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TWELFTH EDITION
Meteorology Today
An Introduction to Weather,
Climate, and the Environment
C. Donald Ahrens Robert Henson

Emeritus, Modesto Junior College The Weather Company
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Contents in Brief
CHAPTER 1 Earth and Its Atmosphere 3
CHAPTER 2 Energy: Warming and Cooling Earth and the Atmosphere 31
CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 59
CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity 91
CHAPTER 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 113
CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development 143
CHAPTER 7 Precipitation 167
CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds 197
CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems 227
CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems 263
CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts 293
CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 321
CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting 347
CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms 383
CHAPTER 15 Tornadoes 415
CHAPTER 16 Hurricanes 439
CHAPTER 17 Global Climate 473
CHAPTER 18 Earth’s Changing Climate 503
CHAPTER 19 Air Pollution 537
CHAPTER 20 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 567
iii
Contents
Preface xv Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere 36

Conduction 36
Convection 37
CHAPTER 1 Focus On A Special Topic 2.2
Rising Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms 38
Earth and Its Atmosphere 3 Radiant Energy 39
The Atmosphere and the Scientific Method 4 Radiation and Temperature 40
Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere 4 Radiation of the Sun and Earth 40
The Early Atmosphere 5 Radiation: Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium 41
Composition of Today’s Atmosphere 6 Focus On An Environmental Issue 2.3
Wave Energy, Sunburning, and UV Rays 42
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 1.1
A Breath of Fresh Air 7 Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 11 Effect 43
A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density 11 Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect 46
Layers of the Atmosphere 12 Warming the Air from Below 47
Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Sun 47
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 1.2
Focus On An Observation 2.4
The Atmospheres of Other Planets 14
Blue Skies, Red Suns, and White Clouds 48
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 1.3 Earth’s Annual Energy Balance 49
The Radiosonde 15 Solar Particles, the Aurora, and Space Weather 51
The Ionosphere 17 Focus On A Special Topic 2.5
Weather and Climate 17 Characteristics of the Sun 52
Meteorology—A Brief History 18
A Satellite’s View of the Weather 19 Solar Storms and Space Weather 54
Weather and Climate in Our Lives 22 Summary 55
Key Terms 55
Focus On A Special Topic 1.4 Questions for Review 55
What Is a Meteorologist? 26 Questions for Thought 56
Summary 27 Problems and Exercises 57
Key Terms 27
Questions for Review 27
Questions for Thought 28
Problems and Exercises 29
Chapter 2
Energy: Warming and Cooling Earth

and the Atmosphere 31
Energy, Temperature, and Heat 32
Temperature Scales 33
Specific Heat 34
© C. Donald Ahrens
Latent Heat—The Hidden Warmth 34

Focus On A Special Topic 2.1
The Fate of a Sunbeam 36
v
Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 59 Atmospheric Humidity 91

Why Earth Has Seasons 60 Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere 92
Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere 60 The Many Phases of Water 93
Focus On A Special Topic 3.1 Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation 93
Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winter? 64 Humidity 95
Absolute Humidity 95
Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere 65
Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio 95
Local Seasonal Variations 66
Vapor Pressure 96
Focus On An Environmental Issue 3.2 Relative Humidity 97
Solar Heating and the Noonday Sun 67
Daily Warming and Cooling of Air Near the Surface 68 Vapor Pressure and Boiling—The Higher You Go,
Daytime Warming 68 The Longer Cooking Takes 98
Extreme High Temperatures 69
Relative Humidity and Dew Point 99
Nighttime Cooling 70
Comparing Humidities 102
Cold Air at the Surface 71
Relative Humidity in the Home 103
Protecting Crops from the Cold Night Air 72
Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 104
Record Low Temperatures 73
Daily Temperature Variations 75 Focus On A Special Topic 4.2
Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point 105
When It Comes to Temperature, What’s Normal? 77 Measuring Humidity 107
Regional Temperature Variations 77 Focus On A Special Topic 4.3
Applications of Air Temperature Data 80 Which Is “Heavier”—Humid Air or Dry Air? 108
Air Temperature and Human Comfort 82 Summary 109
Focus On An Observation 3.4 Key Terms 109
A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death 83 Questions for Review 109
Measuring Air Temperature 84
Why Thermometers Should Be Read in the Shade 86 Chapter 5
Summary 87
Key Terms 87 Condensation: Dew, Fog,
Questions for Thought 88 and Clouds 113
Problems and Exercises 89 The Formation of Dew and Frost 114
Condensation Nuclei 115
Haze 115
Fog 116
Radiation Fog 117
Advection Fog 118
Why Are Headlands Usually Foggier Than Beaches? 119
Upslope Fog 119
Fog That Forms by Mixing 120
Evaporation (Mixing) Fog 120
Foggy Weather 122
Clouds 124
Classification of Clouds 124
Cloud Identification 124
© Robert Henson
Some Unusual Clouds 130

Cloud Observations 132
Satellite Observations 133
vi Contents
Focus On An Observation 5.3 Chapter 7
Measuring Cloud Ceilings 134
Focus On An Observation 5.4 Precipitation 167
Goes-16: New Windows on the Atmosphere 135
Precipitation Processes 168
Focus On A Special Topic 5.5 How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger? 168
Satellites Do More Than Observe Clouds 138 Collision and Coalescence Process 169
Summary 140 Ice-Crystal (Bergeron) Process 171
Key Terms 140 Focus On A Special Topic 7.1
Questions for Review 140 The Freezing of Tiny Cloud Droplets 172
Questions for Thought 141 Cloud Seeding and Precipitation 174
Problems and Exercises 141 Precipitation in Clouds 175
Focus On An Environmental Issue 7.2
Chapter 6 Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation? 176
Precipitation Types 177
Stability and Cloud Rain 177
Development 143 Snow 178
Atmospheric Stability 144
Are Raindrops Tear Shaped? 179
Determining Stability 145
A Stable Atmosphere 145 Snowflakes and Snowfall 179
An Unstable Atmosphere 147 Focus On A Special Topic 7.4
A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 148 Snowing When the Air Temperature Is Well Above Freezing 180
Causes of Instability 148 A Blanket of Snow 182
Focus On A Special Topic 6.1 Focus On A Special Topic 7.5
Subsidence Inversions—Put a Lid on It 150 Sounds and Snowfalls 183
Cloud Development 152 Sleet and Freezing Rain 183
Focus On A Special Topic 6.2 Focus On An Observation 7.6
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons— Aircraft Icing 185
Hold On to Your Hat 153
Convection and Clouds 153
Topography and Clouds 156
Determining Convective Cloud Bases 157
Clouds That Form Downwind of Mountains 159
Changing Cloud Forms 159
Focus On An Advanced Topic 6.4
Adiabatic Charts 160
Summary 164
Key Terms 164
© Robert Henson
Contents vii
Snow Grains and Snow Pellets 186 Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft—
Hail 186 Gradient Winds 215
Measuring Precipitation 189 Winds on Upper-Level Charts 216
Instruments 189 Focus On An Observation 8.4
Doppler Radar and Precipitation 190 Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure Patterns Aloft By
Measuring Precipitation from Space 192 Watching Clouds 217
Summary 192
Surface Winds 218
Key Terms 192
Questions for Review 193 Focus On An Observation 8.5
Questions for Thought 193 Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere 219
Problems and Exercises 194 Winds and Vertical Air Motions 220
The Hydrostatic Equation 222
Chapter 8 Summary 222
Key Terms 223
Air Pressure and Winds 197 Questions for Review 223
Atmospheric Pressure 198 Questions for Thought 223
Horizontal Pressure Variations: A Tale of Two Cities 198 Problems and Exercises 224
Daily Pressure Variations 199
Pressure Measurements 200
Focus On A Special Topic 8.1 Chapter 9
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 202
Pressure Readings 203 Wind: Small-Scale and Local
Surface and Upper-Level Charts 203 Systems 227
Flying on a Constant Pressure Surface—High to Low,
Scales of Atmospheric Motion 228
Look Out Below 208
Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the Environment 229
Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer 229
Newton’s Laws of Motion 209 Eddies—Big and Small 231
Forces That Influence the Winds 209 The Strong Force of the Wind 232
Pressure-Gradient Force 209
Coriolis Force 210
Straight-Line Flow Aloft—Geostrophic Winds 213 Eddies and “Air Pockets” 233

