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 PALGRAVE STUDIES OF
INTERNATIONALIZATION
IN EMERGING MARKETS

Leadership Development
in Emerging Market Economies

Edited by
Alexandre Ardichvili and Khalil M. Dirani
Palgrave Studies of Internationalization in
Emerging Markets

Series Editors
Marin Marinov
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Svetla Marinova
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Emerging market nations such as Russia, Brazil, China, South Africa and
India as well as Eastern European territories, are in the process of changes
and growth that require specific study and attention. The international
business strategies employed in these territories target new opportunities,
the study of which provides scholars the opportunity to evolve international
business theory. Covering three main themes—international business,
management and marketing–Palgrave Studies of Internationalization
in Emerging Markets will encompass amultiplicity of topics. Examining
the new ways in which firms from emerging economies develop and imple-
ment their internationalization strategy, as well as their management and
marketing strategies, the series will encompass specific issues such as social
entrepreneurship, operations and regional specifics of internationalization.
Looking closer at the specifics underlying the development of emerging
market nations and their firms, this series aims to shed light on the current
and future issues associated with the challenges and opportunities offered
by the varying contexts of emerging markets.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/15456
 Alexandre Ardichvili • Khalil Dirani
Editors

Leadership
Development in
Emerging Market
Economies
Editors
Alexandre Ardichvili Khalil Dirani
University of Minnesota Twin Cities Texas A&M at Corpus Christi
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA Corpus Christi, Texas, USA

Palgrave Studies of Internationalization in Emerging Markets

ISBN 978-1-137-58002-3    ISBN 978-1-137-58003-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-58003-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954263

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Cover design by Tom Howey

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Nature America Inc.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A.
 Contents

1 Leadership Development in Emerging Market Economies1

Alexandre Ardichvili and Khalil M. Dirani

Part I BRICs13

2 Gerdau’s Men of Steel: A Unique Case of Leadership

Development in Brazil15
João Paulo Bittencourt, Silvia Pereira de Castro Casa Nova,
and Edgard Cornacchione

3 Leadership Development in the Russian Federation37

Alexandre Ardichvili and Elena K. Zavyalova

4 Leadership Development Models and Practices in

India: Review of Literature55
Meera Alagaraja, Denise M. Cumberland, and Ann Herd

5 Leadership and Leadership Development in China73

Jessica Li, Yarong Wang, and Feng Wu

v
vi Contents

6 Leadership Development in South Africa93

Robert M. Yawson

Part II Asia111

7 Developing Leadership Capacity in Indonesian Higher

Education113
K. Peter Kuchinke

8 Organizational Leadership Development in Malaysia:

Current Practices, Challenges and Future Potentials131
Victoria Jonathan and Hana Hamidi

9 Leadership Development in Thailand149

Chiraprapha Tan Akaraborworn and Dawisa Sritanyarat

10 Leadership Development in Vietnam169

Loi Anh Nguyen, Lam Dao, and Anh Hong Nguyen

11 Effective Leadership and Leadership Development in

South Korea: Lessons Learned from Two Large
Conglomerates187
Seung Won Yoon, Jegoo Shin, Sungjun Kim,
and Dae Seok Chai

Part III Africa and the Middle East207

12 Leadership Development in Ghana: A New

Look at an Old Concept209
Emmanuel Osafo and Robert M. Yawson
 Contents  vii

13 Leadership Development for Frontier Societies: Reflections

from Kenya229
Machuma Helen A. Muyia and Fredrick Muyia Nafukho

14 Leadership in Saudi Arabia: A Multifaceted Phenomenon245

Khalil M. Dirani, Christine Silva Hamie, and Hayfaa Tlaiss

15 Exploring Leadership Development in Turkey: Implications

for Technology and Innovation261
Ahmet Coşkun and Mesut Akdere

Part IV Eastern Europe281

16 Leadership Development in the Polish Economy

During the Transformation Process: Selected Issues283
Andrzej Różański

17 The Shadows of the Past and the Hopes of the Future:

A Road Toward a Comprehensive Leadership
Development in Hungary297
Maria Cseh, Sára Csillag, Zsolt Nemeskéri, and Béla Krisztián

Index313
 Notes on Contributors

Chiraprapha Tan Akaraborworn is a former dean of the Graduate School of

Human Resource Development at National Institute of Development
Administration (NIDA), Thailand. Currently, she is assistant to the President for
International Accreditation. She has worked as an HR consultant for public and
private organizations in the area of HR planning, performance management, and
organization development.
Mesut Akdere is an associate professor of human resource development in the
Department of Technology Leadership and Innovation at Purdue University-West
Lafayette. His research focuses on leadership development and effectiveness, per-
formance improvement through talent development, organizational change
through quality management, and global human resources and cross-cultural
issues.
Meera Alagaraja is an assistant professor of HRD at the University of Louisville.
Her primary research interests include the examination of HRD’s role in strategy
implementation; global leadership development and assessment with a specific
focus on emerging markets; and enhancing individual well-being through work-
place spirituality. In 2013 she received the AHRD Monica Lee Research Excellence
Award.
Alexandre Ardichvili is professor of HRD and Hellervik Endowed Chair in
Leadership and Adult Career Development at the University of Minnesota. He
holds a PhD in HRD from the University of Minnesota and a doctorate in man-
agement from the Moscow State University. Dr Ardichvili has published 2 books
and more than 70 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in international HRD,
entrepreneurship, business ethics, leadership, and knowledge management. He

ix
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

served as editor-in-chief of the Human Resource Development International and is

president of the University Council on Work and Human Resource Education.
João Paulo Bittencourt earned his doctoral degree in business administration
with a focus on HRD from the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil. He is a
researcher in the field of innovative learning and corporate education, has profes-
sional experience in companies such as Bank Santander and BrFoods, and is a
consultant for private companies in training and development and leadership.
Silvia Pereira de Castro Casa Nova earned her doctoral degree in accounting
from the University of São Paulo (USP) and developed her postdoctoral research
at FGV. She has been a visiting scholar at the University of Minnesota (USA) and
at ISCTE-IUL (Portugal). She is an associate professor at the College of
Economics, Business and Accounting at USP, where she served as director of the
accounting graduate program. Casa Nova has published peer-reviewed articles and
book chapters related to HRD and accounting in leading Brazilian and interna-
tional publications.
Dae Seok Chai is assistant professor of organizational learning and performance
at Western Michigan University. Dae Seok received his PhD from Texas A&M
University. He has been involved in designing and conducting various training
programs and authored multiple articles, book chapters, and conference proceed-
ings. His research interests include expatriate effectiveness, cross-cultural training,
and leadership in diverse cultural contexts.
Edgard Cornacchione is full professor at the University of Sao Paulo (USP,
Brazil), where he served as the chairman of the Department of Accounting and
Actuarial Sciences (2010–2014). Dr Cornacchione holds a PhD in accountancy
from USP and a PhD in HRD from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
(USA). He has published many articles and has a record of successful grant appli-
cation and funded projects (e.g., FIPSE/CAPES). He is editorial board member
and reviewer for journals and conferences in the United States, Europe, and Brazil.
Ahmet Coşkun is a PhD candidate in business at the Istanbul Commerce
University, Turkey, and a research assistant in the Department of Business at the
Erciyes University, Turkey. His research interests are in business ethics, trust, lead-
ership, and entrepreneurship.
Maria Cseh is an associate professor of human and organizational learning at
George Washington University, USA, and honorary professor at the University of
Pécs, Hungary. Her refereed publications focus on informal learning, change and
leadership across cultures, and global mindset and competence. She was elected to
serve for two terms on the AHRD Board of Directors, and serves as adviser and
consultant to organizations.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

