustainable Development Goals

and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Mitsuru Kawamoto and Norichika Kanie
5 FSC as a Social Standard for Conservation
and the Sustainable Use of Forests: FSC Legitimation
Strategy in Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Tomoaki Watanabe
6 China’s Climate Change Policy: The Interplay Between
Political Sentiments and External Commitments . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Shiro Hori and Jie He

Part III International Environmental Frameworks on

Development

7 Global Environmental Treaty Regimes as Balancer Between

Environmental Conservation and Economic Growth:
Facilitating Effective Implementations of Global
Environmental Treaty Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Mitsuru Kawamoto

vii
viii Contents

8 Stabilizing International Environmental Agreements . . . . . . . . 91

Qian Li and Toshiyuki Fujita
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Shiro Hori is a professor at the Central Research Institute of Fukuoka

University, Japan. He has worked closely with business, governments and
international organizations, including the United Nations Framework Con-
vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International Energy Agency
(IEA). He was Vice Chair of the IEA’s Energy Technology Committee, and a
member of government delegations to the UNFCCC. He has also worked
with the Japanese government and Japan International Cooperation Agency,
engaging in environmental and economic development, especially in Asian
countries. His research interests include: the role of social norms in
strengthening international environmental regimes and the business com-
munity, climate change mitigation and international consensus, global energy
policy and social consensus on nuclear energy. He has published several
books in the fields of energy and global environment.

Yukari Takamura is a professor at the Institute for Future Initiatives, The

University of Tokyo, Japan. She studied at the Graduate School of the
University of Paris II (Panthéon-Assas), France (1993–1995), and was a
visiting researcher at the University of London, UK (2000–2001). Her main
research interest is in public international law, especially international law
of the environment. She is the author or co-author of many books and arti-
cles, including “Climate Change and Small Island Claims in the Pacific” in
Climate Change: International Law and Global Governance, Volume I: Legal
Responses and Global Responsibility (Nomos, 2013).

Toshiyuki Fujita is a professor at the Faculty of Economics, Kyushu

University, Japan. He has conducted extensive research concerning mathe-
matical model analyses of international cooperation on environmental issues.
His research interests include: efficiency of clean development mechanisms,
self-enforcing international environmental agreements, and the effects of
uncertainty and irreversibility on environmental policies. He has published
several books in the field of environmental economics, including Basic
Studies in Environmental Knowledge, Technology, Evaluation, and Strategy

ix
x Editors and Contributors

(Springer, 2016), and several articles including “A self-enforcing interna-

tional environmental agreement on matching rates: Can it bring about an
efficient and equitable outcome?” (Strategic Behaviour and the Environment,
2013).

Norichika Kanie is a professor at the Graduate School of Media and

Governance, Keio University, Japan. He is also a visiting professor at Tokyo
Institute of Technology, guest professor at the University of Tokyo, and a
former visiting professor at Sciences Po. and Marie Curie Incoming Inter-
national Fellow of the European Commission. He is currently the external
director of RENOVA, Inc., a member of the council committee at the Center
for Environmental Information Science and a member of the Committee on
Sustainable Development Goals Stakeholder’s Meeting, Government of
Japan. His research group chiefly focuses on issues of sustainability gover-
nance in the era of Earth system transformation, and particularly on insti-
tutional architectures and agency. He has published many books, including
co-editing books Governing through Goals (MIT Press 2017); Improving
Global Environmental Politics (Routledge 2014); and Climate Change in
Asia (UNU Press 2008).

Contributors
Jie He is a postdoctoral fellow at the Graduate School of Law, Seinan
Gakuin University. His research interests include the international protection
of traditional medical knowledge, as well as China’s environmental law and
policy.
Mitsuru Kawamoto is currently Project Assistant Professor, Keio Univer-
sity Graduate School of Media and Governance, Japan. He is specialized in
international environmental law and governance. He is currently working on
UN Sustainable Development Goals with a particular attention to multi-scale
governance including the engagement of business enterprises for enhancing
the effectiveness of sustainable development governance. He has published
academic literatures on the concept of effectiveness of global environmental
treaty regimes, the changing functions of self-reporting under the climate
change treaty regime amongst others.
Qian Li is a doctoral course student at the Department of Economic Engi-
neering, Graduate School of Economics, Kyushu University. Her research
interests include game theoretic analyses of international environmental
agreements and empirical analyses of carbon emissions and economic growth.
Tomoaki Watanabe is Associate Professor of Faculty of Socio-
Environmental Studies, Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Japan. His cur-
rent research interests include global environmental politics, private certifi-
cation schemes, political process of the European Standardization System in
and the Basel convention on transboundary movement of hazardous waste.
He is a member of the International Studies Association, International
Political Science Association, Japan Association for Environmental Law and
Editors and Contributors xi

Policy, the Japan Association of International Relations and the Japan

Association of Global Governance. He has published several articles and
books in the fields of global environment governance and comparative
environmental politics.
Mitsuo Yoshida is Director/CEO of the International Network for Envi-
ronmental and Humanitarian Cooperation, Nonprofit Inc., a Tokyo-based
international NGO. He has worked for Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) as a senior advisor, advisor or expert, and engaged envi-
ronmental projects with more than 40 developing countries. His research
interest includes waste management, environmental pollution control, social
implementation of environmental management system and capacity devel-
opment theory. He is the author or co-author of various articles and books on
international environmental cooperation, including “Capacity Development
in Environmental Management Administration through Raising Public
Awareness: A Case Study in Algeria” (2018, JICA-RI).
 Part I
Integration of Development and the
Environment
 Development and the Environment:
Society, Business, and Social 1
Consensus

Shiro Hori

Abstract framework. Throughout these activities, it has

The integration of development and environ- become more important for achieving sustain-
ment is an old agenda, but a new one as well. able development to establish social rules and
The simultaneous achievement of develop- build consensus, since the health of the natural
ment and environmental protection is closely environment is the most basic public good.
related to human development. The funda-
mental elements are to sustain human devel- Keywords
opment, energy, water, and clean air. Sustainable development
Social norms

Universal and clean energy access improves Consensus
quality of life, water safety improves people’s
health, and clean air reduces environmental
damage. Concern about the climate is an
unavoidable element in any discussion of
1.1 Environment, Resources,
sustainability for the future, and this requires
and Sustainable Development
new social rules. To achieve a sustainable
society, the development of social and eco-
The deterioration of the natural environment and
nomic values is key—a development that is
resources, exacerbated by the global environ-
founded in social capital, cultivated through
mental issue of climate change, is the first con-
appropriate education, and sustained by com-
cern of sustainable development. Environmental
munity. In addition to the community, busi-
conservation is essential to ensuring the quality
ness sectors play an important role. Business
of life (Fig. 1.1).
sectors have attached importance to prevent-
In 2011, a human development report stressed
ing pollution, conducting corporate social
that sustainability and equality could be achieved
responsibility (CSR), and, more recently,
most equitably and efficiently by acting to pro-
implementing sustainable development.
duce energy and conserve ecosystems at the
Through these efforts, business sectors con-
global level. It seems that health, education,
tribute to sustainable development not only by
income growth, and gender equality are essential
themselves but also through an international
elements of these goals. Poor families that
depend on natural resources spend much of their
time obtaining energy and water. They cannot
S. Hori (&)
easily access modern cooking fuel or clean water.
Central Research Institute of Fukuoka University,
Fukuoka, Japan These families use women and girls instead of
e-mail: horishiro@fukuoka-u.ac.jp men and boys to collect water and sticks.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 3

S. Hori et al. (eds.), International Development and the Environment, Sustainable
Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3594-5_1
4 S. Hori
The elements that ensure the quality of
life
Energy, water, sanitation, and clean air
The future effects on the Earth’s
Development
environment
and
environment Climate change
Deterioration of the environment and
natural resources
Depletion of biodiversity, forests, and
fishes
Fig. 1.1 Three elements toward sustainable development
Because of this time-consuming burden, women
in many parts of the world lack opportunities for
high-income jobs (UNDP 2011).
This section focuses on energy, water, and air,
which are inevitable factors for achieving sus-
tainable development.
1.1.1 Energy
Energy is essential to human development,
modern medical care, jobs, transportation, edu-
cation, and communication. Energy provides
light, heat, cooking fuel, and electronic commu-
nications. For sustainable development, access to
energy must be ensured for all people with
controlled emissions of pollutants and trans-
formed modern and clean energy sources (UNDP
2011). About 1.5 billion people in the world
today, which is more than one in five humans,
lack access to electricity, and 2.6 billion people
cook their food using wood, straw, charcoal, or
dung as their fuel, which causes serious pollution
and health problems (REN21 2011).
Severe lack of energy is energy poverty, a
condition in which people must collect wood and
straw for cooking, heat, and light, which imposes
significant burdens on children and women every
day. Modern energy not only relieves them from
that burden, but the light it produces means that
they can study at night, refrigerate food, and
consume information from television. Much
evidence demonstrates that access to electricity
improves the enrollment of children in school
and the quality of life. Mr. Lee Kuan Yew, for-
mer prime minister of Singapore, said that Sin-
gapore’s citizens could become workers in
high-tech industries because of the introduction
of air-conditioning. Without that development,
Singaporeans would be sleeping under palm trees
(New York Times 2002).
Universal electricity service is an important
governmental task. In the USA, the entire nation
had electricity access by 1952. Despite its
impressive record of development and that utility
companies are obligated to provide universal
electricity service, one-third of the world’s people
living in poverty have no electricity. However,
the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates
that almost all countries will be providing uni-
versal electricity service by 2030 (IEA 2017).
Energy promotes economic development,
which is demonstrated by many examples.
Electricity consumption and gross domestic
product (GDP) have a positive relationship
(Fig. 1.2), and global electricity demand increa-
ses in correlation with economic growth. On the
other hand, energy consumption with insufficient
mechanisms for pollutants’ emissions causes
serious air pollution, acid rain, and contributes to
climate change. Similarly, because fossil fuels
are limited resources, sustainable and clean
energy sources are the inevitable pathways to-
ward sustainable development.
Clean and modern energy sources provide
health benefits by preventing in-house pollution
caused by biomass fuel consumption. People
around the world rely on biomass, coal, and/or
kerosene to cook, and that usage is declining
quite slowly. About 2.8 billion people in 2015
used biomass energy sources, which is expected
to decline to about 2.3 billion people in 2030
(IEA 2017). The IEA also reported that lessening
the amount of solid biomass as cooking fuel
reduces PM2.5 emissions by about 15%, which
contributes to about one-half million people in
developing countries who are expected to die
from household air pollution by 2040 (IEA
2017). Clean energy sources not only help to
prevent air pollution; they increase energy secu-
rity and improve productivity.
1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business … 5