Wind and Soil 234
A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic Wind 214
Wind and Snow 234
Wind and Vegetation 235
Wind and Water 236
Local Wind Systems 237
Pedaling into the Wind 238
Thermal Circulations 238
Sea and Land Breezes 239
Mountain and Valley Breezes 241
Katabatic Winds 242
Chinook (Foehn) Winds 243
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes 244
Santa Ana Winds 245
Desert Winds 247
Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon 249
Determining Wind Direction and Speed 252
The Influence of Prevailing Winds 252
© Robert Henson
Wind Measurements 254
Wind Energy 255
viii Contents
Summary 258 Focus On A Special Topic 11.4
Key Terms 258 The Wavy Warm Front 312
Questions for Review 258 Drylines 312
Questions for Thought 259 Occluded Fronts 313
Problems and Exercises 260 Upper-Air Fronts 315
Summary 317
Chapter 10 Key Terms 317
Wind: Global Systems 263 Problems and Exercises 319
General Circulation of the Atmosphere 264
Single-Cell Model 264 Chapter 12
Three-Cell Model 265
Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real Middle-Latitude Cyclones 321
World 267
The General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns 269 Polar Front Theory 322
Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft 270 Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend to Form? 323
Focus On An Observation 10.1 Focus On A Special Topic 12.1
The “Dishpan” Experiment 272 Nor’easters 325
Jet Streams 272 Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows 326
The Formation of Jet Streams 274 The Roles of Converging and Diverging Air 327
Other Jet Streams 275 Focus On A Special Topic 12.2
Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions 276 A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence 328
Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Currents 277 Upper-Level Waves and Mid-Latitude Cyclones 328
Upwelling 278 The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Mid-Latitude
El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation 279 Cyclone 330
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 285 Upper-Air Support 330
Focus On An Special Topic 10.2 The Role of the Jet Stream 331
The Challenge of Predicting El Niño and La Niña 286 Focus On A Special Topic 12.3
North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation 287 Jet Streaks and Storms 332
Summary 290 Conveyor Belt Model of Mid-Latitude Cyclones 333
Key Terms 290 A Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone—The March Storm
Questions for Review 290 of 1993 334
Questions for Thought 291 Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid-Latitude
Problems and Exercises 291 Cyclones 337
Vorticity on a Spinning Planet 337
Chapter 11
Air Masses and Fronts 293