Sára Csillag is the head of the Management Department of the Budapest

Business School and a lecturer at Corvinus University of Budapest. She earned her
doctorate at Corvinus University. Her main research interests are ethical HRM
and business ethics, action research, and disability issues at the workplace. She
works as a consultant for various multinationals and NGOs.
Denise M. Cumberland is an assistant professor in the organizational leadership
and learning program at the University of Louisville. Before joining academia she
spent 12 years working for a global Fortune 200 company. Her research focuses
on entrepreneurship, global leadership, and governance. She has published in
Human Resource Development Review, Advances in Developing Human Resources,
and the International Journal of Management Education.
Lam Dao is the head of Research Committee at the Business School, National
Economics University in Hanoi, Vietnam. She has nearly 20 years of experience in
training, consulting, research, and teaching in the areas of HRM and leadership.
Dr Lam Dao acted as project leader, trainer/consultant in a number of capacity
building and consulting projects for organizations operating in Vietnam such as
GTZ, ILO, and USAIDS. She earned her PhD from Aalborg University, Denmark.
Khalil M. Dirani (PhD, University of Georgia) is an associate professor and pro-
gram chair for the Education and Human Resource Development Program
(EHRD) within the Department of Educational Administration and Human
Resource Development at Texas A&M University. Khalil’s research focus is on
international HRD, learning organizations in Lebanon and the Middle East
region, and transfer of learning practices and theories across cultures. He devel-
oped the Arabic version of the Dimensions of the Learning Organization
Questionnaire (Watkins & Marsick 1993), which was implemented by Arab schol-
ars in Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. Dr Dirani’s articles have appeared
in numerous academic journals, including Human Resource Development
Quarterly, Human Resource Development International, International Human
Resource Management Journal, Advances in International Management, and
European Journal for Training & Development.
Hana Hamidi is a PhD student in the Human Resource Development Division,
Department of Education Policy Organization and Leadership, College of
Education at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She has a master’s
degree in human resource development from the Rochester Institute of
Technology, New York, and is an HRD instructor at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
Christine Silva Hamie is a lecturer in international affairs at the Bush School of
Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University. Silva received her PhD
from the University of York, UK. She held responsible positions with Oxfam GB
and the United Nations Development Program in Lebanon. Her research interests
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

include the politics of reconstruction and humanitarianism, Middle Eastern poli-

tics, conflict transformation and humanitarianism in Islamic contexts, donorship
from Muslim and to Muslim states, and issues of community regeneration in
deeply divided societies.
Ann Herd is an assistant professor of human resources and organization develop-
ment at the University of Louisville. She regularly provides consulting services in
the areas of global leadership assessment and development, executive coaching,
assessment centers, and talent acquisition and management. Her work has been
published in Human Resource Development International, Human Resource
Development Review, Journal of Sex Roles, and Journal of Organizational Behavior.
Victoria Jonathan is a PhD student in human resource development at the
University of Minnesota. She has a master degree in HRD from Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak and a bachelor’s degree in management from Case Western Reserve
University, Ohio. Her research interests include entrepreneurial learning, compe-
tency development, HRD in small organizations, and cross-cultural HRD. She is
also an instructor at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
Sungjun Kim is a PhD candidate at Korea University Business School. As a
scholar-practitioner, he holds a role in assessing and analyzing executives’ compe-
tencies at the Korean Business Group. His research interests include executive
strategic thinking competency, assessment center, human resource analytics, and
the accumulation of individual human capital such as formal training, learning
behavior, and employability.
Béla Krisztián is a Professor Emeritus of adult education and human resource
development at the University of Pécs, Hungary. He is the author of more than
250 Hungarian, Russian, and English language publications in the areas of organi-
zational psychology, organization development, risk assessment, ergonomics, cur-
riculum development, transfer of learning, and innovation. He is the editor of the
journal Tudásmenedzsment [Knowledge Management Journal], a leading
Hungarian refereed journal.
K. Peter Kuchinke is professor of HRD at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, USA. He holds a doctoral degree from the University of Minnesota
in HRD and strategic management. His current research interests include self-
directed career behaviors and cross-cultural differences in career development. He
has published over 125 scholarly articles and book chapters and presented his
research at more than 50 national and international conferences. He serves as
president of the University Council for Workforce and Human Resource Education.
Jessica Li is an associate professor and the dean’s fellow at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Jessica was a business executive for 10 years. Her
research focuses on human resource development and education technology and
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

has been published extensively. She is a board member for the Academy of Human
Resource Development, associate editor for Human Resource Development
International, and a regional editor for the Journal of Chinese Human Resource
Management.
Machuma Helen A. Muyia is a clinical associate professor of human resource
development at the Texas A&M University. She holds an EdD in workforce devel-
opment education/human resource development from the University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville. She is a recipient of the spring 2011 Teaching Excellence Award,
Board of Regents, Texas A&M University System, and 2015 Teaching Achievement
Award, Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, Texas
A&M University.
Fredrick Muyia Nafukho is professor and department head in the Department of
Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, College of
Education and Human Development at Texas A&M University. He earned his
PhD in human resource and leadership development from Louisiana State
University and MEd in economics of education from the Kenyatta University,
Kenya. Nafukho’s research interests include adult learning, emotional intelligence,
leadership development, organizational learning, and investment in human capital
development.
Zsolt Nemeskéri is the dean of the School of Adult Education and Human
Resource Development and associate professor at the University of Pécs, Hungary.
He is the author of more than 50 Hungarian and English language publications in
the areas of measurement of HRD activities and the role of HRD in equal oppor-
tunities and corporate social responsibility. As an HRD consultant he works with
McDonald’s, AVON Cosmetics, Hungarian Post, and Paks Nuclear Power Plant.
Anh Hong Nguyen is a PhD candidate in economics at Columbia University. She
graduated summa cum laude from the George Washington University with a
Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics and economics. Her research interests
are industrial organization, economic development, and econometrics. Her cur-
rent research focuses on game theories in leadership behaviors and the welfare
impact of social health insurance programs in developing countries.
Loi Anh Nguyen is a PhD candidate in HRD at the University of Minnesota. She
is also a lecturer at FPT School of Business, FPT University in Vietnam, and has
been working as learning and development consultant for a number of business
organizations in Vietnam. Her research interests are leadership development,
organizational culture, and innovation.
Emmanuel Osafo received his PhD in HRD from the University of Minnesota.
He served in various leadership capacities in both the public and private sector of
Ghana. In the early 1990s Emmanuel collaborated with another colleague to set
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

up the National Service Secretariat at the Afram Plains District in the Eastern
Region of Ghana. He now works as a project research assistant at the Urban
Research and Outreach-Engagement Center (UROC) of the University of
Minnesota. His research interests are leadership development, organizational cul-
ture, performance, and ethical culture.
Andrzej Różański is professor (PhD—habilitation) at the Maria Sklodowska-
Curie University in Lublin, Poland, and former associate dean of the College of
Education and Psychology. He has worked many years as a manager and HRD
consultant with a number of private, nonprofit, and public organizations. He is
also coordinator of the Polish-­American Postgraduate study for managers program
organized jointly by the College of Management of the Lublin Technological
University, the University of Illinois, and the University of Minnesota. His research
focuses on managerial education in Europe, and career and educational
development.
Jegoo Shin is professor of leadership and human resource development at the
Seoul School of Integrated Sciences & Technologies, South Korea. He received
his PhD in organizational behavior from Kookmin University, South Korea. He
research focuses on strategic leadership, coaching, organizational decision-making,
and work engagement. He has worked at the Institute of Global Management,
Samsung Credu, Kookmin Bank, and Hyundai Economic Institute.
Dawisa Sritanyarat is a faculty member at the Graduate School of Human
Resource Development at the National Institute of Development Administration
(NIDA), Thailand. Her research interests are in the area of measurement and
evaluation, and leadership development.
Hayfaa Tlaiss is an associate professor of strategy and entrepreneurship with the
Faculty of Business at the University of New Brunswick, Canada. She holds a PhD
from the University of Manchester and an MBA from the Lebanese American
University. Her articles have appeared in leading academic publications including
Journal of Business Ethics, International Small Business Journal, International
Journal of Human Resource Management, and Human Resources Development
International. Her research interests include strategic planning, leadership, career
theory, human resource management and development, and diversity and gender
in business and entrepreneurship in developing countries, particularly the Arab
Middle East.
Yarong Wang is a professor at the School of Economics and Management at
Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology, China, where she also
served as the associate dean for the School of Economics and Management. She
has published extensively and is current a visiting scholar at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Feng Wu is an associate professor in the Graduate School of Education in Peking

University, China. He is the director of the Business-Education Research Center at
Peking University and the chairman of the Human Resource Education Committee
of the Chinese Association of Adult Education. He has published 6 books and over
50 journal articles, and conducted more than 20 research projects.
Robert M. Yawson is an assistant professor of management at the Lender School
of Business, Quinnipiac University, CT. Robert has a PhD in organizational lead-
ership, policy, and development from the University of Minnesota. He has con-
sulted for the World Bank and the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization and has worked on several multilateral and bilateral projects in
Africa. He has over 50 academic publications including peer-reviewed articles in
leading academic journals.
Seung Won Yoon is professor of higher education and learning technology at
Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA. He received his PhD from the University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He teaches courses in leadership, organizational
effectiveness, performance technology, research methods, web/social media, and
e-learning. His research focuses on connecting leadership, learning and knowl-
edge, technology, and organizational behavior.
Elena K. Zavyalova (Dr Psychol.) is professor and head of Organization Behavior
and HR-Management Department, Graduate School of Management, St.
Petersburg State University. She has published over 90 articles, reports, and books,
mainly related to HRM and HRD. Professor Zavyalova has conducted consulting
with large Russian and international companies, including Shell Oil, Lenenergo,
Admiralteyskie Shipyards, Watercanal, and others. She is a member of Editorial
Boards of the International Journal of HRM and Human Resource Development
International.
 List of Abbreviations