Fig. 1.2 Electricity and 1000

economic development.
Source IEA (2009), World

electricity / capita (10-3toe)

Bank (2011)
100

10

1
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
GDP/capita ($)

1.1.2 Water (WHO 2005). Clean water helps to prevent

Sustainable clean water supplies help to ensure a
high quality of life. Water is the core of human
interdependencies. It is a core resource for agri-
culture, manufacturing industries, household
survival, and the natural environment (UNDP
2006). Without water, there is no life. Although
management of clean water and sanitation are
essential for healthy lifestyles, many people
drink unclean water from polluted rivers or wells.
This water causes diarrhea among children. The
proportion of deaths of those aged five years or
younger is about 20% of all the deaths in the
world; however, that share is less than 1% in
developed countries. Diarrhea is the second most
common cause of disease and death during
childhood after acute respiratory tract infection
diarrhea and malnutrition, and it helps to achieve
nutritional eating. Furthermore, because clean
water improves the quality of life, it promotes
opportunities for educational success and
employment.
Currently, people in many developing coun-
tries have less water than people in developed
countries. For example, in some countries where
water consumption is low, such as Benin and
Congo, people use less than 20 L per day com-
pared to the per capita usage in the USA of 1543 L
per day (FAO 2017) (Table 1.1). The problem is
worse in some vulnerable areas that have dry
seasons or periodic droughts. One of the most
important causes of water vulnerability in rural
communities is their seasonal fluctuation in food
and water availability (World Bank 2000a, b).