Air Masses 294
Source Regions 294
Classification 294
Air Masses of North America 295
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows 297
The Return of The Siberian Express 300
Rivers in the Atmosphere 303
Fronts 305
© Robert Henson
Stationary Fronts 306
Cold Fronts 306
Warm Fronts 309
Contents ix
Focus On A Special Topic 12.4 Why Computer-Based Forecasts Can Go Awry and Steps
Vorticity and Longwaves 339 to Improve Them 355
Vorticity Advection and Shortwaves 340 Other Forecasting Techniques 359
Putting It All Together—A Massive Snowstorm 341 Focus On An Observation 13.4
Polar Lows 342 Forecasting Temperature Advection by Watching the Clouds 362
Summary 343 Time Range of Forecasts 364
Key Terms 343 Accuracy and Skill in Weather Forecasting 365
Focus On Social And Economic Impacts 13.5
Problems and Exercises 344 Weather Prediction and the Marketplace 366
Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts 368
Chapter 13 Determining the Movement of Weather Systems 368
Weather Forecasting 347 TV Weathercasters—How Do They Do It? 369
A Forecast for Six Cities 370
Weather Observations 348 Using Forecasting Tools to Predict the Weather 373
Surface and Upper-Air Data 348 Help from the 500-mb Chart 374
Satellite Products 348 The Models Provide Assistance 375
Doppler Radar 348 A Valid Forecast 376
Focus On A Special Topic 13.1 Satellite and Upper-Air Assistance 376
The Forecast Funnel 349 A Day of Rain and Wind 377
Acquisition of Weather Information 350 Summary 379
Weather Forecasting Tools 350 Key Terms 379
Focus On A Special Topic 13.2 Questions for Review 379
The Forecast in Words and Pictures 351 Questions for Thought 380
Weather Forecasting Methods 353
The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical
Weather Prediction 353
Chapter 14
The Thickness Chart—A Forecasting Tool 354
Thunderstorms 383
Thunderstorm Types 384
Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 385
Multicell Thunderstorms 387
Supercell Thunderstorms 394
Thunderstorms and the Dryline 398
Thunderstorms and Flooding 399
The Terrifying Flash Flood in the Big Thompson Canyon 400
Distribution of Thunderstorms 402
Lightning and Thunder 403
How Far Away Is the Lightning? Start Counting 404
Electrification of Clouds 404
ELVES in the Atmosphere 405
The Lightning Stroke 406
Lightning Detection and Suppression 409
Don’t Sit Under the Apple Tree 410
Summary 412
Key Terms 412
NASA
x Contents
Chapter 15
Tornadoes 415
Tornadoes: A Few Facts 416
Tornado Life Cycle 416
Tornado Occurrence and Distribution 417
Tornado Winds 419
The Weird World of Tornado Damage 420
Tornado Outbreaks 423
The Evolution of Tornado Watches and Warnings 424
© Robert Henson
Tornado Formation 425
Supercell Tornadoes 425
Nonsupercell Tornadoes 429
Forecasting Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 430
Waterspouts 431
Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather 432 Hugo, 1989 457
Storm Chasing and Mobile Radar 434 Andrew, 1992 457
Summary 436 Ivan, 2004 458
Key Terms 436 Katrina and Rita, 2005 459
Questions for Thought 437 Focus On An Observation 16.3
Problems and Exercises 437 The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Seasons of 2004
and 2005 460
Sandy, 2012 462
Chapter 16 Destructive Tropical Cyclones around the World 463
Hurricanes 439 Hurricanes in a Warmer World 465
Tropical Weather 440 Hurricane Watches and Warnings 466
Anatomy of a Hurricane 440 Hurricane Forecasting Techniques 467
Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 443 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 16.5
The Right Environment 443 A Forecast Challenge: The Devastating Hurricanes of 2017 468
The Developing Storm 444
Modifying Hurricanes 468
The Storm Dies Out 445
Summary 470
Hurricane Stages of Development 445
Key Terms 470
Investigating the Storm 446
Hurricane Movement 447
Focus On A Special Topic 16.1 Problems and Exercises 471
How Do Hurricanes Compare with Middle-Latitude
Cyclones? 449
Chapter 17
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 451
Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and Flooding 451 Global Climate 473
Classifying Hurricane Strength 453
Focus On A Special Topic 16.2 A World with Many Climates 474
Devastation from a Tropical Storm: The Case of Allison 455 Global Temperatures 474
Global Precipitation 475
Hurricane-Spawned Tornadoes 456
Hurricane Fatalities 456 Focus On A Special Topic 17.1
Some Notable Hurricanes 457 Precipitation Extremes 478
Galveston, 1900 457 Climatic Classification 479
New England, 1938 457 The Ancient Greeks 479
Camille, 1969 457 The Köppen System 479
Thornthwaite’s System 479
Contents xi
The Global Pattern of Climate 480 Climate Change Caused by Natural Events 510
Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) 480 Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 510
Dry Climates (Group B) 486 Climate Change: Plate Tectonics and Mountain
Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates Building 511
(Group C) 488 Climate Change: Variations in Earth’s Orbit 513
Focus On An Observation 17.2 Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output 516
A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle 489 Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles 516
Climate Change Caused by Human (Anthropogenic)
Focus On A Special Topic 17.3 Activities 518
When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought? 492 Climate Change: Aerosols Injected into the Lower
Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 492 Atmosphere 518
Polar Climates (Group E) 495 Climate Change: Greenhouse Gases 519
Focus On An Environmental Issue 17.4 Climate Change: Land Use Changes 519
Are Plant Hardiness Zones Shifting Northward? 498 Focus On An Environmental Issue 18.2
Highland Climates (Group H) 499 Nuclear Winter, Cold Summers, and Dead Dinosaurs 520
Summary 500 Focus On A Special Topic 18.3
Key Terms 500 The Sahel—An Example of Climatic Variability and Human
Questions for Review 500 Existence 521
Climate Change: Global Warming 522
Recent Global Warming: Perspective 522
The Extremes of 2011 and 2012: Did Climate Change Play
Chapter 18
a Role? 523
Earth’s Changing Climate 503 Future Climate Change: Projections 524

Reconstructing Past Climates 504 Climate Models: How Do They Work? 526
Climate Throughout the Ages 506
Temperature Trends During the Past 1000 Years 507 Focus On An Environmental Issue 18.6
Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on Climate
Change 529
The Ocean’s Influence on Rapid Climate Change 508
Temperature Trends During the Past 100-Plus Years 509 Consequences of Climate Change: The Possibilities 529
Climate Change: Efforts to Curb 532
Summary 534
Key Terms 534
Chapter 19
Air Pollution 537
A Brief History of Air Pollution 538
Types and Sources of Air Pollutants 539
Indoor Air Pollution 541
Principal Air Pollutants 542
Ozone in the Troposphere 544
Ozone in the Stratosphere 545
The Ozone Hole 548
Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns 549
Factors That Affect Air Pollution 552
NASA
The Role of the Wind 552
xii Contents
The Role of Stability and Inversions 553 APPENDIX D
Focus On An Observation 19.3 Average Annual Global Precipitation A-10
Smokestack Plumes 555
The Role of Topography 556 APPENDIX E
Severe Air Pollution Potential 556 Instant Weather Forecast Chart A-12
Five Days in Donora—An Air Pollution Episode 558 APPENDIX F
Changing GMT and UTC to Local Time A-14
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment 558
Focus On Social And Economic Impact 19.5
APPENDIX G
Heat Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly Team 560 Standard Atmosphere A-15
Acid Deposition 560
Summary 563 APPENDIX H
Key Terms 563 Adiabatic Chart A-16
Questions for Thought 564 Glossary G-1
Problems and Exercises 565 Additional Reading Material R-1
Index I-1
Chapter 20
Light, Color, and Atmospheric