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

CCL Center for Creative Leadership
CEE Central and Eastern European countries
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CU Corporate University
DIKTI Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education
EU European Union
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GLOBE Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness study
HE Higher Education
HRD Human Resource Development
HRM Human Resource Management
ICF International Coaching Federation
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IDP Individual Development Plan
ILO International Labor Organization
INTAN National Institute of Public Administration (Malaysia)
KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
LD Leadership Development
MBA Master of Business Administration
MNC Multinational Corporation
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PISA Program for International Student Assessment
PMAT Personnel Management Association of Thailand
SMEs Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
T&D Training and Development
TM Talent Management

xvii
xviii List of Abbreviations

USAID United States Agency for International Development

WEF World Economic Forum
WTO World Trade Organization
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1  Process of cultural change: The blast furnace metaphor 30

Fig. 6.1  Conceptual overview of leadership development in South Africa 106
Fig. 9.1  Six bands or job levels defined in the insurance company 154
Fig. 14.1 Leadership relationship between the ruler and the scholars  251
Fig. 15.1 The number of technology development zones and companies 264
Fig. 15.2 Number of full-time equivalent R&D personnel by sector of
employment264

xix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1   Initiatives related to leadership development 26

Table 8.1  Selected leadership training programs provided by INTAN
Malaysia138
Table 9.1   Numbers of participants in each focus group 158
Table 9.2  List of competencies with highest scores from band interviews
and focus groups 159
Table 9.3  Identified leadership competencies and their descriptions
for each management level 160
Table 12.1 Comparison of the different leadership development
patterns in Ghana 225
Table 14.1 Leadership types, supporting contextual factors, and
practice outcomes in KSA 258

xxi
 CHAPTER 1

Leadership Development in Emerging

Market Economies

Alexandre Ardichvili and Khalil M. Dirani

Introduction
This edited monograph addresses an important and so far largely unex-
plored area of practice and research: leadership development (LD) in
emerging market economies. In the USA, LD comprises the largest and
one of the fastest growing segments of training and development efforts
of the majority of business organizations. For example, in 2012 for-profit
firms in the USA have spent $14 billion on LD, and this amount has
doubled compared with the annual spending in mid-1990s (Loew &
O’Leonard, 2012). Furthermore, research by Bersin by Deloitte’s (2014)
showed that LD accounted for 35 % of learning and development budgets
of more than 300 large U.S firms. While leadership and LD studies origi-
nated mostly in the USA and a handful of European countries, over the
past two decades LD has become a dominant HRD trend both in devel-
oped and emerging economies globally (Dinh et al., 2014).

A. Ardichvili (*)
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
K.M. Dirani
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

© The Author(s) 2017 1

A. Ardichvili, K. Dirani (eds.), Leadership Development in Emerging
Market Economies, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-58003-0_1
2 A. ARDICHVILI AND K.M. DIRANI

At the turn of the twenty-first century, Goldman Sachs projected that

by 2050 the combined GDP of four emerging countries, known as BRIC
(Brazil, Russia, India, and China), will be larger than that of the G7 (seven
largest developed economies; Goldman Sachs, 2001). Later, South Africa
was added to the list and the group became known as BRICS. In 2005,
Goldman Sachs has added a larger group of emerging countries to their
watch list, calling them The Next Eleven (Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia,
Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Turkey, South Korea, and
Vietnam; O’Neill, Wilson, Purushothaman, & Stupnytska, 2005). Despite
the recession of 2008–2009 and recent overall decline of the growth rates
in many of the emerging markets, the combined economies of BRICS
and of The Next Eleven have grown much faster than those of the G7, and
today there is no doubt that soon the emerging countries will account
for a larger percentage of the world GDP, compared to the developed
countries. A concurrent development is the rapid global expansion of mul-
tinational corporations (MNCs) based in the emerging market economies.
Thus, the 2014 Fortune Global 500 list of largest companies worldwide
included dozens of MNCs from China, Brazil, Russia, India, and other
emerging countries (Fortune 2014).
Given the growing importance of the emerging markets, understanding
how current and future business leaders in these countries are educated
and trained is a matter of high priority for academics, business execu-
tives, and policymakers worldwide. However, systematic studies of LD
in emerging markets and especially English-language publications on this
topic are scarce. We hope that this book will help to close an important
gap in the academic literature by bridging LD studies and research on
emerging markets and by providing analysis of LD practices in a number
of key emerging economies.
A single volume cannot provide a comprehensive picture of the LD
landscape of dozens of countries, classified as emerging markets. By
necessity, we had to make difficult choices. We included some countries,
while leaving out other, arguably equally important examples. We have
attempted, nevertheless, to provide representative examples from most
important country groupings and regions. Thus, we included chap-
ters on all five BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa).
Furthermore, four largest economies of the South-East Asian region were
included (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam), as well as exam-
ples from the Eastern Europe (Hungary and Poland), and Middle East and
Africa (Ghana, Kenya, and Saudi Arabia). Two countries in our sample do
 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES 3

not fall into any of the above groupings but were deemed important to
include: Turkey and South Korea. Turkey is located in both Europe and
Asia and has close ties with both the European Union and the Middle East
region. It is one of the largest (both in population and by the size of its
economy) emerging markets and has a potential for becoming one of the
leading economies in the world. We included Turkey in the Middle East
grouping of chapters. In making this decision, we followed the example
of the GLOBE research project where Turkey was classified as part of the
Middle East cluster (Javidan, Stahl, Brodbeck, & Wilderom, 2005).
South Korea, having achieved status of one of the largest and most
developed economies in Asia, can no longer be classified as an emerging
economy. However, it was listed among The Next Eleven by Goldman
Sachs, and we felt that it was important to include this country as an exam-
ple of an impressive development of LD systems that paralleled equally fast
transformation of its economy from the developing to developed status.

Topics Covered in This Book

Chapters in this book cover a wide range of LD practices and topics.
While some authors focus exclusively on LD in the business sector, others
are discussing such topics as LD in higher education (see the chapter on
Indonesia), the role of higher education institutions in LD for manag-
ers and executives (e.g., chapters on China, Ghana, Poland, Russia, and
South Africa), the role of religious institutions (Ghana), and LD in the
government and public sectors (China, Ghana, Malaysia, South Africa,
and Vietnam).
Chapters from Brazil, Malaysia, Russia, Thailand, South Africa, and
South Korea include case studies of LD in individual companies. These
cases and examples can be used in discussions of indigenous LD practices
in courses on international and cross-cultural HRD, HRM, and leadership
and organization development.
Since research on leadership and LD has originated in the West and
LD is a relatively new phenomenon in emerging market economies,
readers may assume that LD is at a rather rudimentary stage in most of
the countries covered in this book. We hope that chapters in this book
will provide ample evidence to suggest that this perception is wrong.
Many of the countries in our sample have seen emergence, over the past
20–25 years, of rather sophisticated systems of LD that cover a wide
spectrum of approaches. In some cases LD systems of emerging econo-
4 A. ARDICHVILI AND K.M. DIRANI

mies are more diverse and differentiated that those found in the West.
Unlike the developed economies where LD is mostly concentrated in
business organizations, in many emerging economies leadership capacity
building is an important national priority. In these countries there are
numerous government-led LD initiatives. In addition, LD is provided
by foreign development agencies, local subsidiaries of foreign MNCs,
professional associations, and non-governmental and not-for-profit
institutions.
Since there are 16 country-specific chapters in this book, it would be
impractical to devote this introduction to a chapter-by-chapter overview
of the contents. Instead, we will discuss a number of common themes
identified by us. We grouped these themes under three topics: factors
related to national and ethnic cultures and norms, legislative and political
frameworks, and global influences.