Table 1.1 Water and development

Country Water withdrawal (m3/person/year) Country Water withdrawal (m3/person/year)
USA 1543 China 425
Finland 1241 Germany 411
Italy 899 Bangladesh 231
Argentina 898 Botswana 109
Spain 801 Chad 82
Australia 725 Burkina Faso 57
Japan 640 Angola 37
India 602 Benin 18
Indonesia 521 Congo 14
Source FAO (2017)
6 S. Hori
It is necessary to establish water resources,
water transportation, and distribution facilities
to ensure clean water supplies. In area where
the water supply facilities are insufficient,
community-based simple portable water cleaners
might be useful alternatives. For these facilities,
community-based management and consensus
are keys to achieving the appropriate use of the
equipment.
Water contributes to economic development,
particularly agriculture, which is a necessary
component of economic growth along with
population growth. High-yield cultivars have had
important roles in increasing yields per plot.
However, high-yield cultivars need more water.
Mismanagement of international water basins
threatens human security in some very direct
ways. Shrinking lakes and drying rivers influence
individual and household livelihoods by affecting
agricultural and fishery production. Unpre-
dictable disruptions in water flows can exacer-
bate the effects of droughts and floods. Some of
the world’s most obvious environmental disasters
testify to the human development costs of not
participating in transboundary water manage-
ment (UNDP 2006).
The water problem also can be caused by
excessive water consumption, which is another
sustainable development issue. Appropriate
water management and water conservation are at
the top of the agenda. Water is a typical common
resource, so managing water usage is a major
challenge in terms of the need for consensus in
the international community. Water management
is a community problem, a national-level issue,
and a relevant concern for the international
community.
1.1.3 Clean Air
Clean air is another necessity of life. Polluted air
harms people’s health with respiratory diseases,
and it damages transboundary ecosystems. In the
1950s, acid rain was created by sulfur oxide
emissions mainly produced in Germany. It fell
over wide swaths of Europe, where it damaged
forests and lakes. This problem led European
countries to a consensus on establishing regional
agreements at the Convention on Long-range
Transboundary Air Pollution to regulate the
offending emissions.
Air pollution was estimated to create
4.2 million premature death in 2016 by exposure
to PM2.5 (WHO 2018). In Beijing, the PM2.5
concentration recorded 700 lg/m3, in 2013,
which is 10 times higher than China’s environ-
mental standard. China’s air pollution is most
serious during the winter, and the pollution
spreads to East Asia by westerly winds. Conse-
quently, air pollution is a transboundary problem.
Acid rain spreads across the European countries,
and wind spreads PM throughout East Asia.
International cooperation and agreements are
necessary to tackle this problem. Airflow
depends on wind, and scientific evidence is cru-
cial to developing effective countermeasures.
1.1.4 Climate Change
Climate change is an issue related to the air
system; however, the consensus is more chal-
lenging regarding climate change than it is
regarding other issues. Climate change will cause
major disasters in vulnerable countries along
with increasing land and water temperatures. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report stated that direct
damages include temperature increases; extraor-
dinary temperature fluctuations; droughts, floods,
and heavy rains; changes in rainfall, snow, and
ice; sea-level rise; and oceanic acidification.
Developing countries might be threatened by
droughts, floods, and typhoons that cause
extensive and expensive property, industrial, and
transportation infrastructure damages.
Climate change is caused by greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, particularly CO2, which has
increased because of artificial emitters. In 1997,
developed countries emitted about 59% of the
CO2 in the world; however, in 2013, developed
countries’ share had decreased to 40%, and
China joined the USA as the biggest emitters
(Fig. 1.3). Thus, the global community began
debating an effective framework, to which they
1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business …
Fig. 1.3 Energy-related CO2
emissions. Source IEA
(2015), all right reserved
agreed in 2015, known as the Paris Agreement
on Climate Change.
The CO2 that is fueling climate change is
produced by various economic activities: 21% by
industries, electricity and heat generation pro-
duce 25%, agriculture and forestry contribute
24%, transportation adds 14%, and 16% is due to
other sources. Thus, one feature of climate
change is that it is different from historical air
and water pollution, whereas climate change is
caused by accumulated pollution. Therefore,
current abatement efforts do not directly yield
visible improvements. Current abatements are
expected to have future benefits because it takes
about 100–300 years to stabilize GHG concen-
tration levels, several hundred years to stabilize
temperatures, and several hundreds to thousands
of years for sea levels to stabilize (IPCC 2001).
Those of us alive today will not experience the
effects of our abatement efforts, but we are
responsible for future generations. That value
requires a new social norm.
1.1.5 Role of Social Assets
The assets that are important to sustainable
development are environmental assets, such as
water, air, forests, and so on. However, social
assets, such as trust, commons, and voluntary
participation in communities, also are important
to consider (World Bank 2003). The value of
7
social assets is emphasized because current
environmental problems cannot be solved by a
few privileged actors, and many stakeholders’
contributions are needed. The presence of social
assets influences the development of cooperation.
The World Development Report 2003 stated that
social assets promote the accumulation, preser-
vation, and productivity of environmental and
human assets. Social assets can improve the
management and productivity of watersheds to
generate agricultural production (World Bank
2003). Thus, social assets have a key function in
promoting the value of environment assets.
Simon Kuznets demonstrated that historical
pollutants (such as sulfur oxide and smoke)
related to economic development could be illus-
trated as an inverted U-shaped curve, which
became the famous Environmental Kuznets
Curve (EKC). According to the curve, environ-
mental problems worsen as an economy grows,
but, at a certain point in that economic devel-
opment, the environmental problems stop wors-
ening and begin to improve in response to the
application of progressively environmentally
friendly technologies and enforcement of envi-
ronmental regulations. However, the quantity of
waste and the GHG emissions monotonically
increase throughout the period of economic
growth or, if a turning point occurs, that point is
at a high growth level. That difference is because
waste and GHG environmental problems are
caused by numerous polluters/pollutants, some of
8 S. Hori
which are difficult to regulate. Consequently,
abatement measures heavily depend on stake-
holders’ voluntary efforts. Obtaining the coop-
eration of all the relevant stakeholders is
achieved by establishing trust and social norms.
Consensus could create new types of rules or
norms based on social assets, and the next sec-
tion examines the key actors needed to realize
consensus and common rules.
1.2 Society and Sustainable
Development
Many communities have traditional ways to
sustainably use their natural resources. For
example, in Japan, satoyama (border zones or
areas between mountain foothills and arable flat
land) have been used according to community
rules. Satoyama is owned and managed by the
community, and the community members have
the right to use the forest products. Similar sys-
tems are observed in other societies. For exam-
ple, in Indonesia, the Sasi system is a popular
way to traditionally manage natural resources
sustainably. In the Pacific Islands, communities
manage their fishing resources, and because of
their management system, they greatly benefit
from maintaining their sustainable resources
(UNDP 2005).
These group rules can be established based on
trust among the people. When they are unwritten
and informal, they are social norms maintained
through mutual trust. Interpersonal networks,
shared values, and trust characterize the social
capital of these communities and form the
foundation of social norms. When social capital
is easily realized, voluntary cooperation among
members is easily realized (Putnam 1993). The
social capital proposed by Putnam has become a
widely popular concept for understanding and
promoting development.
Social capital strengthens the cohesion of
communities and promotes personal satisfaction.
Social capital develops in cultures with respected
rules. Indigenous Mexicans, despite their deep
poverty, seem to be happier than other poor
people because their traditional communities
support the people (Mexico 1995). This obser-
vation suggests that social capital might increase
happiness. Narayan (2000) summarized the
function of social capital as follows: “At the
community level, cohesion is an asset that pro-
vides security, regulates behavior, and improves
the standard of living of the community as a
whole in matters that include but are not limited
to material wealth.” Putnam (1993) pointed out
that social cohesion and civic engagement are
practical preconditions for improved schools,
safe streets, rapid economic growth, effective
government, and public health. Social capital
also increases opportunities for economic value.
Trust is a key element of social capital and has
a positive influence on economic development
because trust in one’s counterparts promotes
smooth interactions. Trust and confidence within
and between enterprises moves business prac-
tices forward. Social capital increases the pro-
duction of physical capital through inter-firm
social contact by means of interpersonal net-
works in an industry, which positively influences
knowledge acquisition (World Bank 2003).
Many developed countries have judicial and
legislative infrastructures that function regardless
of the extent of trust, but many developing
countries have no official ways to ensure trust
(Todo 2015). Consequently, the relationship
between trust and economic development is more
obvious in developing than in developed coun-
tries. Ishise and Sawada (2009) found that the
social earning rate is larger in developing than in
developed countries.
A formal legal system with a social infras-
tructure is a type of artificial social capital.
Legislated norms (laws) function to govern
people’s activities and behaviors. In addition to
these laws, social norms have the role of pro-
viding rules of behavior for the public. On the
one hand, laws are enforced by the legal system.
On the other hand, social norms are enforced by
the individual and public conscience, which is
fostered in community.
The 2015 Education World Forum declared
that a “high quality education provides healthy
and satisfactory lives and capacity for
decision-making based on information” that
1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business …
leads to sustainable development. This statement
coincides with evidence that personal awareness
promotes environmental improvements.
Historically, public knowledge about the
influence of serious air pollution on serious
health problems has encouraged industries and
governments to act to prevent pollution. In
Kitakyushu, Japan, many heavy industrial man-
ufacturing plants were built in the 1900s, and,
then, air pollution worsened. In 1951, women
lived around a particular factory appealed to the
polluters to take appropriate abatement measures.
Simultaneously, a women’s group that mostly
comprised mothers conducted a survey about the
pollution’s level and distance from that factory.
About 6000 families provided convincing evi-
dence that the amount of pollution depended on
proximity to the factory. In response, the
municipal government set up a committee com-
prising the government, citizens, and the pollut-
ing company to discuss and develop consensus
on monitoring, gathering data, and abatement
measures. Historically, the progress of pollution
abatements has depended more on municipal
governments and citizens than on the central
government. The negotiation capacity of the
people is effective for pollution abatement
(Zwickl and Mosr 2014; Pargal and Wheeler
1996). In the communities, people with appro-
priate knowledge and attitude have had leading
roles in the efforts. The awareness of the air
pollution problem is higher in women than in
men, in higher HDI countries (UNDP 2011).
Appropriate educational opportunities ensure that
accurate knowledge is disseminated.
The relationship between education and eco-
nomic development is quite clear, and the
increasing school enrollment rates is the key;
indeed, pupils who are not enrollments decreased
from about 120 million in 2000 to 60 million in
2011 (United Nations 2014). However, that is
not the same as improving the quality of educa-
tion. For many years, the quantity of education
has been the focus, and building schools and
increasing the number of teachers have been the
goals. However, focusing on increasing
9
enrollment rates has had an unwelcome unin-
tended consequence. To increase the number of
teachers, wages were cut and training was
reduced, which decreased interest and motivation
in teaching as a career because of the lower
salary and lack of training. The quality of edu-
cation suffered.
For example, in Bangladesh, about one-half of
11-year-old children cannot write even the sim-
plest characters or numbers. In India, about
one-half of the teachers do not attend class dur-
ing their required teaching periods (Chaudhury
et al. 2006). To address these problems, com-
munity involvement was emphasized because the
residents’ cooperation with and support of
teachers and schools, and parents’ involvement,
encourage teachers to actively participate.
In this context, community-based school
management has been implemented to improve
the situation. In Niger, the Schools for All pro-
gram aimed to support educational development
through community participation. This program
began in 2004 to improve children’s educational
situations by increasing the active participation
of their parents, teachers, and communities. The
program has spread to about 40,000 schools
across Africa (JICA 2018). Many studies have
found that community-based education lowered
dropout rates. A study conducted in Burkina
Faso found that the dropout rate of 28.8% among
sixth-grade boys was only 12.5% at the
community-based school participating in the
Schools for All program (Kozuka et al. 2016).
Proactive public participation has widely been
adopted at all stages of the development process.
Community-driven development (CDD) is part
of many development programs. One recent
survey found that, after introducing CDD and
deep community involvement into a develop-
ment program, several development outcomes,
including resource sustainability, infrastructure
quality, and insurance services, had improved
(UNDP 2015). This approach relates to the
notion of inclusive growth, and the idea of
comprehensive development and growth is
another related topic. Actual sustainable
10
development must focus on human well-being.
Further, well-being for today must include the
well-being of future generations (UNEP UNU
2012). This is the same message as the message
at the end of Sect. 1.1.5.
1.3 The Business Sector
and Sustainable Development
An important group of actors and stakeholders in
sustainable development is a society’s business
(particularly industrial) sector. Business sectors
are increasingly paying attention to sustainable
development. Businesses have been involved in
the natural environment since about the 1960s,
when they began pollution abatements in
response to governmental regulations against
pollution. Since the 2000s, many types of busi-
nesses have begun to take responsibility for the
natural environments that they influence, and
voluntary eco-friendly activities have become
popular. This is known as corporate social
responsibility (CSR). CSR identifies corporate as
responsible members of society. One well-known
framework is Responsible Care®, initiated by
Chemistry Industry Association of Canada in
1985. Responsible Care® is active with chemical
companies in 68 countries.
CSR began in the early twentieth century for