Optics 567
White and Colors 568
Clouds and Scattered Light 568
Blue Skies and Hazy Days 568
White Clouds and Dark Bases 569
Crepuscular and Anticrepuscular Rays 571
Red Suns and Blue Moons 572
Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash 573
The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing 576
The Fata Morgana 577
Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars 577
Rainbows 580
Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining? 583
Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein 583
Summary 586
Key Terms 586
APPENDIX A
Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations A-1
Appendix B
Weather Symbols and the Station Model A-4
© C. Donald Ahrens
APPENDIX C
Humidity and Dew-Point Tables (Psychrometric Tables) A-6
Contents xiii
Preface
T
he world is an ever-changing picture of naturally occurring to the world around them. To assist with this endeavor, a color
events. From drought and famine to devastating floods, Cloud Chart appears at the end of this text. The Cloud Chart
some of the greatest challenges we face come in the form can be separated from the book and used as a learning tool in
of natural disasters created by weather. Yet dealing with weather any place one chooses to observe the sky. Numerous full-color
and climate is an inevitable part of our lives. Sometimes it is illustrations and photographs illustrate key features of the at-
as small as deciding what to wear for the day or how to plan a mosphere, stimulate interest, and show how exciting the study
vacation. But it can also have life-shattering consequences, es- of weather can be.
pecially for those who are victims of a hurricane or a tornado. After an introductory chapter on the composition, origin,
Weather has always been front-page news, but in recent years, and structure of the atmosphere, the book covers energy, tem-
extreme weather seems to receive an ever-increasing amount of perature, moisture, precipitation, and winds. Next come chapters
coverage. From the destruction wrought by extreme storms to the that deal with air masses and middle-latitude cyclones, followed
quiet, but no less devastating, impacts of severe drought, weather by weather prediction and severe storms, including a separate
has enormous impact on our lives. The longer-term challenges of chapter devoted to tornadoes. Wrapping up the book are chapters
an evolving climate also demand our attention, whether it be ris- on hurricanes, global climate, climate change, air pollution, and
ing sea levels, record global temperatures, intensified downpours, atmospheric optics.
or the retreat of Arctic sea ice. Thanks in part to the rise of social This book is structured to provide maximum flexibility to
media, more people than ever are sharing their weather-related instructors of atmospheric science courses, with chapters gener-
observations, impressions, and photographs with the world at ally designed so they can be covered in any desired order. For
large. For these and many other reasons, interest in meteorol- example, the chapter on atmospheric optics, Chapter 20, is self-
ogy (the study of the atmosphere) continues to grow. One of the contained and can be covered before or after any chapter. In-
reasons that meteorology is such an engaging science to study structors, then, are able to tailor this text to their particular needs.
is that the atmosphere is a universally accessible laboratory for Each chapter contains at least two Focus sections, which
everyone. Although the atmosphere will always provide chal- expand on material in the main text or explore a subject closely
lenges for us, as research and technology advance, our ability to related to what is being discussed. Focus sections fall into one
understand and predict our atmosphere improves as well. We of five distinct categories: Observations, Special Topics, Envi-
hope this book serves to assist you as you develop your own per- ronmental Issues, Advanced Topics, and Social and Economic
sonal understanding and appreciation of our planet’s dynamic, Impacts. Some include material that is not always found in intro-
spectacular atmosphere. ductory meteorology textbooks, such as temperature extremes,
cloud seeding, and the weather on other planets. Others help
to bridge theory and practice. Focus sections new to this edi-
tion include “GOES-16: New Windows on the Atmosphere,”
About This Book (Chapter 5), “Rivers in the Atmosphere” (Chapter 11), “The
Weird World of Tornado Damage” (Chapter 15), and “A Forecast
Meteorology Today is written for college-level students taking Challenge: The Devastating Hurricanes of 2017” (Chapter 16).
an introductory course on the atmospheric environment. As Quantitative discussions of important equations, such as the
was the case in previous editions, no special prerequisites are geostrophic wind equation and the hydrostatic equation, are
necessary. The main purpose of the text is to convey meteo- found in Focus sections on advanced topics.
rological concepts in a visual and practical manner, while si- Set apart as “Weather Watch” features in each chapter is
multaneously providing students with a comprehensive back- weather information that may not be commonly known, yet per-
ground in basic meteorology. This twelfth edition includes tains to the topic under discussion. Designed to bring the reader
up-to-date information on important topics, including cli- into the text, most of these weather highlights relate to some in-
mate change, ozone depletion, air quality, and El Niño. Also teresting weather fact or astonishing event.
included are discussions of high-profile weather events, such Each chapter incorporates other effective learning aids:
as droughts, heat waves, tornado outbreaks, and hurricanes of
recent years. ●● A major topic outline begins each chapter.
Written expressly for the student, this book emphasizes the ●● Interesting introductory pieces draw the reader naturally
understanding and application of meteorological principles. into the main text.
The text encourages watching the weather so that it becomes ●● Important terms are boldfaced, with their definitions
“alive,” allowing readers to immediately apply textbook material appearing in the glossary or in the text.
xv
●● Key phrases are italicized. Resources—an ideal one-stop site for classroom discussion
●● English equivalents of metric units in most cases are imme- and research projects for all things geoscience! Broken into the
diately provided in parentheses. four key course areas (Geography, Geology, Meteorology, and
●● A brief review of the main points is placed toward the mid- Oceanography), you can easily get to the most relevant content
dle of most chapters. available for your course. You and your students will have access
to the latest information from trusted academic journals, news
●● Each chapter ends with a summary of the main ideas.
outlets, and magazines. You also will receive access to statistics,
●● A list of key terms with page references follows each chapter, primary sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more!
allowing students to review and reinforce their knowledge
of key concepts. TECHNOLOGY FOR THE STUDENT
●● Questions for Review act to check how well students assimi- Earth Science MindTap for Meteorology Today MindTap is well
late the material. beyond an eBook, a homework solution or digital supplement, a
●● Questions for Thought require students to synthesize resource center website, a course delivery platform, or a Learn-
learned concepts for deeper understanding. ing Management System. More than 70 percent of students
●● Problems and Exercises require mathematical calculations surveyed said that it was unlike anything they have ever seen
that provide a technical challenge to the student. before. MindTap is a personal learning experience that com-
●● References to more than 20 Concept Animations are combines all of your digital assets—readings, multimedia, activities,
piled on pp. xix. These animations convey an immediate study tools, and assessments—into a singular learning path to
appreciation of how a process works and help students visu- improve student outcomes. The twelfth edition MindTap course
alize the more difficult concepts in meteorology. Animations contains: Case Study activities with summaries and questions
can be found in the Earth Science MindTap for Meteorology written by co-author Bob Henson, new Concept Animations,
Today. and auto-graded homework problems and exercises adapted
from the text or newly written by the authors.
Eight appendices conclude the book. In addition, at the end
of the book, a compilation of supplementary reading material is
presented, as is an extensive glossary.
On the endsheet at the back of the book is a geophysical map
of North America. The map serves as a quick reference for locat- Changes in the Twelfth Edition
ing states, provinces, and geographical features, such as mountain The authors have carried out extensive updates and revisions
ranges and large bodies of water. to this twelfth edition of Meteorology Today, reflecting the
ever-changing nature of the field and the atmosphere itself.
Dozens of new or revised color illustrations and many new
photos have been added to help visualize the excitement of the
Supplemental Material and atmosphere.
Technology Support ●● Chapter 1, “Earth and Its Atmosphere,” continues to serve
as a broad overview of the atmosphere. Material that puts
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INSTRUCTOR meteorology in the context of the scientific method lays the