Sociocultural and Normative Factors

The role of networks, in-groups, and related cultural norms and prac-
tices. The role of informal networks and related social norms and practices
in shaping the business environment of emerging markets has been widely
discussed and analyzed in the academic literature (i.e., McCarthy et al.,
2012). Several chapters in this book discuss implications of the existence
of such networks and associated norms for LD. Thus, Alagaraja and col-
leagues (this volume) point out that in India leaders participate in mul-
tiple levels of relational networks in and outside their organizations, and
this could have a strong influence on how LD is organized, conducted,
and evaluated. For example, Alagaraja and colleagues suggest that in the
Indian context multisource feedback on leaders’ performance may reflect
not only their performance at work but also their role outside of the
workplace.
Likewise, in China guanxi (a concept describing reciprocal relation-
ships between members of interpersonal networks based on common
background and in-group ties) is central to success in business. Li and col-
leagues (this volume) point out that guanxi-based relationships between
leaders and subordinates are reciprocal and obligatory, and this could
complicate LD-related decisions. For example, if leaders have guanxi ties
with some of their employees, but lack such ties with other employees,
they may feel obligated to let their relationship influence their decisions
when selecting candidates for participation in LD programs (especially if
 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES 5

such participation is perceived as a reward or path to a promotion). On the

other hand, guanxi can be beneficial since it facilitates learning through
knowledge sharing among members of in-groups.
In Saudi Arabia, Dirani and colleagues (this volume) presented how it is
important for leaders to develop informal connections and networks with
colleagues for reasons related to consulting, mentoring, and listening to
different opinions. These skills are critical for leaders to succeed in their
work and within society.
Additional evidence of the importance of considering the role of infor-
mal networks when designing LD interventions is provided in the chapter
on Russia (Ardichvili and Zavyalova, this volume). The authors argue that
successful conduct of business in Russian organizations depends heav-
ily on informal networks (called swiazi) and on exchanges of favors with
members of these networks. A potential negative implication is that selec-
tion of candidates for promotion or participation in LD opportunities is
most likely to depend not on outcomes of 360 degree feedback or other
assessments but on top leaders’ personal preferences, informed by the con-
siderations of swiazi. This also suggests that there may be serious concerns
about the validity of multisource assessments, since considerations of loy-
alty to one’s in-group and competition with out-group members are likely
to affect objectivity of raters’ responses.
Finally, another implication of the existence of complex systems of
informal networks for LD is the difficulty in explaining nuances of such
concepts as guanxi or swiazi to managers and employees from developed
economies working in emerging markets.
The role of religion, spirituality, and philosophical traditions.
Most of chapters from countries of Asia and Africa discuss the role of
religion, spirituality, and philosophical traditions in shaping the leadership
and LD practices. Thus, chapters on China and Korea discuss the role
of Confucianism in shaping the image of an ideal leader as a benevolent,
paternalistic, patriotic, and socially responsible individual. The chapter on
India stresses the importance of ancient traditions of spirituality and influ-
ences of various religious traditions that have originated in or are currently
playing significant role in India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and others.
Finally, chapters on Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey show how Islamic
norms and beliefs influence all aspects of business management and leader-
ship as well as perceptions of what should be the focus of LD.
The role of indigenous models of leadership. All three chapters in
this book that are covering countries of Africa (Kenya, Ghana, and South
6 A. ARDICHVILI AND K.M. DIRANI

Africa) discuss the importance of indigenous concepts and models of lead-

ership and their role in LD. Thus, chapters by Yawson and Muyia and
Nafukho discuss in detail the concept of Ubuntu and its central role in
shaping the unique African way of doing business and leading organiza-
tions. In addition, Osafo and Yawson discuss the role of traditional tribal
leadership and LD approaches.
Muyia and Nafukho explain that, according to the concept of ubuntu,
“leaders are expected to be caring and humane in their leadership roles by
showing respect and empathy” (p. 233), and LD “should rely on the three
tenets of ubuntu: consensus building, dialogue and spirituality” (p. 233).
Furthermore, leaders “must focus on the learning and development of
people” (p. 233). Another conclusion made by the authors is that in the
African context there is a need for caring leadership that creates coopera-
tive and nurturing environment that is also emphasizing self-development
and self-discipline (p. 234).
Advancing a similar idea, Yawson discusses the current debate about
the use of Eurocentric and Afrocentric leadership models in South Africa.
He shows that, in contrast to Eurocentric models borrowed from the West
and focused on achieving profit maximization goals, Afrocentric models
are focused on human relations and on caring for employees and the com-
munity. Yawson concludes that in African countries a combination of the
two approaches, with a predominant emphasis on servant leadership and
caring, can provide a good fit with the cultural assumptions of the society
and be more effective in the long run.
Similarly, Dirani and colleagues discuss how the leadership norms in
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) are rooted in Arabia Bedouin cultures.
Dirani and colleagues. (this volume) suggest that individuals need to
develop a clear understanding of the Bedouin or tribal norms, such as
generosity, pride, and courage, and sacrifice for the collective good. As
such, people within the tribe have their particular perceptions of factors
such as leadership, decision-making, problem solving, and ways of com-
munication. The tribal norms and Bedouin perceptions of leadership are
clearly portrayed, both in the Saudi society and Saudi organizations.
Mindfulness and self-development. The theme of importance of
leaders’ self-development, discussed in the context of African leadership,
was a recurring theme throughout a number of other chapters as well.
Thus, Alagaraja and colleagues (this volume) pointed out that in Indian
organizations an increasing attention is paid to self-understanding and
healthy work–life balance. The authors suggested that, since mindfulness
 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES 7

and yoga-based approaches to leaders’ self-development are gaining popu-

larity in the USA and other developed countries, studying such practices
in India, a country with millennia-long tradition of such practices, would
be highly beneficial to LD professional around the world.
Likewise, the chapter on China (Li et al.) discusses the connection
between currently popular in the West theory of authentic leadership and
the Confucian philosophy. The authors cite Zhang and colleagues (2012)
to assert that “all the qualities of an authentic leader—positive psychologi-
cal capital, morality, self-conscience, and self-adjustment—could be found
in Confucian philosophy” (p. 76).
Paternalistic leadership styles. Chapters on Malaysia, Brazil, Korea,
Turkey, and Russia discuss the role of paternalistic leadership styles and
implications for LD. A study of managerial behaviors in ten countries
(Aycan et al., 2000) found that in a number of countries of Asia the pater-
nalistic management style was one of the dominant. As pointed out by
Aycan and colleagues, in paternalistic cultures leaders assume the role of
parents who are expected to care for the needs of their employees; in
return, employees are expected to show unconditional allegiance to the
leader. However, leaders’ behaviors are also affected by numerous other
factors, including socioeconomic conditions in a given country, influences
of legal and political frameworks, and the larger geopolitical situation.
This means that, while the paternalistic style is found in a wide range of
emerging market countries, specific manifestations of this style will vary,
and its effects on LD could be different.
There are also signs that traditional paternalistic models are being chal-
lenged by the new generations of young leaders. Thus, the authors of the
Turkey chapter cite a study by Aycan and Fikret-Pasa (2003) to point out
that the young generation of Turks shows stronger preference for trans-
formational leadership styles, as opposed to more traditional authoritarian
and paternalistic styles endorsed by older generations, and values more
individual growth and development opportunities. Similar tendencies
toward the departure from traditional paternalistic and autocratic models
can be traced in South Korea, as evidenced by the comparison of two very
different LD models, implemented by two large Korean business organi-
zations (Yoon et al., this volume).
In the KSA chapter, Dirani and colleagues argued that despite tradi-
tional paternalistic beliefs, more women are entering workforce in Saudi
Arabia today. However, it is still obvious that men deal with external
matters and women take care of household chores after work. These
8 A. ARDICHVILI AND K.M. DIRANI

traditional values undermine women’s aspirations to pursue leadership

positions, let alone career opportunities, and have resulted in the low pres-
ence of women in management and leadership positions in KSA.

Laws and Regulations, Ownership Structure, and Political

Factors
Differences in LD practices of organizations with different owner-
ship structures. A theme that is common to a number of the emerging
market countries is the significant difference in LD approaches of com-
panies depending on their ownership structure. In a number of emerg-
ing markets the role of state-owned companies is much more significant
than it is in the developed world. And the state sector has, as rule, a
distinctive set of norms that influence all aspects of management and
leadership, including LD. This difference is especially pronounced in
China and Vietnam, and the chapters on these two countries provide
informative discussions of the specificity of LD in the state sector. While
the said two countries are providing the most salient examples, the state
sector is also playing a significant role in economies of Russia, Malaysia,
Ghana, and many other emerging countries. Finally, in most emerging
economies, in addition to the state and private sector companies there is
a large presence of the third type of organizations—MNCs from Western
countries. These organizations usually have a strong influence on the
overall direction of LD in the country since local companies are often
imitating or borrowing practices of MNCs. An example of the influence
of MNCs on local LD practices is described by Ardichvili and Zavyalova
(this volume): In a recent annual competition for the title of the best LD
provider in Russia, all three top prizes were awarded to Russian subsid-
iaries of Western MNCs. Furthermore, the chapter demonstrates that
practices of such MNC subsidiaries are regularly featured in influential
leadership and LD publications.
The influence of dominant political ideologies. A unique charac-
teristic of some of the emerging market countries covered in this book is
the significant impact of dominant political ideology on leadership and
LD. While in Western democracies such influence is virtually nonexistent,
in countries that still have one-party political systems (China and Vietnam)
the role of dominant political party and its ideological platform is impos-
sible to ignore. Thus, Li and colleagues write, “The governing commu-
nist party has greatly influenced Chinese leadership and LD. Through
 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES 9