four reasons: (1) companies have responsibilities
because of their societal power and influence;
(2) companies seek to free their activities by
abolishing excess regulations and reducing costs;
(3) social action creates some benefits for com-
panies; and (4) social effects on stakeholders are
the responsibilities of companies (Post et al.
2002). Currently, corporations are motivated to
express CSR to improve their marketability, for
political reasons, and in response to the pressures
of social norms (Kitzmaueller and Shimshack
2012). Marketing is an important motivator
because profits are made in the market. Politics
pressure companies to comply with CSR, but the
social norms are embedded in cultures. Many
studies have examined this topic. For example,
Duarte (2010) found that, in Brazil, CSR was
influenced by Brazilian culture; Katrinli and
S. Hori
Gunay (2011) demonstrated that Turkish com-
panies performed CSR based on culture and
strategic plans; and Roxas and Coetzer (2012)
revealed that Philippines’ companies’ behaviors
were significantly influenced by small
communities.
On the other hand, the development in the
global supply chain is the standardizing of
business behaviors to meet international stan-
dards. Global business behavior is regulated by
the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO). ISO 14000 was established as an
environmental audit standard and ISO 26000
concerns CSR. Furthermore, the ISO expanded
business opportunities because of the market
expansion resulting from standardization. For
example, to promote environmentally friendly
city planning, the ISO 3750 series was estab-
lished. Low-pollution electricity infrastructure
standards can contribute to environment-friendly
electricity by popularizing these standards.
A market-led strategy is an effective way for
companies that want to grow to realize sustain-
able development.
Daikin Industries Ltd. is a well-known Japa-
nese air conditioner manufacturer that intends to
expand its energy-saving air conditioner into the
Chinese market in collaboration with Gree
Electric Appliances Inc. (the largest air condi-
tioner manufacturer in China) and has started
producing energy-saving air conditioners in
China. This alliance contributed to the expansion
of energy-saving appliances (the inverter-type air
conditioners share was 7% in 2009 and increased
to 67% in 2017) and improved the efficiency of
China’s energy standard. HFC refrigerant (i.e.,
hydro-fluoric-carbons), which is a refrigerant
used for air conditioners, is a GHG. The Kigali
Amendment to the Montreal Protocol (effective
from January 2019) aims to reduce the effects of
HFC. Daikin Industries Ltd. owns R32 technol-
ogy, which is a refrigerant with a low global
warming potential. By offering and diffusing this
technology in the market, Daikin Industries Ltd.
is helping to slow global warming effects. The
company widely promotes air conditioners with
R32 and also strives to prevent refrigerant leak-
age. These efforts are supporting the
1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business …
implementation of the Kigali Amendment’s goal
of 85% reduction in global warming effects. This
trend further suggests that climate-related tech-
nologies in the market would promote businesses
and environmental improvements.
As mentioned above, many chemical compa-
nies are involved with sustainable development.
Responsible Care® is committed to action behalf
of the natural environment, safety, and public
health in all of its chemical production processes.
Many chemical companies also are committed to
sustainable societies. The Japan Chemical
Industry Association (JCIA) published report for
the chemical industry’s contribution to sustain-
able development in 2017 (Fig. 1.4). For exam-
ple, Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd applied to
provide solutions for sustainable tree toward
implementing the 17 SDG goals. All of the
employees in the company were encouraged and
motivated to achieve the goals. Sumika Sustain-
able Solutions is contributing to the creation of a
sustainable society by certifying products that
reduce GHG and promote the SDGs. For exam-
ple, the invention of a separator for lithium bat-
teries contributes to energy and climate change
goals. These certifying products are expected to
reduce CO2 by 53 million tonne by 2020. This is
an example of the way that the business sector is
combining SDGs with their activities and sus-
tainable development.
Fig. 1.4 Challenge and
contribution by chemical
industry. Source JCIA (2017):
translated to English, with
permission of JCIA
11
Similar activities toward achieving sustainable
societies are widely implemented at the global
level. CDP (formerly Carbon Disclosure Project)
was initiated by an institutional investor and the
private sector to encourage companies to disclose
information about themselves and climate
change. 7,018 companies in the world are vol-
untary disclosing in this program. According to
CDP, environment-related activities can be
identified in each company. For example, report
of Toyota Motor Corporation believes that the
natural environment and costs are the key factors
for companies to assess their business plans.
CDP’s international program helps companies to
perceive environmental issues as business
opportunities or risks as well as ways to judge the
financial sector.
According to the results of a survey on com-
panies that had participated in the UN Global
Compact (GC), the key motivators of participation
were mimetic pressure to imitate other companies
and normative pressure, not the coercive behavior
of governmental interventions (Perez-Batres et al.
2011). Norms are one of the important factors
driving behavior in the business sector. The Paris
Agreement on Climate Change emphasized the
role of businesses for climate change because
accumulating the members’ commitments to the
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) could
not achieve two-degree target. The international
12
business alliances aiming to influence the progress
of climate change and enhance sustainable devel-
opment are expected to be relatively more impor-
tant, and these businesses are expected to be
motivated by social and economic norms to join
forces.
1.4 The International Community
and Sustainable Development
International society is moving forward to meet
the challenges of sustainable development. In
1992, the UNCED adopted Agenda 21, United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), and the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD). In 2002, in Johan-
nesburg, the World Summit for Sustainable
Development (WSSD) was held and the Johan-
nesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development
was adopted, which covered environmental and
poverty issues and appealed for access to clean
water, sanitation, energy, and food. The Joint
Plan of Implementation is the WSSD’s core
outcome. The Type 2 Partnership promotes
partnerships among non-state actors (such as
private sectors, business communities, and civil
societies). Education on sustainable development
was adopted.
In 2012, the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development (UNCSD) was held to
adopt The Future We Want, and it indicated that
the SDGs would be introduced when the MDGs
were met. The idea of green economies was
agreed to for improving environmental quality,
peaceful and healthy lifestyles, economic devel-
opment, and to encourage investments to support
the natural environment and social issues. The
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) proposed green growth in
2011 similar to the green economy idea. Thus,
the OECD and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) formed an alliance to initi-
ate green economies. The Future We Want
describes the green economy as an important tool
for the international community to promote sus-
tainable development and high-level political
S. Hori
forums on sustainable development to achieve
SDG success.
The United Nations’ efforts toward sustain-
able development began with the MDGs in 2000,
which comprised seven development goals.
Then, in 2015, the 17 SDGs built upon the
foundation of the MDGs. The 17 goals include
four environment-related goals. SDGs only set
goals, so rules and assessment methods must be
established. Goals are achieved through appro-
priate evaluative processes based on the SDG
benchmarks and standards. To achieve the SDGs,
cooperation across organizations is necessary.
For example, IEA in collaboration with the
World Bank assumed the role of a global track-
ing framework to consider the benchmarks for
energy supply set forth in SDG 7.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the
international community agreed on many treaties
and initiatives. However, many disputed issues
remain for the international community to solve.
One dispute began in 1992 when UNCED stipu-
lated the common but differentiated responsibility
(CBDR) in the UNFCCC, meaning that all coun-
tries would share responsibility for maintaining
sustainable development, but the weights of such
responsibility would vary among countries.
Anthropologic CO2 is accumulated industrial
releases that occurred since the Industrial Revo-
lution, and developed countries were identified as
responsible for it. However, projected future
accumulations direct attention to China, whose
total emissions are higher than Japan’s. As such,
stock-based environmental issues differ depend-
ing on the past, present, or future perspective.
Another controversial issue is the status of the
market. In the UNCSD, some countries insisted
that the market is accelerated private investment.
Using the market as a tool to compel companies
to take sustainable actions is a useful strategy
(Baker 2016). However, the South American
countries have opposed this by arguing that
market-oriented policies link co-modification of
nature. A third issue is the free-rider problem. In
the flexible regime, there are no negative con-
sequences for noncompliance, and some coun-
tries sabotage their obligations. Even in the case
1 Development and the Environment: Society, Business …
of international treaties, many countries do not
fulfill their obligations to report. To avoid these
problems, stable social norms among the mem-
bers are needed based on a common sense of
fairness, reciprocity, and trust among members.
Transparency and accountability with accurate
reporting and reviewing are considered common
ground for a foundation of trust among the
members (Hori 2015). To achieve common
ground in the international community, fairness,
reciprocity, and trust are key attitudes to develop.
1.5 Social Norms in Sustainable
Development
The terms “social norm” and “consensus” fre-
quently appear in this chapter because they are
key social concepts for achieving sustainable
development. A characteristic of the natural
environment is that it represents “public goods.”
For example, regarding climate change, individ-
ual activities producing CO2 might not harm
some individuals or stakeholders, but they dam-
age the global climate. The activities damage
public goods by seizing and consuming the
common resources without providing compen-
sation for them. Thus, an agenda on public goods
developed. A well-known theory is the tragedy
of commons: The commons without rules or
management invite excess consumption that
eliminates sustainable uses. One proposed mea-
sure in response to this problem is to tax impo-
sition; however, from the perspective of
governance in developing countries, it seems
unrealistic (Todaro and Smith 2015).
On the other hand, the commons is not always
excessively consumed. Forests managed by
communities are appropriately consumed.
A commons under the control of its members’
consensus can implement sustainable develop-
ment practices. Communities and business asso-
ciations easily establish rules because the
members of these groups tend to share common
interests. On the other hand, the international
community is comprised of many countries with
13
different interests and attitudes based on culture,
race, social system, geographical features, and
level of economic development. The interna-
tional community needs to find common ground
on which the members can reach consensus. That
common ground becomes the group’s social
norm.
To conserve global public goods, the interna-
tional community needs environmental treaties
and agreements. These agreements intend to
ensure implementation through obligations and
punishment for noncompliance. However, imple-
mentation methods have changed over time with
the increase in developing country members. The
UNFCCC was established in 1992, and it took
23 years to reach an agreement to which all of the
participating members would commit. According
to the Paris Agreement on Climate Change,
members commit to a contribution intending to
prevent climate change. In this type of organiza-
tion, social norms are expected to have important
roles. Climate change negotiations are typical of
the social problems that arise (Gsothbauer and van
den Bergh 2012).
The motivation to respect the organization’s
social norms is signaled to others (Posner 2000).
Theoretically, individuals are concerned about
their reputations, so they want to send signals
that enhance their reputations. For example, to
understand the efforts to reach an agreement on
the Paris Agreement on climate change, the roles
of China and the USA should be emphasized. In
2014, these two biggest contributors to climate
change agreed to proceed toward an agreement.
China, since the 1999 Copenhagen Accord, had
changed its attitude because its reputation in the
international community had changed (see
Chap. 6).
The international framework developed not
only as a multinational structure, but also as a
private base. CDP, GC, and other frameworks
have encouraged companies to take important
steps toward sustainable development. Social
norms are expected to be more important than
laws for achieving action in the desired direction.
Furthermore, social norms are linked to people’s
14
behaviors. Environmental behavior and
energy-saving behavior positively relate to
compliance with social norms.
1.6 Summary
The roles of society, businesses, and the inter-
national community in sustainable development
must be emphasized. To develop sustainable
societies, their interrelationships are important.
Communities’ sustainability depends on the
social norm of the communities. Norms are
strengthened by trust among community mem-
bers and the extent of individual members’
awareness. An effective framework for the
international community is its pathway toward
sustainable development, which includes the
development of consensus and social norms.
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 Sustainable Development Goals
and International Governance:
Indicators as a Key Mechanism
for Success
Norichika Kanie
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to encourage
consideration of the SDGs from the perspec-
tives of measurement and indicators, that is,
measurement of progress with the SDGs. After
clarifying what kind of governance is required
for the SDGs, the chapter will discuss the roles
and functions of measurements and indicators
in connection with the SDGs, reviewing targets
and indicators related to resource circulation.
Then, the chapter considers the ideal design of
SDG indicators. The development of measure-
ment systems for the SDGs is a new challenge
for the relationship between science and policy.
Indicators require a technical understanding,
but they are also a step toward policy discus-
sions. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development recommends making indicators
by country, by local government, and by
company (i.e., by stakeholder). It is crucial to
design systems of indicators by considering
indicators for each actor and creating systems
of indicators that can be compared, so that
those indicators can lead to subsequent policies
and actions. The development of indicators
This chapter is based on the following article
(in Japanese) (Kanie 2017).
N. Kanie (&)
Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio
University, Fujisawa, Japan
e-mail: kanie@sfc.keio.ac.jp
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
S. Hori et al. (eds.), International Development and the Environment, Sustainable
Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3594-5_2
2
based on goals and targets can be expected to
deepen the connections between stakeholders.
In that sense, we could say that the very process
of creating indicators is one key to transforma-
tion toward 2030.
Keywords
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development