Instructor Companion Website Everything you need for your foundation for the rest of the book. Among recent events
course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture and now referenced in this chapter are the severe flooding over
class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login. Ac- the Southern Plains and Southeast in 2015 and the Houston
cess and download PowerPoint presentations, images, instruc- flash flood of April 2016.
tor’s manual, and more. ●● Chapter 2, “Warming and Cooling Earth and Its Atmo-
Cognero Test Bank Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cog- sphere,” contains up-to-date statistics and background on
nero is a flexible, online system that allows you to: greenhouse gases and climate change, topics covered in
more detail later in the book.
●● Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple
Cengage Learning solutions ●● Chapter 3, “Seasonal and Daily Temperatures,” includes
updated details on the recently revised world high tem-
●● Create multiple test versions in an instant
perature record. A number of figures and tables have been
●● Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever updated so that they include data from the most recent ref-
you want erence period (1981–2010).
Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a day, the ●● Chapter 4, “Atmospheric Humidity,” continues to cover
Global Geoscience Watch is a focused portal into GREENR— essential concepts related to this important aspect of the
our Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and N
atural atmosphere. A section on relative humidity and human
xvi preface
discomfort now stresses the danger of heat buildup in a produce. Storm chasing is discussed in the context of the
closed vehicle, independent of humidity. VORTEX and VORTEX2 field campaigns and the tragic
●● Chapter 5, “Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds,” includes deaths of several storm researchers in 2013.
a new Focus section spotlighting the GOES-16 satellite and ●● Chapter 16, “Hurricanes,” includes extensive background
the many new capacities of the GOES-R series. on recent and historically significant tropical cyclones, as
●● Chapter 6, “Stability and Cloud Development,” discusses well as new and updated illustrations depicting storm surge
atmospheric stability and instability and the resulting effects processes and wind-speed probabilities. A new Focus sec-
on cloud formation in a carefully sequenced manner, with tion covers the devastating hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and
numerous illustrations and several Focus sections helping Maria of 2017.
to make these complex concepts understandable. A new ●● Chapter 17, “Global Climate,” continues to serve as a stand-
graphic highlights the differences between absolutely stable, alone unit on global climatology and classification schemes.
absolutely unstable, and conditionally unstable conditions. Recent updates and revisions have incorporated the 1981–
●● “Precipitation” (Chapter 7) includes updated information 2010 United States climate averages.
on precipitation measurement from satellites, including the ●● Chapter 18, “Earth’s Changing Climate,” has undergone
new Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission. extensive updating to reflect recent developments and find-
●● Chapter 8, “Air Pressure and Winds,” includes a recently ings, including the sequence of record-setting global tem-
enhanced description and revised illustrations of the inter- peratures in 2014, 2015, and 2016; regional variations in
play between the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces in sea-level rise; and the Paris climate agreement.
cyclonic and anticylonic flow. ●● Chapter 19, “Air Pollution,” reflects a number of updates,
●● Chapter 9, “Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems,” refer- including the vast number of deaths associated with both
ences the destructive Midwest windstorm of March 2017 indoor and outdoor air pollution and the importance of the
and includes updated information on the continued growth smallest airborne particulates as a health hazard.
of wind energy . ●● The book concludes with Chapter 20, “Light, Color, and
●● Chapter 10, “Wind: Global Systems,” features several new Atmospheric Optics,” which uses exciting photos and art to
images as well as updates on a number of phenomena, convey the beauty of the atmosphere. Several compelling
including the El Niño event of 2014–2016, the California new photos have been included.
drought of 2011–2016, and recent trends in the Pacific
Decadal Oscillation.
●● In Chapter 11, “Air Masses and Fronts,” the discussion of
occluded fronts has been revised to incorporate recent per- Acknowledgments
spectives, and a new Focus box illuminates the concept of
atmospheric rivers. Many people have contributed to this twelfth edition of Me-
●● Chapter 12, “Middle-Latitude Cyclones,” continues to pro- teorology Today. Special thanks goes to Charles Preppernau
vide a thorough and accessible introduction to this impor- for his care in rendering beautiful artwork and to Alyson
tant topic. The Focus section on nor’easters has been revised Platt for professional and conscientious copy editing. We are
to center around the intense storm of January 2016. indebted to the team at SPi Global, including Matthew Fox
and Catherine Higginbotham, who took the photos, art, and
●● Chapter 13, “Weather Forecasting,” has undergone a major manuscript and turned them into a beautiful end product in
restructuring and revision. After introducing the observa- both print and digital forms. Special thanks go to all the people
tions used by forecasters, the chapter includes an expla- at Cengage who worked on this edition, especially Brendan
nation of numerical weather models and other forecast Killion, Lauren Oliveira, Hal Humphrey, and Rebecca Berardy
techniques, the types of forecasts that apply to various time Schwartz.
scales, and the difference between forecast accuracy and Thanks to our friends who provided photos and to those re-
skill. A new illustration depicts the usefulness of short-term, viewers who offered comments and suggestions for this edition,
high-resolution mesoscale models in predicting showers and including:
thunderstorms.
Eric Aldrich, University of Missouri
●● Chapter 14, “Thunderstorms,” includes updated discussions
of such topics as microbursts, heat bursts, and record hail- Peter Blanken, University of Colorado Boulder
stones, featuring several new photos. The use of lightning Kerry Doyle, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
mapping arrays to map flashes in three dimensions has also
Daehyun Kim, University of Kentucky
been added.
●● Chapter 15, “Tornadoes,” includes a new Focus section on Ryan Fogt, Ohio University
the surprising types of damage that tornadic winds can John Harrington, Kansas State University
PREFACE xvii
Keeley Heise, Oklahoma State University
Cody Kirkpatrick, Indiana University Bloomington To the Student
Zachary Lebo, University of Wyoming Learning about the atmosphere can be a fascinating and en-
Kennie Leet, SUNY Broome Community College joyable experience. This book is intended to give you some
insight into the workings of the atmosphere. However, for
Mark McConnaughhay, Dutchess Community College a real appreciation of your atmospheric environment, you
Lou McNally, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University must go outside and observe. Although mountains take mil-
Justin Maxwell, Indiana University Bloomington lions of years to form, a cumulus cloud can develop into a
raging thunderstorm in less than an hour. The atmosphere
Greta Nisbet, Broward College is always producing something new for us to behold. To help
Keah Schuenemann, Metropolitan State University of Denver with your observations, a color Cloud Chart is at the back of
David Schultz, University of Manchester the book for easy reference. Remove it and keep it with you.
And remember, all of the concepts and ideas in this book are
Bruce Sherman, Southeastern Louisiana University out there for you to discover and enjoy. Please, take the time
Tim Wallace, Mississippi State University to look.
Lori Weeden, University of Massachusetts Lowell Donald Ahrens and Robert Henson
xviii preface
Explore the Concept Animations
These animations have been carefully created to bring to life key
points in the chapters. They are also the perfect tool to help re-
fresh students’ memories of previous concepts, so they can keep
building on knowledge already acquired. Concept Animations
are accessed through the MindTap platform, which can be ac-
quired separately or together with print or loose-leaf versions
of this book. Some examples of Concept Animations are shown
here.
Doppler radar images are used extensively throughout this book. To better understand
Doppler radar images, watch all four parts of this Doppler Radar animation
(Chapters 1, 11, and 15).
For a visual interpretation of the energy emitted by the earth without and with a
greenhouse effect, watch the Greenhouse animation (Chapter 2).
Learn about how air rises above an area of low atmospheric pressure and sinks above
an area of high atmospheric pressure. Converging and Diverging Air (Chapters 12).
Additional Animations
●● Temperature versus Molecular Movement (Chapter 2)
●● Radiant Energy and Wavelengths (Chapter 2)
●● Daily Temperature Changes Above the Surface (Chapter 3)
● Air Temperature, Dew Point, and Relative Humidity