establishing a constitution that consists of guidelines for membership,

organization system for central and local governments, party discipline,
party cadres, and etc., the party tries to regulate members’ behavior”
(p. 78). Furthermore, “the party publishes six behavior guidelines for
party members to follow … party members must demonstrate exemplary
behaviors in production, work, learning, and social life.” (p. 78). Since
membership in the party is considered an important factor in securing
leadership roles in organizations, it goes without saying that the above
guidelines are likely to have huge impact on the behavior of Chinese busi-
ness leadership.
Likewise, in Vietnam the Communist Party committees play a central
role in shaping business strategy and leadership of state-owned organi-
zations. Policies, developed by the party, also affect the work of private
sector organizations. In the state sector, there are two parallel leadership
structures: the party apparatus (which includes the enterprise-based com-
mittee of the Communist Party and the secretary of the Communist Party)
and the management group, responsible for day-to-day operations of the
firm. Under this dual system, party leaders often play a more important
role in important management decisions than do business executives and
managers.
The described parallel structure is also mirrored in the LD systems. The
party leadership has its own system for LD (political academies), where
education is heavily skewed toward teaching political subjects. Since many
business leaders and leaders of Communist Party committees of the enter-
prises are going through training at such party academies, their leadership
behaviors and value systems are likely to be significantly influenced by the
party ideology.
Dirani and colleagues (this volume) discuss religion and authority as
factors that have a significant imprint on leadership practice and devel-
opment in KSA. They argued that Islam, as a religion, has shaped KSA
people’s national identity, way of thinking, and behaviors, which in turn
have shaped the leadership approach taken by leaders in KSA. The social
culture, as well as the religion, has its impact on people’s lives. In addi-
tion, the KSA basic law declares the king as the point of reference for all
branches of government (judicial, executive, and regulatory). Thus, the
king becomes the ultimate leader and many politico-religious matters rely
exclusively on his choice or judgment. As such, the king makes similar
claims to the caliphs and sultans in traditional Islamic history who claimed
two authorities: the temporal and the religious.
10 A. ARDICHVILI AND K.M. DIRANI

The role of the public sector. A number of chapters describe, in addi-

tion to organizational-level LD efforts, programs and systems that exist on
national levels. Thus, Johnathan and Hamidi provide a detailed discussion
of LD programs, initiated by the government of Malaysia, and an impres-
sive system of national training and development organizations (insti-
tutes), tasked with management of these programs. The system prepares
leaders from various organizations, both in the government and private
sectors. Such systems also exist in Vietnam, Thailand, and South Korea.

Global Factors
Global competencies and localization. Several chapters discuss how the
rapid internationalization of companies from the emerging markets leads
to a new challenge facing LD providers: developing competencies for lead-
ing in foreign markets and beyond the national borders. Thus, chapters
on Thailand and Vietnam point out that the impending integration with
the ASEAN Economic Community means that most Thai and Vietnamese
managers will need to develop new leadership competencies. Specifically,
there is a need for developing global leadership competencies aimed at
addressing the challenge of leading multinational workforce, consisting
of nationals of other ASEAN countries, and leading their organizations’
operations in other countries.
Alagaraja and colleagues (this volume) argue that developing global
leaders is an important priority item for LD in a growing number of
Indian MNCs. In discussing what global competencies may be important
for Indian managers, they cite Mendenhall (2011) who identified two sets
of such competencies: global business and operating expertise, and inter-
cultural competencies.
Likewise, Li, Wang, and Wu (this volume) argue that global leadership
competencies are highly important for leaders of Chinese companies, and
currently there is a shortage of “Chinese talents with the necessary com-
petencies and potentials to reach global and executive leadership positions
in multinational corporations” (p. 81).