Governance Millennium Development Goals


(MDGs) “Goal-based” governance



“Rule-based” governance Agenda 21
2.1 Introduction
In September 2015, at the 70th Session of United
Nations General Assembly and under strict secu-
rity due to the visit of Pope Francis, the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by
consensus of all member countries after a speech
by the Pope. At their core are 17 comprehensive
international goals and 169 targets. They rebased
on the idea that “no one will be left behind,” and
“transforming our world,” as implied in the official
title of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Devel-
opment. This is essentially about governance on a
global scale, from the global to the local level. In a
real sense, this is all about a transformation of
global governance. The SDGs are an entirely dif-
ferent approach to problem solving compared to
what the world has seen before.
17
18
Just over three years have elapsed since they
were adopted, and in some countries—Japan
included—there is a sense that interest in the SDGs
is rising quickly. It is particularly in local gov-
ernments and the corporate world where the
interest seems to be rising the most. However, the
essence of the SDGs is a transformation of gov-
ernance, so if the SDGs are truly going to be
implemented, traditional approaches need to
change significantly. Despite this, there is still a
sense that few actors have noticed this point. The
SDGs are articulated as desired future conditions,
so by looking at that those conditions we can then
do “back-casting” to the present in order to con-
sider the required next steps. Because actions
arrived at by back-casting differ significantly from
the current situation, the UN goals do not specify
implementation steps in detail. Rather, they leave
future initiatives up to national governments and
other stakeholders to determine. Stated differently,
by not deciding on legal frameworks and instead
leaving things for creative thought and collabora-
tion, these goals leave room for innovation.
In that context, in July 2017, global indicators
to measure progress with the SDGs were adop-
ted. Their role is to quantitatively measure global
progress with the SDGs using 232 indicators.
Actually, more than 244 indicators are listed, but
since some of the indicators are used more than
once to measure different targets, the actual total
number is 232. Based on the initiatives of each
country, the 2030 Agenda calls on each country
to conduct regular and comprehensive reviews
based on data for progress made with the SDGs,
and the national review results then become the
platform for reviews at the regional and global
levels. This progress with the indicators will be
reported each year in a Sustainable Development
Goals Report by the UN Secretary-General.
An important thing to note here is that pro-
gress with the SDGs cannot be measured without
indicators. For follow-up on progress with the
SDGs, there is also the Global Sustainable
Development Report (GSDG), with the first one
scheduled to be submitted in 2019. This means
that, going forward, progress with the SDGs will
be measured in terms of both quantitative and
qualitative measurements.
N. Kanie
The purpose of this paper is to encourage
consideration of the SDGs from the perspectives
of measurement and indicators, that is, mea-
surement of progress with the SDGs. First, as a
starting point, after clarifying what kind of
governance is required for the SDGs, the paper
will discuss the roles and functions of mea-
surements and indicators in connection with the
SDGs and from the perspective of governance in
particular. Then, while reviewing targets and
indicators related to resource circulation, the
paper will consider the ideal design of SDG
indicators.
2.2 SDGs and Governance
With the adoption of the indicators in July 2017,
the three-tiered structure of the SDGs was com-
pleted, having goals, targets, and indicators. The
SDGs target all countries, and this is a major
change from the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), which mainly targeted developing
countries. Other features include the fact that
they must integrate three aspects—environment,
society, economy; the fact that they are insepa-
rable; and the fact that each goal is linked to
other goal categories.
For the detailed implementation of these
goals, the 2030 Agenda calls upon each national
government to establish domestic targets based
on the SDGs set at the global level and reflecting
the domestic situation and priorities, and envi-
sions that progress will be measured by each
national government reflecting global targets in
concrete national strategy processes, policies,
and strategies, and that governments and each
stakeholder will set their own indicators reflect-
ing their own situation. Another important point
is that countries will not be using the same
methods for implementation, so it is recognized
that each country will have its own respective
approaches, visions, and usable measures. In
addition, the 2030 Agenda emphasizes that the
SDGs cannot be achieved without partnerships
among government, civil society, private sector,
and UN organizations, etc., and thus, it aims to
mobilize knowledge, expertise, technologies, and
2 Sustainable Development Goals and International Governance …
funding. The progress toward big multi-
dimensional goals is something referred to by
this author’s research group as “green pluralism”
(Kanie et al. 2013), and it is no exaggeration to
say that the SDGs are tools to foster and realize
green pluralism.
In our research group, which studies Earth
system governance, we refer to the new approach
to global governance arising from the SDGs as
“goal-based governance,” clearly distinguished
from the traditional and mainstream approach of
“rule-based governance” (Kanie and Biermann
2017). The creation of an international regime
that offers a diverse set of tools has been central
to the international legal framework that has
played a core role in promoting the existing
mechanisms that promote international coopera-
tion. Up to this point, the various mechanisms for
international cooperation that have been created
include international trade rules such as GATT
and WTO-related, the UN Framework Conven-
tion on Climate Change, and the Kyoto Protocol
based on it, as well as the Convention on Bio-
logical Diversity and the related Nagoya Proto-
col, etc. In recent years, however, the
international regime to address global environ-
mental problems is now reaching its limits:
reaching consensus take much time to establish
rules such as texts on procedures, and it is not
possible to bring together the bold actions now
required to respond to the constraints of the Earth
system.
In this context, the aim of the SDGs is to
realize sustainable development using a different
approach. As stated above, the SDGs are struc-
tured as goals, targets, and indicators, and then
monitoring and evaluation. In short, it is a simple
mechanism. For implementation, there are 17
goals but detailed implementation measures are
not listed, so they are left up to each country and
stakeholder.
If the international regime could be described
as a bottom-up approach based on “fore-casting,”
with a build-up of legal frameworks, the SDGs
are the complete opposite. They start with the
desired outcome and then use “back-casting.”
This kind of approach had not been seen
before in global governance. The MDGs are
19
predecessors, but when it comes to scale and size
of topics, the SDGs are unlike anything we have
seen before.
The societal foundations to enable acceptance
of this kind of governance are in the process of
being established. The spread of the Internet and
social media is creating frameworks that are
independent, decentralized, and collaborative,
and creating new collaboration and person-to-
person connections. As seen in the Arab Spring,
one feature of modern society is that we are at a
level where this kind of trend can transform
political movements. If these new kinds of
dynamics can be applied skillfully, perhaps all of
society can be nudged in a sustainable direction.
Goal-based governance as embodied in the SDGs
can become a driving force for this. Indeed, as
the world starts on SDGs-related initiatives, now
is precisely the time for measurement in this
unique new framework; though measurement did
not receive so much focus previously, it will
become increasingly important going forward as
progress is made with the SDGs. Indeed, because
the SDGs cover not only on the economic
dimension but are also comprehensive in that
they include goals on the environmental and
social dimensions, there is ever greater impor-
tance on the individual interlinkages, mutual
connections, synergies, and tradeoffs. That point
is something that should be reflected in the ideal
designs for the measurement of progress.
2.3 SDG Indicators as Mechanisms
for Measurement
and Comparison
Monitoring, measurement, and assessment play
important roles in SDGs governance. This is
because measurement and comparison are the
only implementation mechanisms for governance
through goals. Even more important, measure-
ment will play a critical role because measure-
ment is ultimately the source of a variety of
information to serve as a base for
decision-making, to understand past problems, to
deal with current problems, to understand the
actual state of the Earth, and to prepare for the
Another random document with
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 CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FISHES OF THE BRACKISH WATER.