(Chapter 4)
●● Condensation (Chapter 4)
● Ice Crystals (Bergeron) Process (Chapter 5)
● Geostrophic Wind (Chapter 8)
●● Thermally Driven Circulations (Chapter 9)
● General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Chapter 10)
● Introduction to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

(Chapter 10)
Seasons provides a complete picture of Earth revolving around the sun while it is tilted
●● Evolution of El Niño and La Niña (Chapter 10)
on its axis. While viewing this animation, look closely at how the sun is viewed by a
● Thunderstorm Evolution (Chapter 15) mid-latitude observer at various times of the year (Chapter 3).
To view air rising over a mountain and the formation of a rain shadow desert, watch Air
Rising Up and Over a Mountain (Chapter 6).
For a visual presentation of the Coriolis force, watch Coriolis Force (Chapter 8).
The concept of atmospheric stability can be a bit confusing, especially when c omparing
the temperature inside a rising air parcel to that of its surroundings. Watch the
animations Stable Atmosphere, Unstable Atmosphere, and Conditionally Unstable
Atmosphere (Chapters 6, 14, and 15).
For visualizations of a cold front and a warm front moving across the landscape, watch
the animations Cold Front in Winter and Warm Front in Winter (Chapters 11 and 13).
For a visualization of the stages that a wave cyclone goes through from birth to decay,
watch the animation entitled Cyclogenesis (Chapter 12).
For a depiction of the components of storm surge as a hurricane approaches land, watch
Storm Surge (Chapter 16).
We live at the bottom of a turbulent ocean
of air, where rising air can form into clouds
composed of water and ice.
Thanongsak Kongtong/Shutterstock.com
Earth and Its
1
CHAPTER
Atmosphere
CONTENTS I WELL REMEMBER A BRILLIANT RED BALLOON which kept me completely
The Atmosphere and the happy for a whole afternoon, until, while I was playing, a clumsy movement
Scientific Method allowed it to escape. Spellbound, I gazed after it as it drifted silently away,
Overview of Earth’s gently swaying, growing smaller and smaller until it was only a red point in a
Atmosphere blue sky. At that moment I realized, for the first time, the vastness above us:
Vertical Structure of the a huge space without visible limits. It was an apparent void, full of secrets,
Atmosphere exerting an inexplicable power over all the Earth’s inhabitants. I believe that
Weather and Climate many people, consciously or unconsciously, have been filled with awe by the
immensity of the atmosphere. All our knowledge about the air, gathered over
hundreds of years, has not diminished this feeling.
Theo Loebsack, Our Atmosphere
3
O
ur atmosphere is a delicate life-giving blanket of air that
surrounds the fragile Earth. In one way or another, it
influences everything we see and hear—it is intimately
connected to our lives. Air is with us from birth, and we can-
not detach ourselves from its presence. In the open air, we can
travel for many thousands of kilometers in any horizontal direc-
tion, but should we move a mere 8 kilometers above the surface,
we would suffocate. We may be able to survive without food for
a few weeks, or without water for a few days, but, without our
atmosphere, we would not survive more than a few minutes. Just
as fish are confined to an environment of water, so we are con-
© UCAR, Photo by Carlye Calvin