Conclusion
In summary, LD practices in countries, represented in this book, are influ-
enced and shaped by a complex interplay of global economic and geo-
political factors, national and ethnic cultures, societal and organizational
Another random document with
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 This called forth loud protests from Abd er Rahman, who declared
that it was quite impossible for him to work in such heat on such a
meagre supply.
I endeavoured to pacify him by pointing out that I was not asking
him to do anything I was not prepared to do myself, and that, as a
Sudani, he belonged to a race that prided themselves on being able
to endure the hardships to be encountered in a desert journey. But
he only got more excited, saying that he and Ibrahim did more work
than I did, as they had to load and unload the camels and walked all
day, while I occasionally rode. Dahab, he added, was of no use in
the desert, as he was only a cook, and I could do without him, and,
as we were short of water, we had better get rid of him. At the end he
was fairly shouting at me with rage, and, as he was not in a state to
listen to arguments, I walked away from the camp into the desert to
give him time to cool down.
A Sudani at heart is a savage, and if a savage thinks he is
deprived of the necessaries of life he is very apt to fall back upon
primitive methods, and is quite capable of “getting rid” of anyone who
stands between him and his water supply. Visions of the ghastly
scenes that took place among the survivors of the shipwrecked
“Medusa” and “Mignonette,” when they ran short of water, and of the
terrible fate that overtook the survivors of the disastrous Flatters
expedition, during their retreat to Algeria from the central Sahara,
came up before my eyes, and, as I saw Abd er Rahman and Ibrahim
earnestly consulting together, I felt the situation was not one to be
trifled with.
I went back to the camp fully expecting to have to deal with
something like a mutiny. I called Abd er Rahman up and told him he
was never to speak to me again like that, and if he did I should fine
him heavily. I said that we should find plenty of water in the depot at
Jebel el Bayed and there was no need at all for any anxiety, but that,
owing to the leakage from the tanks, we should have to be careful till
we got there. I told him that I should help to load and unload the
baggage, and would walk all day to show that the allowance of water
was sufficient. As to Dahab, I pointed out that he had worked with
him for two seasons in the desert, and that it was very treacherous
for him to turn round and want to “get rid” of him directly there was a
slight deficiency in the water supply.
Much to my surprise, I found him extremely penitent. He said I
could drink all his water supply and Ibrahim’s as well if I wanted it; of
course he could put up with a small water supply better than I could,
he was very strong; and as for Dahab he was an excellent fellow and
a friend of his; he had only been angry because he was thirsty. I told
him that it was very easy for him to talk, but that I should like to see
how much there was at the back of what he said, so I challenged him
to see if he could do on less water than I could. A sporting offer of
this sort generally appeals to a Sudani or an Arab. He accepted my
challenge with a grin.
Ibrahim afterwards apologised for his brother, saying that he had
been behaving like a woman.
The sealing-wax I had put on the leaks effectually closed them;
but towards noon the increasing heat melted the wax and soon they
were leaking as badly as ever; the other tanks, that had held out up
to that point, also opened their seams in the heat, and, by the end of
the day, every single tank that I had was dripping its precious
contents on to the ground. Only the small ones that I had made for
the depots remained waterproof.
As the sealing-wax proved ineffectual, I scraped it off in the
evening, and, since the leaks were all in the seams of the tanks, I
plugged them with some gutta-percha tooth stopping that I had
fortunately brought with me, wedging it into the seams where they
leaked with the blade of a knife. This was apparently unaffected by
the heat, and, though it was liable to be loosened by rough usage,
was a great improvement on the wax. But the leaks were plugged
too late. During the two days while they were open, one tank had
become almost entirely empty, and the others had all lost a
considerable portion of their contents. Fortunately I had allowed an
ample supply of water, most of which was in the depot at Jebel el
Bayed, so with the small tanks to fall back on in case of need, we
could count on being able to get out about twelve days instead of the
fifteen I had arranged for, which I expected would more than take us
to Owanat.
We continued our march, leaving a small depot behind us at each
camp till we reached the main store. This I found had not been
made, as I intended it should be, at the foot of Jebel el Bayed, but a
good half-day’s journey to its north.
I was greatly relieved to see that the depot appeared to be quite in
order; but Abd er Rahman was evidently suspicious, for leaving the
unloading of the camels to Ibrahim and Dahab, he went off to the
depot and began peering about and searching the neighbourhood for
tracks.
Almost at once he returned with a very long face, announcing that
a lot of water had been thrown away. I hurried up to the depot, and
he pointed out two large patches of sand thickly crusted on the
surface, showing that a very large amount of water had been spilt.
We examined the depot itself. The sacks of grain were quite
untouched, but every one of the large iron tanks was practically
empty, with the exception of one which was about half full. The little
tanks intended for the small depots did not appear to have been
tampered with, perhaps because they would have required some
time to empty.
The neighbourhood of the place where the water had been
poured was covered with the great square footprints made by
Qway’s leather sandals, and made it quite clear that it was he who
had emptied the tanks. There was no trace of the more rounded
sandals worn by Abdulla on that side of the depot.
We followed Qway’s footprints for a short distance. About two
hundred yards away from the depot they joined on to Abdulla’s, the
small neat marks of Qway’s camel overlaying the bigger prints of
Abdulla’s hagin—showing clearly that Qway had been the last to
leave. I then returned with Abd er Rahman to the camp to decide
what was best to be done.
The heavy leakage from the tanks we had brought with us,
coupled with the large amount of water thrown away by Qway, made
it abundantly clear that all chance of carrying out the scheme for
which I had been working for two seasons, of getting across the
desert to the Sudan, or of even getting as far as Owanat, was
completely out of the question. It was a nasty jar, but it was of no use
wasting time in grousing about it.
Our own position gave cause for some anxiety. So far as I and the
men with me were concerned we were, of course, in no danger at all.
Mut, with its water supply, could easily have been reached in about a
week—it was only about one hundred and fifty miles away—and we
had sufficient water with us and in the depots to take us back there.
As for Qway, I felt he was quite capable of looking after himself,
and I did not feel much inclined to bother about him. The difficulty
was Abdulla. From his tracks it was clear that he had no hand in
emptying the tanks, and I very much doubted whether he knew
anything at all about it. Abd er Rahman’s explanation of what had
occurred was, I felt sure, the correct one. His view was that Abdulla,
though “very strong in the meat, was rather feeble in the head,” and
that Qway had managed to get rid of him on some excuse and had
stayed behind to empty the tanks, which he had then put back in
their places, hoping perhaps that we should not notice that anything
was wrong.
Abdulla, counting on me to bring him out water and provisions,
had gone off for a six days’ journey, relying on meeting us at the end
of that time. After going as far as he could to the south, he was to cut
across on to Qway’s track and then to ride back along it to meet us.
The man had served me well, and in any case I did not feel at all
inclined to leave him to die of thirst, as he certainly would, if we did
not go out to meet him. Obviously, we should have to follow up
Qway’s track to relieve him—a course which also held out the
alluring prospect of being able to get hold of Qway himself.
But our water was insufficient to enable the whole caravan to go
on together, and it was urgently necessary to send back to Dakhla
for a further supply. The difficulty was to know whom to send. There
was always the risk that Qway might wheel round on us and try to
get at our line of depots; and unfortunately he carried a Martini-Henri
rifle I had lent him. My first idea was to go back with Dahab myself,
as I could have found my way back to Mut without much difficulty,
using my compass if necessary—the road was an easy one to follow
—and to let the two Sudanese go on to relieve their fellow-
tribesman, Abdulla; but this scheme seemed to be rather throwing
the worst of the work on them—besides I wanted to go ahead in
order to make the survey.
Abd er Rahman, of course, could have found his way back quite
easily; but, though he carried a Martini-Henri carbine, he was a vile
shot, even at close range, as he funked the kick; moreover, he stood
in such awe of Qway that I was afraid, if they met, he would come off
second best in the event of a row, even with Dahab to back him up.
Ibrahim, however, cared no more for Qway than he did for an afrit
that threw clods, or for anyone else. With his flint-lock gun—bent
straight by Abdulla—he was a very fair shot; but he was young and
had had little experience of desert travelling, and I was very doubtful
whether he would be able to find his way. When I questioned him on
the subject, however, after a little hesitation and a long consultation
with Abd er Rahman, he declared his willingness to try, and his
brother said he thought he would be able to do it.
The next morning he set out with Dahab and the two worst
camels, carrying all the empty tanks. His instructions were to get
back as fast as possible to Mut, refill the tanks, and come out again
as quickly as he could with a larger caravan, if he could raise one,
and to beg, borrow or steal all the tanks and water-skins he could get
hold of in the oasis, and to bring them all back filled with water. I
gave him a note to the police officer, telling him what had happened
and asking him to help him in any way he could. I gave him my
second revolver and Dahab my gun, in case they should fall foul of
Qway on the way, and then packed them off, though with
considerable misgivings as to the result.
It was curious to see how the discovery that our tanks in the depot
had been emptied, in spite of the difficulties that it created, cheered
up the men. The feeling of suspense was over. We knew pretty well
what we were up against, and everyone, I think, felt braced up by the
crisis. Dahab looked a bit serious, but Ibrahim, with a gun over his
shoulder, and suddenly promoted to the important post of guide to a
caravan, even though it consisted of only two camels and an old
Berberine cook, was in the highest spirits. I had impressed on him
that the safety of his brother, his tribesman Abdulla and myself,
rested entirely on his brawny shoulders, and that he had the chance
of a lifetime of earning the much-coveted reputation among the
bedawin of being a gada (sportsman)—and a gada Ibrahim meant to
be, or die. I had no doubt at all of his intention of seeing the thing
through, if he possibly could. I only hoped that he would not lose his
way.
Having seen him off from the depot on the way back to Mut, I
turned camel driver and, with the remainder of the camels and all the
water we could carry, set out with Abd er Rahman to follow up
Qway’s tracks to relieve Abdulla. Abd er Rahman, too, rose to the
occasion and started off gaily singing in excellent spirits. I had told
him that I wanted to see whether he or Qway was the better man in
the desert, and the little Sudani had quite made up his mind that he
was going to come out top-dog.
 CHAPTER XVIII

A BD ER RAHMAN was an excellent tracker.