On such parts of a coast at which there is a mixture of fresh and

salt water, either in consequence of some river emptying its water
into the sea or from an accumulation of land surface water forming
lagunes, which are in uninterrupted or temporary communication
with the sea, there flourishes a peculiar brackish water fauna which
is characterised by the presence of fishes found sometimes in sea-,
sometimes in pure freshwater.
This fauna can be rather sharply defined if a limited district only is
taken into consideration; thus, the species of the brackish water
fauna of Great Britain, the Pacific coast of Central America, of the
larger East India Islands, etc., can be enumerated without much
hesitation. But difficulties arise when we attempt to generalise in the
enumeration of the forms referable to the brackish water fauna;
because the genera and families enumerated include certain species
and genera which have habituated themselves exclusively either to a
freshwater or marine existence; and, besides, because a species of
fish may be at one locality an inhabitant of brackish water, at another
of the sea, and at a third of fresh water. The circumstance that these
fishes can live in sea and fresh water has enabled them to spread
readily over the globe, a few only being limited to particular regions;
therefore, for the purposes of dividing the earth’s surface into natural
zoological regions the brackish water forms are useless. The
following fishes may be referred to this Fauna:—
1. Species of Rajidæ (Raja, Trygon) prefer the mouths of rivers,
probably because the muddy or sandy bottom offers the most
suitable conditions for fishes which can feed on the bottom only;
such brackish water species belong chiefly to the Equatorial Zone,
some having taken up their abode entirely in fresh water (South
American Trygons).
2. Ambassis, a Percoid genus, consisting of numerous small
species, inhabiting the shores of the tropical parts of the Indian
Ocean and the coasts of Tropical Australia. Many species enter, and
all seek the neighbourhood of, fresh water; hence they disappear in
the islands of the Pacific, and are scarce in the Red Sea.
3. Therapon, with the same distribution as the former.
4. Numerous Sciænidæ of the Equatorial Zone.
5. The Polynemidæ, chiefly inhabitants of brackish water of the
Equatorial Zone, most developed in the Indian region, and scarce in
the Tropical Pacific.
6. Numerous species of Caranx (or Horse Mackerels) of the
Equatorial Zone.
7. Nearly all species of Gastrosteus enter brackish water, G.
spinachia being almost exclusively confined to it: Northern Zone.
8. The most important genera of the Gobies (Gobiina): Gobius
(nearly cosmopolitan), Sicydium, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmus,
Eleotris (equatorial). Many of the species are entirely confined to
fresh water.
9. The Amblyopina, similar to the Gobies, but with more
elongated body: Tropical Indo-Pacific.
10. The Trypauchenina: Coasts of the Indian region.
11. Many species of Blennius, of which several are found far
inland in fresh waters—for instance in North Italy, in the Lake of
Galilee, in the eastern parts of Asia Minor.
12. The majority of Atherinidæ, and
13. The Mugilidæ: both families being most numerous and
abundant in brackish water, and almost cosmopolitan.
14. Many Pleuronectidæ prefer the mouths of rivers for the same
reason as the Rays; some ascend rivers, as the Flounder,
Cynoglossus, etc.
15. Several Siluridæ, as especially the genera Plotosus,
Cnidoglanis, Arius, which attain their greatest development in
brackish water.
16. The Cyprinodontidæ are frequently found in brackish water.
 17. Species of Clupea, some of which ascend rivers, and become
acclimatized in fresh water, as Clupea finta, which has established
itself in the lakes of northern Italy.
18. Chatoessus, a genus of Clupeoid fishes of the Equatorial
Zone, of which some species have spread into the Northern Zone.
19. Megalops: Equatorial Zone.
20. Anguilla. The distribution, no less than the mode of
propagation, and the habits generally, of the so-called Freshwater-
eels still present us with many difficult problems. As far as we know
at present their birthplace seems to be the coast in the immediate
neighbourhood of the mouths of rivers. They are much more
frequently found in fresh water than in brackish water, but the
distribution of some species proves that they at times migrate by sea
as well as by land and river. Thus Anguilla mauritiana is found in
almost all the fresh and brackish waters of the islands of the Tropical
Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, from the Comoros to the South
Sea; Anguilla vulgaris is spread over temperate Europe (exclusive of
the system of the Danube, the Black and Caspian Seas), in the
Mediterranean district (including the Nile and rivers of Syria), and on
the Atlantic coast of North America; Anguilla bostoniensis, in Eastern
North America, China, and Japan; Anguilla latirostris, in Temperate
Europe, the whole Mediterranean district, the West Indies, China,
and New Zealand. The other more local species are found, in
addition to localities already mentioned, on the East Coast of Africa,
South Africa, on the continent of India, various East Indian Islands,
Australia, Tasmania, Auckland Islands; but none have ever been
found in South America, the West Coast of North America, and the
West Coast of Africa: surely one of the most striking instances of
irregular geographical distribution.
21. Numerous Syngnathidæ have established themselves in the
Northern Zone as well as in the Equatorial, in the vegetation which
flourishes in brackish water.
This list could be considerably increased if an enumeration of
species, especially of certain localities, were attempted; but this is
more a subject of local interest, and would carry us beyond the
scope of a general account of the distribution of Fishes.

Fig. 105.—Mugil octo-radiatus.

Fig. 106.—Mugil auratus.

Fig. 107.—Mugil septentrionalis.

Heads of Grey Mullets, fishes of
Brackish water.
 CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE FISHES.

Marine fishes fall, with regard to their mode of life and

distribution, into three distinct categories:—
1. Shore Fishes—That is, fishes which inhabit chiefly parts of the
sea in the immediate neighbourhood of land either actually raised
above, or at least but little submerged below, the surface of the
water. They do not descend to any great depth,—very few to 300
fathoms, and the majority live close to the surface. The distribution of
these fishes is determined not only by the temperature of the surface
water but also by the nature of the adjacent land, and its animal and
vegetable products; some of these fishes being confined to flat
coasts with soft or sandy bottoms, others to rocky and fissured
coasts, others to living coral formations. If it were not for the frequent
mechanical and involuntary removals to which these fishes are
exposed, their distribution within certain limits, as it no doubt
originally existed, would resemble still more that of freshwater fishes
than we find it actually does at the present period.
2. Pelagic Fishes—that is, fishes which inhabit the surface and
uppermost strata of the open ocean, which approach the shores only
accidentally, or occasionally (in search of prey), or periodically (for
the purpose of spawning). The majority spawn in the open sea, their
ova and young being always found at great distance from the shore.
With regard to their distribution, they are still subject to the influences
of light and the temperature of the surface water; but they are
independent of the variable local conditions which tie the shore fish
to its original home, and therefore roam freely over a space which
would take a freshwater or shore fish thousands of years to cover in
its gradual dispersal. Such as are devoid of rapidity of motion are
dispersed over similarly large areas by the oceanic currents, more
slowly than, but as surely as, the strong swimmers. Therefore, an
accurate definition of their distribution within certain areas equivalent
to the terrestrial regions is much less feasible than in the case of
shore fishes.
 3. Deep-sea Fishes—that is, fishes which inhabit such depths of
the ocean as to be but little or not influenced by light or the surface
temperature; and which, by their organisation are prevented from
reaching the surface stratum in a healthy condition. Living almost
under identical tellurian conditions, the same type, the same species,
may inhabit an abyssal depth under the equator as well as one near
the arctic or antarctic circle; and all we know of these fishes points to
the conclusion that no separate horizontal regions can be
distinguished in the abyssal fauna, and that no division into
bathymetrical strata can be attempted on the base of generic much
less of family characters.
It must not be imagined that these three categories are more
sharply defined than Freshwater and Marine Fishes. They gradually
pass into each other, and there are numerous fishes about which
uncertainty exists whether they should be placed in the Shore or
Pelagic series, or in the Pelagic or Deep-sea series; nay, many facts
favour the view that changes in the mode of life and distribution of
fishes are still in progress.
The change in habitat of numerous fishes is regulated by the
distribution of their favourite food. At certain seasons the surface of
the sea in the vicinity of land swarms with mollusks, larval
Crustaceans, Medusæ, attracting shoals of fishes from the open
ocean to the shores; and these are again pursued by fishes of larger
size and predacious habits, so that all these fishes might be
included, with equal propriety, in the littoral or pelagic series.
However, species which are known to normally spawn in the open
ocean must be always referred to the latter division.
Chondropterygii, Acanthopterygii, Anacanths, Myxinoids, and
Pharyngobranchii furnish the principal contingents to the Marine
Fauna; whilst the majority of Malacopterygians, the Ganoids, and
Cyclostomes are Freshwater Fishes.

I.—Distribution of Shore Fishes.

The principal types of Shore-fishes are the following:—
CHONDROPTERYGII—
 Holocephala 4 species
Plagiostomata—
Carchariidæ (part.) 12 „
Scylliidæ 30 „
Cestraciontidæ 4 „
Spinacidæ (part.) 8 „
Rhinidæ 1 „
Pristiophoridæ 4 „
Pristidæ 5 „
Rhinobatidæ 14 „
Torpedinidæ 15 „
Rajidæ 34 „
Trygonidæ 47 „

ACANTHOPTERYGII—
Percidæ (part. incl. Pristipomatidæ) 625 „
Mullidæ 35 „
Sparidæ 130 „
Squamipinnes 130 „
Cirrhitidæ 40 „
Heterolepidina 12 „
Scorpænidæ 120 „
Cottiæ (part.) 100 „
Cataphracti (part.) 20 „
Trachinidæ 100 „
Sciænidæ 100 „
Sphyrænidæ 15 „
Trichiuridæ 17 „
Elacate 1 „
Nomeidæ (part.) 5 „
Cyttidæ 8 „
Stromateus 9 „
Mene 1 „
Carangidæ (part.) 130 „
Kurtidæ 7 „
Gobiodon 7 „
Callionymina 30 „
Discoboli 11 „
Batrachidæ 14 „
Pediculati (part.) 11 „
Blenniidæ 90 „
Acanthoclinidæ 1 „
Teuthididæ 30 „
 Acronuridæ 60 „
Hoplognathidæ 3 „
Malacanthidæ 3 „
Plesiopina 4 „
Trichonotidæ 2 „
Cepolidæ 7 „
Gobiesocidæ 21 „
Psychrolutidæ 2 „
Centriscidæ 7 „
Fistulariidæ 4 „

Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi—
Pomacentridæ 150 „
Labridæ 400 „
Embiotocidæ 17 „

Anacanthini—
Gadopsidæ 1 „
Lycodidæ 15 „
Gadidæ (part.) 50 „
Ophidiidæ (part.) 40 „
Pleuronectidæ 160 „

Physostomi—
Saurina (part.) 16 „
Salmonidæ (part.) 7 „
Clupeidæ (part.) 130 „
Chirocentridæ 1 „
Chilobranchus 1 „
Murænidæ (part.) 200 „
Pegasidæ 4 „
120 „
Lophobranchii

Plectognathi—
Sclerodermi 95 „
Gymnodontes 83 „

CYCLOSTOMATA—
Myxinidæ 5 „
2 „
LEPTOCARDII
3587 species.
 These types of Shore fishes are divided among the following
oceanic areæ:—
I. The Arctic Ocean.

II. The Northern Temperate Zone.

A. The Temperate North Atlantic.

1. The British district.
2. The Mediterranean district.
3. The North American district.

B. The Temperate North Pacific.

1. The Kamtschatkan district.
2. The Japanese district.
3. The Californian district.

III. The Equatorial Zone.

A. The Tropical Atlantic.

B. The Tropical Indo-Pacific.
C. The Pacific Coast of Tropical America.
1. The Central American district.
2. The Galapagoes district.
3. The Peruvian district.