fined to an ocean of air. Anywhere we go, air must go with us.
Earth without an atmosphere would have no lakes or oceans.
There would be no sounds, no clouds, no red sunsets. The beauti-
ful pageantry of the sky would be absent. It would be unimagin-
ably cold at night and unbearably hot during the day. All things
on Earth would be at the mercy of an intense sun beating down
upon a planet utterly parched. ● FIGURE 1.1 Observing the natural world is a critical part of the scientific method.
Living on the surface of Earth, we have adapted so com- Here a vibrant red sky is visible at sunset. One might use the scientific method to verify
the old proverb, “Red sky at morning, sailors take warning; red sky at night, sailor’s
pletely to our environment of air that we sometimes forget how delight.”
truly remarkable this substance is. Even though air is tasteless,
odorless, and (most of the time) invisible, it protects us from to be products of the scientific method because they are not tested
the scorching rays of the sun and provides us with a mixture of and verified in a standard, rigorous way. (See ● Fig. 1.1.)
gases that allows life to flourish. Because we cannot see, smell, or To be accepted, a hypothesis has to be shown to be correct
taste air, it may seem surprising that between your eyes and these through a series of quantitative tests. In many areas of science,
words are trillions of air molecules. Some of these may have been such testing is carried out in a laboratory, where it can be rep-
in a cloud only yesterday, or over another continent last week, licated again and again. Studying the atmosphere, however, is
or perhaps part of the life-giving breath of a person who lived somewhat different, because Earth has only one atmosphere.
hundreds of years ago. Despite this limitation, scientists have made vast progress by
In this chapter, we will examine a number of important con- studying the physics and chemistry of air in the laboratory (for
cepts and ideas about Earth’s atmosphere, many of which will instance, the way in which molecules absorb energy) and by
be expanded in subsequent chapters. These concepts and ideas extending those understandings to the atmosphere as a whole.
are part of the foundation for understanding the atmosphere and Observations using weather instruments allow us to quantify
how it produces weather. They are built on knowledge acquired how the atmosphere behaves and to determine whether a pre-
and applied through the scientific method. This technique allows diction is correct. If a particular kind of weather is being studied,
us to make informed predictions about how the natural world such as hurricanes or snowstorms, a field campaign can gather
will behave. additional observations to test specific hypotheses.
Over the last 60 years, computers have given atmospheric
scientists a tremendous boost. The physical laws that control
atmospheric behavior can be represented in software packages
The Atmosphere and the known as numerical models. Forecasts can be made and tested
Scientific Method many times over. The atmosphere within a model can be used to
depict weather conditions from the past and project them into
For hundreds of years, the scientific method has served as the the future. When a model can accurately simulate past weather
backbone for advances in medicine, biology, engineering, and conditions, we can have more confidence in its portrayal of
many other fields. In the field of atmospheric science, the sci- tomorrow’s weather. Numerical models can also provide valu-
entific method has paved the way for the production of weather able information about the types of weather and climate we may
forecasts that have steadily improved over time. expect decades from now.
Investigators use the scientific method by posing a ques-
tion, putting forth a hypothesis*, predicting what the hypothesis
would imply if it were true, and carrying out tests to see if the
prediction is accurate. Many common sayings about the weather,
such as “red sky at morning, sailor take warning; red sky at night,
Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere
sailor’s delight,” are rooted in careful observation, and there are The scientific method has not only illuminated our understand-
grains of truth in some of them. However, they are not considered ing of weather and climate but also provided much information
about the universe that surrounds us. The universe contains bil-
*A hypothesis is an assertion that is subject to verification of proof. lions of galaxies and each galaxy is made up of billions of stars.
4 CHAPTER 1
● FIGURE 1.2 The relative sizes and positions of the
planets in our solar system. Pluto is included as an object
called a dwarf planet. (Positions are not to scale.)
Stars are hot glowing balls of gas that generate energy by con- THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere that originally
verting hydrogen into helium near their centers. Our sun is an surrounded Earth was probably much different from the air we
average-sized star situated near the edge of the Milky Way gal- breathe today. Earth’s first atmosphere (some 4.6 billion years
axy. Revolving around the sun are Earth and seven other planets ago) was most likely hydrogen and helium—the two most abun-
(see ● Fig. 1.2).* Our solar system comprises these planets, along dant gases found in the universe—as well as hydrogen com-
with a host of other material (comets, asteroids, meteors, dwarf pounds, such as methane ( CH4 ) and ammonia ( NH3 ). Most
planets, etc.). scientists believe that this early atmosphere escaped into space
Warmth for the planets is provided primarily by the sun’s from Earth’s hot surface.
energy. At an average distance from the sun of nearly 150 mil- A second, more dense atmosphere, however, gradually
lion kilometers (km) or 93 million miles (mi), Earth intercepts enveloped Earth as gases from molten rock within its hot inte-
only a very small fraction of the sun’s total energy output. How- rior escaped through volcanoes and steam vents. We assume
ever, it is this radiant energy (or radiation)** that drives the that volcanoes spewed out the same gases then as they do today:
atmosphere into the patterns of everyday wind and weather and mostly water vapor (about 80 percent), carbon dioxide (about
allows Earth to maintain an average surface temperature of about 10 percent), and up to a few percent nitrogen. These gases (mostly
158C (598F ).† Although this temperature is mild, Earth experi- water vapor and carbon dioxide) probably created Earth’s second
ences a wide range of temperatures, as readings can drop below atmosphere.
2858C (21218F ) during a frigid Antarctic night and climb, dur- As millions of years passed, the constant outpouring of
ing the day, to above 508C (1228F ) on the oppressively hot sub- gases from the hot interior—known as outgassing—provided a
tropical desert. rich supply of water vapor, which formed into clouds. (It is also
Earth’s atmosphere is a relatively thin, gaseous envelope that believed that when Earth was very young, some of its water may
comprises mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of
other gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2). Nes-
tled in the atmosphere are clouds of liquid water and ice crystals.
Although our atmosphere extends upward for many hundreds
of kilometers, it gets progressively thinner with altitude. Almost
99 percent of the atmosphere lies within a mere 30 km (19 mi)
of Earth’s surface (see ● Fig. 1.3). In fact, if Earth were to shrink
to the size of a beach ball, its inhabitable atmosphere would be
thinner than a piece of paper. This thin blanket of air constantly
shields the surface and its inhabitants from the sun’s dangerous
ultraviolet radiant energy, as well as from the onslaught of mate-
rial from interplanetary space. There is no definite upper limit to
the atmosphere; rather, it becomes thinner and thinner, eventu-
ally merging with empty space, which surrounds all the planets.
*Pluto was once classified as a true planet. But recently it has been reclassified as a
planetary object called a dwarf planet.
**Radiation is energy transferred in the form of waves that have electrical and mag-
NASA/JSC
netic properties. The light that we see is radiation, as is ultraviolet light. More on this
important topic is given in Chapter 2.
†The abbreviation 8C is used when measuring temperature in degrees Celsius, and ● FIGURE 1.3 Earth’s atmosphere as viewed from space. The atmosphere is the thin
8F is the abbreviation for degrees Fahrenheit. More information about temperature bluish-white region along the edge of Earth. The photo was taken from the International
scales is given in Appendix A and in Chapter 2. Space Station on April 12, 2011, over western South America.
Earth and Its Atmosphere 5

▼ TABLE 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth’s Surface
PERMANENT GASES VARIABLE GASES
Percent (by Volume) Percent Parts per Million
Gas Symbol Dry Air Gas (and Particles) Symbol (by Volume) (ppm)*
Nitrogen N2 78.08 Water vapor H2O 0 to 4
Oxygen O2 20.95 Carbon dioxide CO2 0.041 410*
Argon Ar 0.93 Methane CH4 0.00018 1.8
Neon Ne 0.0018 Nitrous oxide N2O 0.00003 0.3
Helium He 0.0005 Ozone O3 0.000004 0.04**
Hydrogen H2 0.00006 Particles (dust, soot, etc.) 0.000001 0.01–0.15
Xenon Xe 0.000009 Chlorofluorocarbons 0.00000001 0.0001