There had been no wind to speak of since Qway had left the
depot, and the footprints on the sandy soil were as sharp and distinct
as when they were first made. By following Qway’s tracks we were
able to piece together the history of his journey with no uncertainty;
and a very interesting job it proved.
We followed his footprints for three days, and there was mighty
little that he did in that time that was not revealed by his tracks—Abd
er Rahman even pointed out one place where Qway had spat on the
ground while riding on his camel!
We could see where he had walked and led his mount, and where
he had mounted again and ridden. We could see where he walked
her and where he trotted; where he had curled himself up on the
ground beside her and slept at night, and all along his track, at
intervals, were the places where he had stopped to pray—the prints
of his open hands where he bowed to the ground, and even the mark
where he had pressed his forehead on the sand in prostration, were
clearly visibly. The Moslem prayers are said at stated hours, and
Qway was always extremely regular in his devotions. This prayerful
habit of his was of the greatest assistance to us, as it told us the time
at which he had passed each point.
Walking on foot he had led his camel behind him, when he left the
depot, till he reached Abdulla’s trail. He had then mounted and gone
forward at a slow shuffling trot. Abdulla also had left the depot on
foot, leading his hagin, and the tracks of Qway’s camel occasionally
crossed his spoor and overlaid them, showing that Abdulla and his
hagin were in front.
 Abdulla had continued at a walk until Qway overtook him—as
shown by his tracks overlying those of Qway. Knowing the pace at
which Qway must have trotted and at which Abdulla would have
walked, by noting the time it took us to walk from the depot to where
Qway caught Abdulla up, we were able to estimate that Qway could
not have left the depot until Abdulla was nearly a mile and a half
away, and consequently too far off to see what he was doing.
After Qway joined on to Abdulla, the two men had ridden on
together till they reached Jebel el Bayed. Here, however, they had
halted and evidently consulted together for some time before
separating, as the ground all over a small area at this point was
closely trampled. On separating, Abdulla had gone off at a trot, as
arranged, towards the south, while Qway had sauntered leisurely
along towards the second hill, two days’ away to the south-west, or
Jebel Abdulla as the men had named it.
We concluded from Qway’s tracks, as dated by his praying
places, that he must be rather more than a long day’s journey ahead
of us.
We continued following his trail until the sun began to set, when,
as we did not want to overlook any tracks in the dark, we halted for
the night. We had got by that time into rather broken ground, cut up
into ridges and hills about twenty feet high, at the foot of one of
which we camped.
In spite of Abd er Rahman’s scandalised protests, I insisted on
doing my share of the work in the caravan. I helped him to unload
the camels, then, while he was feeding the beasts, I lit the fire and
made the tea.
Abd er Rahman returned and made bread, and I opened a small
tin of jam, which we shared together. Abd er Rahman then made
some coffee, and very well he did it; and after eating some dates I
produced a cigarette-case and we sat and smoked over the fire. The
result of this informal treatment on my part being that Abd er
Rahman became more communicative.
 His views were those of a typical bedawi. He disapproved highly
of the way in which Qway had behaved. If we had been a caravan of
fellahin, he said, it would not have been so bad, but for a guide to
behave in that way to us who knew the nijem was, he considered,
the last word in treachery. To “know the nijem” (stars) by which the
Arabs steer at night means to have a knowledge of desert craft, an
accomplishment that forms perhaps the strongest possible
recommendation to the true bedawin.
He told me that when the mamur had had them all round to the
merkaz, and it came to be Qway’s turn to be questioned—the very
man of whom I had complained—directly he heard his name, he told
him he need give him no further details, as he knew all about him,
and that he was to be trusted to do his duty; but he apparently
omitted to specify what that duty was—the mamur was a nationalist.
When I asked if he felt afraid to go on with me after Qway, he
laughed, saying that he was quite as clever as he was in the desert,
having lived there nearly the whole of his life and had often travelled
long distances alone. So long as he had enough water he did not
care how far he went, provided I did not want to take him to the
Bedayat. He even volunteered to go with me to within sight of their
country, in order that I might be able to fix its position, provided he
did not see any tracks of theirs before getting there. He was highly
elated at having found Qway out, and very full of confidence in his
own abilities.
He then began to tell me some of his experiences. Once he had
been out in the desert with a single camel, when it had broken down
a long way from water. He had tied the camel up, slung a gurba on
his back, and, leaving his beast behind him, walked into the Nile
Valley. He arrived with his gurba empty and half dead from thirst, but
managed to crawl up to a watercourse, where he drank such an
enormous amount that he immediately vomited it all up again. He
managed to borrow another camel, with which he had taken water
out to the one he had abandoned in the desert. The latter was
almost dead on his arrival; but after drinking and resting for a day,
had been able to get back to safety.
 When Arabs are running short of water, but their camels are still
able to travel, he said, they throw all their baggage down in the
desert, where no one but the worst of haramin (robbers) would touch
it, put all their water on to the camels and travel all through the night
and cool part of the day, resting in the shade, if there be any, during
the hot hours, and resuming their march as soon as it gets cool
again in the evening. In this way, occasionally riding their beasts to
rest, they can cover forty miles a day quite easily for several
consecutive days.
I asked whether he had ever heard of a man, when in difficulties,
cutting open his camel to drink the water from his stomach,
according to the little tales of my childhood’s days. This caused Abd
er Rahman considerable amusement. He pointed out that if a
caravan were in great straits from thirst, there would not be any
water in the stomachs of the camels. But he said he had heard of
several cases where a man, reduced to the last extremity, had killed
his camel, cut him open and got at the half-digested food in his
interior and had wrung the gastric juices out of it and drank them.
This fluid, he said, was so indescribably nasty, as to be hardly
drinkable, but, though it made a man feel still more thirsty, it enabled
him to last about another day without water.
While sitting over the fire with Abd er Rahman I heard a faint
sound from the west that sounded like a stone being kicked in the
distance. Abd er Rahman, who was, I believe, slightly deaf, was
unable to hear anything. I put my ear to the ground and listened for
some time, and at last heard the sound again, but apparently from a
greater distance than before.
Leaving Abd er Rahman in charge of the camels and taking my
rifle, I went off to see if anything was to be seen. The moon was too
faint and low at the time for any tracks to be visible. The whole
desert was bathed in a faint and ghostly light that made it impossible
to see any distance; so after watching for some time, and hearing no
further sounds, I returned and lay down for the night about a hundred
yards from Abd er Rahman and his camels.
 It is curious how easily, in the absolute calm of a desert night, the
slightest sound is audible, and how quickly one wakes at the faintest
unusual noise. About midnight I started up. The distant sound of a
trotting camel approaching the camp was clearly audible, and the
camel was being ridden very fast. By that time the moon was high in
the heavens, making the surrounding desert visible for a
considerable distance, and presently I saw a solitary rider come
round the shoulder of the ridge near which we were camped,
sending his camel along at a furious pace.
Instantly I heard Abd er Rahman’s sharp, threatening challenge
and saw him slinging his carbine forward in readiness for an attack.
The answer came back in a hoarse exhausted voice and was
apparently satisfactory, for the camel man rode into the camp, his
camel fell down on his knees, and the man got—or rather fell—off on
to the ground.
I sang out to Abd er Rahman to ask who it was. He called back
that it was Abdulla and, after bending for a few moments over his
prostrate form, came running across to where I lay. Abdulla and his
hagin were, he said, extremely exhausted; but he had told him that
there was no danger and that we could do nothing before daylight
and had begun a long statement about Qway having turned back, in
the middle of which he had fallen asleep. I went over to the camp to
look at him. His long attenuated form was stretched out along the
ground, almost where he had dismounted, plunged in the deepest of
slumbers; so, as I saw no object in disturbing him, and wanted him to
be as fresh as possible on the morrow, I went back to my bed and
followed his example, leaving Abd er Rahman to keep watch, till he
woke me to take my turn at keeping guard later in the night.
Abdulla, on the following morning, looked hollow-eyed, and, if
possible, thinner about the face than ever; but beyond having
obviously had a severe fright, he seemed to be little worse for his
ride; the Sudanese have wonderful recuperative powers. His hagin,
however, was terribly tucked up, and he had evidently had to ride
him extremely hard; but he was a fine beast, and otherwise did not
seem to have suffered much from his exertions, for he was making a
most hearty breakfast.
 Abdulla’s nerves, however, seemed to have been very badly
shaken. He spoke in a wild incoherent way, very different from his
usual slow, rather drawling, speech. He rambled so much in his
account of what had happened, and introduced so many abusive
epithets directed at Qway, that at times it was rather difficult to follow
him, and Abd er Rahman had to help me out occasionally by
explaining his meaning.
Qway, in the depot, had dawdled so over his preparations for
leaving the camp that Abdulla, with his eye probably on the
bakhshish I had promised him, had become impatient at the delay.
At the last moment, just before he was ready to start, Qway calmly
sat down, lighted a fire and began to make tea. Abdulla expostulated
at this delay, but Qway assured him that there was no immediate
hurry, told him that as soon as he had finished his tea and filled his
gurba, he would start, and suggested that he had better go on before
him and that he would follow and catch him up.
After he had gone some distance, Abdulla looked back and saw
Qway hauling the tanks about, which struck him at the time as a
rather unnecessary performance; but as Qway explained, when he
overtook him, that he had only been rearranging the depot and
placing the sacks of barley so as more effectually to shade the tanks,
his suspicions had been lulled. Just before they separated, Qway
had told him that he intended to get out as far as he could, so as to
earn a very big bakhshish, and he hoped to go three and a half days
more before he turned back. He advised Abdulla to do the same.
For most of the first day after leaving Qway, Abdulla kept turning
things very slowly over in his “feeble head,” and, towards the end of
the second day, it began to occur to him that Qway’s long delay in
the depot was rather suspicious; so before proceeding any farther
along his route, he thought it advisable to ride across and have a
look at the old track he had made himself on his previous journey, to
make sure that Qway was keeping to his share of the arrangement,
by following it towards Jebel Abdulla.
On reaching his track he saw no sign of Qway having passed that
way, so becoming seriously uneasy, he rode back along it hoping to
meet him. At a distance of only about a day from Jebel el Bayed he
found the place where Qway had turned back, which as he had told
him he intended to go for another two and a half days farther,
convinced him that something was very seriously wrong. He then
apparently became panic-stricken and came tearing back along his
tracks to make sure that we were coming out to meet him and that
the depot had not been interfered with.
Qway, he said, had returned along his tracks for some distance,
until he had got within sight of Jebel el Bayed, when he had turned
off towards the western side of the hill, apparently with the object of
avoiding the caravan, which according to the arrangement, he knew
would be following Abdulla’s track on its eastern side.
It struck me that as Qway’s track lay to the west of our camp, the
sounds I had heard during the preceding evening from that direction
had probably been caused by him as he rode past us in the dark, so
I sent Abd er Rahman off to see if he could find anything, while
Abdulla and I packed up and loaded the camels.
Abd er Rahman returned in great glee to announce that I had
been right in my conjecture, and that he had found Qway’s track; so
we started out to follow it. To the west of the camp was a ridge of
ground that lay between our position and Qway’s footprints, and this
may perhaps have prevented my seeing him, and certainly would
have made it impossible for him to see either us or our fire.
Qway had passed us at a considerable distance, for it took us
twenty-one minutes to reach his trail, which shows the extraordinary
way in which even the slightest sounds carry in the desert on a still
night.
As we followed his track we discussed the position. It was clear
that, as Qway, when he left the depot, only had five days’ water in
the two small tanks I had given him, he would be forced before long
to renew his supply from our tanks, as he had already been three
days away from the depot.
Abd er Rahman, instead of making our depot at Jebel el Bayed,
as I had told him to do, on account of it being such a conspicuous
landmark, had, fortunately as it turned out, made it about half a day
to the north of the hill, in the middle of a very flat desert with no
landmark of any kind in the neighbourhood. When the tanks and
grain sacks composing the depot were all piled up they made a heap
only about three feet high and, as the sacks, which had been laid on
the top of the tanks to keep off the sun, were almost the colour of
their sandy surroundings, our little store of water and grain was quite
invisible, except at a very short distance to anyone not blessed with
perfect sight, and Qway was rather deficient in this respect. He
would consequently experience very great difficulty in finding that
depot, unless he struck our tracks.
 SKETCH PLAN OF TRACK ROUND JEBEL EL
BAYED.