IV. The Southern Temperate Zone.

1. The Cape of Good Hope district.
2. The South Australian district.
3. The Chilian district.
4. The Patagonian district.

V. The Antarctic Ocean.

As with freshwater fishes, the main divisions of the Shore-fish

faunæ are determined by their distance from the equator, the
equatorial zone of the Freshwater series corresponding entirely to
that of the Shore-fish series. But as Marine fishes extend farther
towards the Poles than Freshwater fishes, and as the polar types are
more specialised, a distinct Arctic and Antarctic fauna may be
separated from the faunæ of the temperate zones. The two
subdivisions of the Northern temperate zone in the Freshwater
series are quite analogous to the corresponding divisions in the
Coast series. In the Southern Hemisphere the Shore-fishes of the
extremity of Africa form a separate district of the temperate zone,
whilst the Freshwater fishes of South Africa were found to be tropical
types. The Marine series of the Southern temperate zone is also
much more diversified than the Freshwater series, and admits of
further subdivision, which, although in some degree indicated in the
Freshwater series, does not entirely correspond to that proposed for
the latter.

I. Shore Fishes of the Arctic Ocean.

The Shore fishes clearly prove a continuity of the Arctic
circumpolar fauna, as the southern limit of which we may indicate the
southern extremity of Greenland and the Aleutian Archipelago, or
60° of lat. N.
Towards the North, fishes become less in variety of species and
fewer in number of individuals, and only very few genera are
restricted to this fauna.
The highest latitude at which Shore fishes have been observed is
83° N. lat. The late Arctic Expedition collected at and near that
latitude specimens of Cottus quadricornis, Icelus hamatus,
Cyclopterus spinosus, Liparis fabricii, Gymnelis viridis, and Gadus
fabricii. This number probably would have been larger if the
difficulties of collecting fishes in those high latitudes were not almost
insuperable for the greater part of the year.
As far as we know, the fishes north and south of Behring’s Straits
belong to the same generic or family types as those of the
corresponding latitudes of the Eastern Hemisphere, though the
majority are specifically distinct. But the information we possess of
the fishes of the northernmost extremity of the Pacific is extremely
scanty and vague. Farther south, whence now and then a collection
reaches Europe, we meet with some European species, as the
Herring, Halibut, Hake.
The Chondropterygians are very scarce, and it is doubtful
whether another Chondropterygian, beside the pelagic Læmargus or
Greenland Shark, crosses the Arctic circle. In the more temperate
latitudes of South Greenland, Iceland, and Northern Scandinavia,
Acanthias, Centroscyllium, and a species of Raja, also Chimæra, are
met with.
Of Acanthopterygians the families of Cottidæ, Cataphracti,
Discoboli, and Blenniidæ are well represented, and several of the
genera are characteristic of the Arctic fauna: marine species of
Cottus; Centridermichthys, Icelus, Triglops; Agonus,
Aspidophoroides; Anarrhichas, Centronotus, Stichæus; Cyclopterus
and Liparis. Two species of Sebastes are rather common.
Characteristic is also the development of Gadoid fishes, of which
some thirteen species, belonging to Gadus, Merluccius, and Molva,
form one of the principal articles of food to the inhabitants of the
coasts of the Arctic Ocean. The Blennioid Anacanthini or Lycodidæ,
are limited to the Arctic and Antarctic coasts. Ammodytes and a few
Flat-fishes (Hippoglossoides and Pleuronectes) are common in the
more temperate parts.
Labroids only exceptionally penetrate so far towards the north.
Physostomes are very scarce, and represented only by a few
species of Clupea and by Mallotus; the latter is an ancient inhabitant
of the Greenland coasts, fossil remains, indistinguishable from the
species of the present day, being frequently found in nodules of clay
of comparatively recent formation.
The Arctic climate is still less favourable to the existence of
Lophobranchs, only a few Syngnathus and Nerophis being present
in the more southern latitudes, to which they have been carried by
oceanic currents from their more congenial home in the south.
Scleroderms and Plectognaths are entirely absent.
The Gadoids are accompanied by Myxine, which parasitically
thrives in them.

II. The Northern Temperate Zone.

A. Shore Fishes of the Temperate North Atlantic.

This part of the fauna may be subdivided into three districts:—
 1. The fishes of the north-eastern shores, viz. of the British
islands, of Scandinavia so far as it is not included in the Arctic fauna,
and of the continent of Europe southwards to about 40° of lat. N.—
British district.
2. The fishes of the Mediterranean shores and of the adjoining
shores of the Atlantic, including the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary
Islands—Mediterranean district.
3. The fishes of the western shores, from 60° lat. N. to about 30°
lat. N.—the North American district.

1. The British district shows scarcely any marked distinctive

features; the character of its fauna is simply intermediate between
that of the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean district; truly Arctic
forms disappear, while such as are also found in the Mediterranean
make their appearance. Also with regard to the abundance of
individuals and variety of fishes this district forms a transition from
the north towards the south.
Besides the few Arctic Chondropterygians, all of which extend
into this district, the small shore Dog-fishes are well represented
(Mustelus, Galeus, Scyllium, Pristiurus); the ubiquitous Rhina or
Monk-fish is common; of Rays, Raja predominates in a variety of
species over Torpedo and Trygon, which are still scarce.
Of Acanthopterygians, Centridermichthys, Icelus, Triglops, and
Aspidophoroides, do not extend from the north into this district; and
Cottus, Anarrhichas, Centronotus, Stichæus, the Discoboli disappear
within its limits. Nearly all the remainder are genera which are also
found in the Mediterranean districts. The following are the principal
forms, and known to propagate on these shores: Labrax; Serranus,
Polyprion, Dentex; Mullus; Cantharus, Pagrus, Pagellus; Sebastes;
Cottus, Trigla, Agonus; Trachinus; Sciæna (?); Zeus; Trachurus,
Capros; Callionymus; Discoboli; Lophius; Anarrhichas, Centronotus,
Stichæus; Blenniops, Zoarces (not in Mediterranean); Cepola;
Lepadogaster.
Of the Anacanthini the Gadoids are as numerous as in the Arctic
Ocean, most being common to both districts; they are represented
by Gadus, Gadiculus, Merluccius, Phycis, Molva, Motella, Raniceps,
and Brosmius; but, whilst the majority show their northern origin by
not extending into the Mediterranean, Ammodytes and most
Pleuronectidæ prove themselves to be the more southern
representatives of this order. In the British district we find
Hippoglossus, Hippoglossoides, Rhombus, Phrynorhombus,
Pleuronectes, Solea, and only the two first are not met with in the
Mediterranean.
Labroids are common; with the exception of the North American
Tautoga, all the other genera are met with.
Physostomes are not well represented, viz. by one species of
Osmerus, one of Engraulis, one of Conger, and about five of Clupea.
Syngnathus and Nerophis become more common as we proceed
southwards; but the existence of Scleroderms and Plectognaths is
indicated by single individuals only, stragglers from their southern
home, and unable to establish themselves in a climate ungenial to
them.
The Gadoids are accompanied by Myxine; and Branchiostoma
may be found in all suitable localities.

2. The Mediterranean district is distinguished by a great variety of

forms; yet, with the exception of a few genera established for single
species, none of the forms can be considered peculiar to it; and even
that small number of peculiar genera is more and more diminished
as our knowledge of the distribution of fishes advances. Some
genera are identical with those found on the western coasts of the
Atlantic and in the West Indies; but a most remarkable and
unexpected affinity obtains with another very distant fauna, viz. that
of Japan. The number of genera common to the Mediterranean
district and the Japanese coasts is larger than that of the genera
common to the Mediterranean and the opposite American coasts.
The Chondropterygians found in the British district continue in the
Mediterranean, their number being increased by Centrina, Spinax,
Pteroplatea, and some species of Rhinobatus, a genus more
numerously represented in the Tropics. Torpedo and Trygon are
common.
The greatest variety belong to the Acanthopterygians, as will be
seen from the following list:—Labrax; Anthias, Serranus, Polyprion,
Apogon, Pomatomus, Pristipoma, Diagramma (an Indian genus with
two Mediterranean species, and otherwise not represented in the
Atlantic), Dentex, Mæna, Smaris; Mullus; Cantharus, Box,
Scatharxs, Oblata, Sargus, Pagrus, Pagellus, Chrysophrys;
Sebastes, Scorpæna; Hoplostethus, Beryx, Polymixia; Trigla,
Lepidotrigla, Agonus, Peristethus; Trachinus, Uranoscopus;
Umbrina, Sciæna; Sphyræna; Aphanopus, Lepidopus, Nesiarchus,
Trichiurus, Thyrsites; Cubiceps; Zeus, Cyttus; Stromateus;
Trachurus, Caranx, Capros, Diretmus, Antigonia; Callionymus;
Batrachus; Lophius; Cristiceps, Tripterygium; Cepola; Lepadogaster;
Centriscus; Notacanthus.
The Labridæ are as common as, or even more so than, in the
British district, and represented by the same genera. But, besides,
some other Pharyngognaths, properly belonging to the Tropical
Atlantic, have fully established themselves, though only by a few
species, viz. Glyphidodon and Heliastes; Cossyphus, Novacula,
Julis, Coris, and Scarus.
The Gadoids show a marked decrease of development; and the
species of Gadus, Gadiculus, Mora, Strinsia, Phycis, and Molva,
which are peculiar to the Mediterranean, seem to inhabit rather the
colder water of moderate depths, than the surface near the shore.
Motella, however, proves to be a true Shore fish also in the
Mediterranean, at least in its adult state. Ophidium and Fierasfer
appear now besides Ammodytes. As the Gadoids decrease, so the
Pleuronectidæ increase, the genera of the Mediterranean district
being Rhombus, Phrynorhombus, Arnoglossus, Citharus,
Rhomboidichthys, Pleuronectes (a northern genus not extending
farther southwards), Solea, Synaptura, and Ammopleurops.
The variety of Physostomes is small; the following only being
superadded to those of the British district:—Saurus (a tropical
genus), Aulopus; Congromuræna, Heteroconger, Myrus, Ophichthys,
Muræna.
The Lophobranchs are more numerous in species and individuals
than in the British district; and, besides Syngnathus and Nerophis,
several species of Hippocampus are common. Also a few species of
Balistes occur.
Myxine is lost in this district; whilst Branchiostoma is abundant.

3. The shore fishes of the North American district consist, as on

the eastern coasts of the North Atlantic, of northern and southern
elements; but they are still more mixed with each other than on the
European coasts, so that a boundary line cannot be drawn between
them. The affinity to the fauna of the eastern shores is great, but
almost entirely limited to the genera composing the fauna of the
British district. British genera not found on the American coasts are
—Galeus, Scyllium, Chimæra, Mullus, Pagellus, Trigla, Trachinus,
Zeus, Callionymus. The southern elements of North America are
rather derived from the West Indies, and have no special affinity to
Mediterranean forms; very few of the non-British Mediterranean
forms extend across the Atlantic; instead of a Mediterranean we find
a West Indian element. Many of the British species range across the
Atlantic, and inhabit in an unchanged condition the northern parts of
this district; and from the frequent occurrence of isolated specimens
of other British species on the North American coast, we may
presume that many more occasionally cross the Atlantic, but without
being able to obtain a permanent footing.
The genera peculiar to this district are few in number, and
composed of very few species, viz. Hemitripterus, Pammelas,
Chasmodes, Cryptacanthodes, and Tautoga.
The close resemblance of what must be considered northern
forms to those of Europe will be evident from the following list:—
Mustelus, Rhina, Torpedo, Raja, Trygon.
Labrax, Centropristis, Serranus; Pagrus, Chrysophrys; Sebastes,
Hemitripterus; Cottus, Aspidophoroides; Uranoscopus; Micropogon,
Pogonias, Sciæna; Trachurus, Pammelas; Cyclopterus, Liparis;
Lophius; Anarrhichas, Chasmodes, Stichcæus, Centronotus,
Cryptacanthodes, Zoarces.
Tautoga, Ctenolabrus.
Gadus, Merluccius, Phycis, Molva, Motella, Brosmius; Ophidium
(one species, perhaps identical with a Mediterranean species);
Ammodytes; Hippoglossus, Hippoglossoides, Rhombus,
Pleuronectes.
Osmerus, Mallotus; Engraulis, Clupea; Conger.
Syngnathus—Myxine—Branchiostoma.
West Indian genera, or at least genera which are more developed
within the tropics, and which extend more or less northwards in the
North American district, are:—
Pteroplatea (also in the Mediterranean).
Gerres, Dules (auriga), Lobotes, Ephippus; Sargus; Prionotus;
Umbrina, Otolithus, Larimus; Sphyræna (Mediterr.); Trichiurus
(Mediterr.); Elacate; Cybium, Trachynotus; Stromateus (Mediterr.);
Caranx; Batrachus (Mediterr.); Malthe.
Pseudorhombus, Solea (Mediterr.)
Saurus (Mediterr.); Etrumeus, Albula, Elops, Megalops.
Hippocampus (Mediterr.)
Balistes, Monacanthus.

B. Shore Fishes of the Temperate North Pacific.

This fauna shows a great affinity to that of the temperate North
Atlantic, not only in including a considerable proportion of identical
genera, and even of species, but also in having its constituent parts
similarly distributed. However, our knowledge of the ichthyology of
this fauna is by no means complete. Very few collections have been
made in Northern Japan, and on the coasts farther north of it; and,
again, the ichthyology of the coasts of Southern California is but little
known. Southern Japan has been well searched, but very little
attention has been paid to the extent of the northward range of the
species. In collections made by Mr. Swinhoe at Chefoo, in lat. 37° N.,
the proportions of temperate and tropical fishes were found to be
about equal. Thus, the details of the distribution of the fishes of these
shores have still to be worked out; nevertheless, three divisions may
be recognised which, for the present, may be defined as follows:—
1. The fishes of the north-western shores, to about 37° lat. N.,
including the corresponding northern parts of Japan—Kamtschatkan
district; this corresponds to the British district of the Atlantic.
2. The fishes of Southern Japan and the corresponding shores of
the continent of Asia, between 37° and 30° lat. N.—Japanese
district, which corresponds to the Mediterranean.
3. The fishes of the eastern shores southwards to the latitude of
San Francisco—Californian district; this corresponds to the North
American district of the Atlantic.
Too little is known of the shore fishes of the coasts between San
Francisco and the tropic to enable us to treat of it as a separate
division.
The Shore fishes of the North Pacific generally are composed of
the following elements:—
a. Arctic forms which extend into the Arctic Ocean, and the
majority of which are also found in the British district.
b. Peculiar forms limited to the North Pacific, like the
Heterolepidina, Embiotocidæ, and certain Cottoid and Blennioid
genera.
c. Forms identical with fishes of the Mediterranean.
d. Peculiar forms limited to the southern parts of Japan.
e. Tropical forms which have entered the North Pacific from the
south.
 1. The small list of fishes which we can assign to the
Kamtschatkan district is due rather to the imperfect manner in which
its fauna has been explored than to its actual poverty of fishes; thus,
although we may be sure that sooner or later the small kinds of Dog-
fishes of the British district will be found there also, at present we
have positive knowledge of the occurrence of only two
Chondropterygians, viz. Chimæra and Raja. The species of the latter
genus seem to be much less numerous than in the Atlantic.
Of Acanthopterygians the following are known:—Sebastes;
Chirus, Agrammus; Podabrus, Blepsias, Cottus, Centridermichthys,
Hemilepidotus, Agonus; Trichodon; Callionymus; Liparis;
Dictyosoma, Stichæus, Centronotus.
Labroids are absent; they are clearly a type unable to endure
great cold; of the Embiotocoids which represent them in the Pacific,
one species only (a species of Ditrema) is known from this district.
The Gadoids are, so far as we know at present, sparsely
represented, viz. by isolated species of Gadus, Motella, and Lotella,
the latter being an inhabitant of moderate depths rather than of the
surface. Hippoglossus, Pleuronectes, and Parophrys, seem to occur
everywhere at suitable localities.
The Physostomes are nearly the same as in the British district,
viz. a Smelt (Hypomesus), probably also the Arctic Mallotus, an
Anchovy, several species of Clupea, and the Conger-eel. A very
singular Salmonoid fish, Salanx, which is limited to the north-western
Pacific, occurs in great abundance.
Also, the Lophobranchs correspond in their development to those
of the British district, Nerophis being replaced by Urocampus.
Neither Myxinoids nor Branchiostoma have as yet been found.

2. The Japanese district is, like the Mediterranean, distinguished

by a great variety of forms; some of them are peculiar to it (marked
J. in the following list); others occur in the Mediterranean, though
also in other districts (M.) The resemblance to the Mediterranean is
even greater than would appear from the following list of genera,
inasmuch as a considerable number of species are identical in both
districts. Three of the Berycoid genera have hitherto been found in
the Japanese and Mediterranean districts only, and nowhere else.
Another very singular fact is that some of the most characteristic
genera, like Mullus, Zeus, Callionymus, Centriscus, inhabit the
Mediterranean and Japanese districts, but have never reached the
opposite American coasts, either in the Atlantic or Pacific; although,
at least in the latter, the oceanic currents would rather favour than
obstruct their dispersal in the direction towards America. Bold as the
hypothesis may appear, we can only account for the singular
distribution of these shore fishes by assuming that the
Mediterranean and Japanese seas were in direct and open
communication with each other within the period of the existence of
the present Teleosteous Fauna.
Gadoids have disappeared, or are represented by forms
inhabiting moderate depths. Neither Myxine nor Branchiostoma are
known to have as yet been found.
List of Japanese Shore Fishes.
Chimæra (M.)
Galeus (M.), Mustelus (M.), Triacis, Scyllium (M.), Crossorhinus,
Pristiophorus, Cestracion; Rhina (M.); Rhinobatus (M.), Narcine,
Raja (M.), Trygon (M.), Pteroplatea (M.)
Percalabrax (J.), Niphon (J.), Centropristis, Anthias (M.),
Serranus (M.), Apogon (M.), Scombrops (J.), Acropoma, Anoplus
(J.), Pristipoma (M.), Hapalogenys (J.), Histiopterus, Velifer (J.),
Dentex (M.), Erythrichthys—Mullidæ (M.)—Girella, Pagrus (M.),
Chrysophrys (M.)—Chilodactylus—Sebastes (M.), Scorpæna (M.),
Aploactis, Trichopleura, Pelor—Monocentris (J.), Hoplostethus (M.),
Beryx (M.), Polymixia (M.)—Platycephalus, Hoplichthys (J.),
Bembras (J.), Prionotus, Lepidotrigla (M.), Trigla (M.), Peristethus
(M.)—Uranoscopus (M.), Percis, Sillago, Latilus.—Sciæna (M.),
Otolithus—Sphyræna (M.)—Lepidopus (M.), Trichiurus (M.)—Zeus
(M.)—Caranx, Trachurus (M.)—Callionymus (M.)—Lophius (M.),
Halieuthæa (J.)—Hoplognathus—Cepola (M.)—Centriscus (M.),
Fistularia.