As we continued to follow his footprints, it became clear that this

was what he was aiming at, for his route, that at first had been
running nearly due north, gradually circled round Jebel el Bayed till it
ran almost towards the east, evidently with the intention of cutting
the tracks that we had made the day before. His trail went steadily
on, circling round the great black hill behind us without a single halt
to break the monotony of the journey.
We had been following his spoor for about three hours and a half
when we reached the point where his trail met and crossed the one
that we had made ourselves and, as Qway had not hesitated for a
moment, it was clear that in the uncertain moonlight he had passed it
unnoticed.
As we continued to follow his tracks, presently it became evident
that he had been considerably perplexed. Several times he had
halted to look round him from the top of some slight rise in the
ground, and had then ridden on again in the same easterly direction
and repeated the process.
Abd er Rahman, on seeing these tracks, was beside himself with
delight. He slapped his thigh and burst out laughing, exclaiming that
Qway was lost, and “Praise be to Allah” had only got five days’ water
supply. Abdulla, if anything, seemed even more pleased.
After a time Qway apparently concluded that he would wait till
daylight before proceeding any farther, for we found the place where
he had lain down to sleep. That he had started off again before dawn
was clear from the fact that he had not prayed where he slept, but
nearly an hour’s journey farther on.
We followed him for a little farther, but as the afternoon was then
far spent, I thought it best to return to the depot for the night, in case
Qway should get there before us.
Frequently when out in the desert I had occasion to send Qway,
or one of the men away from the caravan, to climb a hill to see if
anything was to be seen from the summit, to scout ahead of the
caravan, or for some other purpose, and as there was always a risk
that the absentee might not get back to the caravan by dark I had a
standing arrangement that if anyone got lost from this cause I would
send up a rocket half an hour after sunset, and a second one a
quarter of an hour later, to enable him to find the camp. These two
rockets were accordingly fired from the depot and, moreover, as it
was an absolutely windless night, a candle was lighted and left
burning on the top of a pile of stones to attract his attention in the
dark, if he were anywhere in the neighbourhood. I hoped by this
means to induce him to come in and give himself up, in preference to
risking a possible death by thirst—but he never materialised.
 In the morning we set out again to follow his track. I could not
exactly leave him to die of thirst, if he had really got lost, and I also
wanted to know what he was doing. As the camels were getting into
a very poor condition, owing to the hard work they had had and the
short water allowance I had put them on, we left all the baggage in
the depot, and took them along with us, carrying only sufficient water
for our own use during the day.
We picked up Qway’s trail where we had left it and, after following
it for some distance, found where he had reached the old faint
footprints left by Abdulla on his first journey, when he had ridden out
alone to Jebel Abdulla. They had clearly puzzled him extremely. He
dismounted and stood for some time examining the track and
scanning the surrounding desert, as was clear from the number of
footprints he had left at the place and the number of directions in
which they pointed.
After a considerable amount of hesitation, he again set off in the
same easterly direction he had been previously following, probably
still hoping to find the tracks of the caravan that he had crossed in
the moonlight without seeing.
I wanted Abdulla to get on his hagin and follow his tracks at a trot,
hoping that in that level country, as Qway was only travelling at a
walk, he would be able to overtake him sufficiently to sight him from
a distance. But he had not recovered his nerve from the fright he had
experienced and flatly refused to leave us, so we continued to follow
the tracks together.
After riding for some distance farther, Qway had again climbed to
the crest of a low ridge. Here he had stood for some time, his
footprints pointing in all directions, endeavouring to pick up the
bearings of the depot and the route that he had followed when he
had left it.
But that bit of desert might have been especially made for the
purpose of confusing an erring guide. As far as could be seen in all
directions stretched a practically level expanse of sandy soil,
showing no landmark to guide him, except where the great black
bulk of Jebel el Bayed heaved itself up from the monotonous
surface. We could tell from his tracks that he had reached that point
not much before midday, when, at that time of the year, the sun was
almost directly overhead, and consequently of little use to indicate
the points of the compass. From where he had stood, Jebel el Bayed
itself would have been of little use to guide him, for though the hill
had two summits lying roughly east and west of each other, the
western one was from that point hidden by the eastern, which was of
such a rounded form that it looked almost exactly the same shape
from all angles on its eastern side.
Qway at last had evidently given up the problem. He had
remounted his camel, ridden round a circle a hundred yards or so in
diameter in a final attempt to pick up his bearings, and then had
made off at a sharp trot towards the north. Abd er Rahman was in
ecstasies.
“Qway’s lost. Qway’s lost.” He turned grinning delightedly to me. “I
told you I was a better guide than Qway.” Then he suddenly grew
solemn. Much as he hated the overbearing Arab, he had worked with
him for two seasons, and, as he had said, there is a bond of union
between those who “know the nijem.” “He will die. It is certain he will
die. He only had five days’ water, and it is four days since he left the
depot. He is not going where the water is, but he is making for the
‘Valley of the Rat.’ It is certain he will die of thirst. His camel has had
no water for four days.”
Abdulla took a more hard-hearted view, and after the way in which
Qway had treated him, he could hardly be blamed. “Let the cursed
Arab die,” said the Sudani. “The son of a dog is only a traitor.”
We followed Qway’s footprints for a short distance. But he had
been travelling very fast, and it was obvious that we should never
catch him up. He was off on a non-stop run to Mut, and as our own
water supply was by no means too plentiful, I thought we had better
follow his example; so I told Abdulla to take us back to the depot. It
was then about noon.
Abdulla looked at Jebel el Bayed, glanced at the sun and looked
round the horizon, scratched his cheek in perplexity, and said he did
not know where the depot was, but he thought it must be there—he
pointed somewhere towards the north-west. Abd er Rahman,
however, was emphatic in saying that that was not the right direction,
and indicated a point about west as being its position.
After some discussion, as they were unable to agree, Abd er
Rahman turned to me and asked me to look at my compass to
decide the direction in which we were to go. Unfortunately, I had left
the compass in camp and had not been making a traverse of Qway’s
tracks, as I had done on the previous day. We had all been too keen
on reading Qway’s spoor to pay much attention to the changes in its
direction, and so found ourselves in the same dilemma as Qway.
It was a furiously hot still day, and the sun shining almost
perpendicularly down made the whole horizon dance with mirage,
producing the impression that we were standing on a low sand bank
in a vast sheet of water, whose distant shores flickered continuously
in the heat haze—a veritable “devil’s sea” as the natives call it.
I had only the vaguest idea as to where the depot lay, but as I had
to decide in which direction to go, I told them I felt quite certain that it
stood west north-west—about half-way between the two bearings
pointed out by the men. It was a mere guess, based on the
assumption that they were neither of them very far wrong, but that
their errors lay on either side of the true direction. As luck would
have it, I was much nearer right than either of the others, a fact that
greatly increased their respect for my knowledge of the nijem!
After marching for a couple of hours or so, Abd er Rahman
peered for a moment into the distance and announced that he saw
the depot ahead of us. Neither Abdulla nor I could see anything.
After some difficulty, however, I managed to identify the object to
which Abd er Rahman was pointing, but all I could make out was an
indistinct and shapeless blur, dancing and continually changing its
shape in the mirage. Abd er Rahman, however, was most positive
that it was the goal for which we were making, and, as I knew his
extraordinary powers for identifying objects in similar circumstances,
we made towards it and found that he had been correct.
We rested in the depot until sunset. Just before starting, it struck
us that possibly we might pass Ibrahim and Dahab on the road. The
arrangement I had made with them was that, if they failed to see us
before reaching the depot, they were to leave as much water there
as they could and return at once to Mut. But I wanted to arrange
some means by which they should know where we had gone in the
event of their reaching the depot. A letter was the obvious method,
but Dahab was the only man in the caravan who could read or write,
and I was doubtful whether he would come out again, as I had told
him not to do so if he got at all knocked up on the journey back to
Mut. Ibrahim, of course, was wholly illiterate, like the other two
Sudanese, so it was difficult to see how I could communicate with
him, if he came out alone. Abd er Rahman, however, was quite equal
to the emergency. He told me that he would write Ibrahim a “letter”
that he would understand, and, taking a stick scratched his wasm
(tribe mark) deeply into the soil, and then drew a line from it in the
direction of Dakhla, the “letter” when finished being as follows: ,
the mark being his wasm. This letter, Abd er Rahman said,
meant, “I, belonging to the tribe who use this wasm, have gone in the
direction of the line I have drawn from it.” This important
communication having been completed, we set out on our return
journey.