(CFCs) and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
*For CO2 , 410 parts per million means that out of every million air molecules, 410 are CO2 molecules.
**Stratospheric values at altitudes between 11 km and 50 km are about 5 to 12 ppm.
have originated from numerous collisions with small meteors that At the surface, there is a balance between destruction (out-
pounded Earth, as well as from disintegrating comets.) Rain fell put) and production (input) of these gases. For example, nitro-
upon Earth for many thousands of years, forming the rivers, lakes, gen is removed from the atmosphere primarily by biological
and oceans of the world. During this time, large amounts of car- processes that involve soil bacteria. Nitrogen is also taken from
bon dioxide ( CO2 ) were dissolved in the oceans. Through chemi- the air by tiny ocean-dwelling plankton that convert it into nutri-
cal and biological processes, much of the CO2 became locked up ents that help fortify the ocean’s food chain. It is returned to the
in carbonate sedimentary rocks, such as limestone. With much atmosphere mainly through the decaying of plant and animal
of the water vapor already condensed and the concentration of matter. Oxygen, on the other hand, is removed from the atmo-
CO2 dwindling, the atmosphere gradually became dominated by sphere when organic matter decays and when oxygen combines
molecular nitrogen ( N 2 ), which is usually not chemically active. with other substances, producing oxides. It is also taken from
It appears that molecular oxygen ( O2 ), the second most abun- the atmosphere during breathing, as the lungs take in oxygen
dant gas in today’s atmosphere, probably began an extremely slow and release carbon dioxide ( CO2 ). The addition of oxygen to the
increase in concentration as energetic rays from the sun split water atmosphere occurs during photosynthesis.
vapor ( H2O ) into hydrogen and oxygen during a process called The concentration of the invisible gas water vapor ( H2O ),
photodissociation. The hydrogen, being lighter, probably rose and however, varies greatly from place to place, and from time to time.
escaped into space, while the oxygen remained in the atmosphere. Close to the surface in warm, steamy, tropical locations, water
It is uncertain whether this slow increase in oxygen sup- vapor may account for up to 4 percent of the atmospheric gases,
ported the evolution of primitive plants, perhaps two to three whereas in colder arctic areas, its concentration may dwindle to
billion years ago, or whether plants evolved in an almost oxygen- a mere fraction of a percent (see Table 1.1). Water vapor mol-
free (anaerobic) environment. At any rate, plant growth greatly ecules are, of course, invisible. They become visible only when
enriched our atmosphere with oxygen. The reason for this enrich- they transform into larger liquid or solid particles, such as cloud
ment is that, during the process of photosynthesis, plants, in the droplets and ice crystals, which may grow in size and eventually
presence of sunlight, combine carbon dioxide and water to pro- fall to Earth as rain or snow. The changing of water vapor into
duce sugar and oxygen. Hence, after plants evolved, the atmo- liquid water is called condensation, whereas the process of liquid
spheric oxygen content increased more rapidly, probably reaching water becoming water vapor is called evaporation. The falling rain
its present composition about several hundred million years ago. and snow is called precipitation. In the lower atmosphere, water
is everywhere. It is the only substance that exists as a gas, a liquid,
COMPOSITION OF TODAY’S ATMOSPHERE ▼ Table 1.1 shows and a solid at those temperatures and pressures normally found
the various gases present in a volume of air near Earth’s surface. near Earth’s surface (see ● Fig. 1.4).
Notice that molecular nitrogen ( N 2 ) occupies about 78 percent Water vapor is an extremely important gas in our atmosphere.
and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) about 21 percent of the total volume Not only does it form into both liquid and solid cloud particles that
of dry air. If all the other gases are removed, these percentages grow in size and fall to Earth as precipitation, but it also releases
for nitrogen and oxygen hold fairly constant up to an elevation large amounts of heat—called latent heat—when it changes from
of about 80 km (50 mi). (For a closer look at the composition of a vapor into liquid water or ice. Latent heat is an important source of
breath of air at Earth’s surface, read Focus section 1.1.) atmospheric energy, especially for storms, such as thunderstorms
6 CHAPTER 1
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would carry. He dangled his legs from the springboard and said the
red-headed fellow from Ohio didn’t stand a chance. His imagination
overcame the obstacle of non-membership and he became the voice
and spirit of the troop—his troop.
“Do you mean to tell me,” he demanded, “that they—we—I mean
they—can’t beat everybody because don’t we live in Bridgeboro
where there’s a river and we all have canoes—except a few that
haven’t?”
“They’re born with paddles in their mouths,” said a Virginia scout.
“And oars!” Pee-wee shouted.
It went to Brent Gaylong’s heart to see Pee-wee trudging down
from the Ravens’ cabin night to go to bed in the pavilion dormitory.
He might have stayed on cabin hill but only one full patrol could bunk
in a cabin. Pee-wee never questioned the camp rules or the rules of
the scout organization. “Gee whiz, they’re good rules all right,” he
said. And he never overstepped the privilege of a non-member. That
was the pathetic part of it. He watched them wistfully when they
voted, contented, happy, just to be among them.
Just in proportion as he made a pathetic picture, just in that same
proportion did Billy Simpson become more and more an object of
tolerant contempt. If he had made the little sacrifice in the matter of
the canoe it would not have been so bad, but now they were ready
enough to think ill of him, reasonably or not. And often their dislike
was without reason, for indeed he was as much a member of the
Raven Patrol as any other Raven was.
If there was any criticism in that matter Artie Van Arlen should
have borne it. It is only fair to Artie to say that from the day he
summoned Billy Simpson from Bridgeboro, he was friendly to him,
and fair to him, and seemed to believe in him. He did not study him,
as Brent might have done, because it was not given to him to do
that. But he treated him with a wholesome cheerfulness and with the
same fraternal air which characterized his demeanor toward all. If he
was disappointed he did not say so. If he had expected Billy to bring
honors, merit badges, to the patrol he renounced that hope amiably.
He was a pretty good all-around sort of a fellow, was Artie.
The camp assistant, young Mr. Slade, spoke to him one day. “You
know, Van, this is an impossible situation,” said he; “Pee-wee’s a
Raven. You’re taking liberties with nature, you fellows are.”
“It can’t be helped now,” said Artie; “besides I’m not worrying and
I’ll tell you why. Do you want to know?”
“Go ahead, shoot.”
“Pee-wee doesn’t belong to the Boy Scouts of America. The Boy
Scouts of America belong to Pee-wee. Just wait till he gets back
home. You’re not afraid he’s going to drift away, are you?”
“Well, it knocks me clean to see him,” said Slade.
“You and old Doc. Gaylong ought to camp under a weeping willow,
you’re so tender-hearted. How about the race?”
“Nothing about it,” said Slade; “except everything’s ready, and
Connie Bennett is going to win it.”
“Sure thing?”
“That’s what Pee-wee says,” said Tom. “He says we’ve won it
already.”
“Well, to-morrow’s the day,” said Artie cheerily. “Pee-wee says if
the cup gets away from us, he’ll never look Mary Temple in the face
again. But he’ll accept an ice cream soda from her.”
CHAPTER XXXI—THE SAND-BAG
The regatta was always the big event of the season at Temple
Camp. Pee-wee always had to suck lemon drops for several days
succeeding it to ease the huskiness in his throat. Sometimes he
continued sucking them for several weeks, for a scout is nothing if
not thorough.
The institution of the regatta (and the lemon drops) dated from the
season when pretty Mary Temple, daughter of the camp’s founder,
had offered the silver cup. A Rhode Island troop had won it, then it
had passed to a Pennsylvania troop, and then to the Bridgeboro
Troop. The Bridgeboro scouts took a particular pride in keeping it
because Bridgeboro was the home town of the Temples.
Each troop chose its challenger or defender by its own process of
selection, paying a certain regard to the claims of its patrols.
Naturally the merit badge for Athletics, or for Physical Development,
or for Seamanship, would imply eligibility for the honor of challenger
or defender. And these things counted in the selection.
Particularly had they counted in the selection of Connie Bennett of
the Elk Patrol for defender. How much they really counted in a race
was another question. Also, as in the selection of a presidential
candidate the claims of the states have to be considered, so in this
business the patrols had to be considered, and it was now
considered to be the Elk Patrol’s turn. Thus Connie Bennett had
been put forward.
There was no complaint about this and no anxiety, but there was
just a little undercurrent of feeling (which Pee-wee could not
browbeat out of the troop’s mind) that the cup was not quite so
secure upon its little velvet box as they could wish it to be.
A course was marked around the lake by long poles driven in
about fifteen to eighteen feet from shore. Some of them had to be
pretty long to reach the bottom. They were saved from year to year.
A heavy cord was carried around the lake caught at each of these
poles and from this cord hung troop and patrol pennants at intervals
all the way round. The whole thing made a very festive and inspiring
sight. The cup race (always a canoe event because Mary Temple
thought that canoes were scoutish, being of Indian origin) consisted
of one complete round of the lake. There were other races of course;
comic events, tub races and the like.
I wish to tell you of this thing just as it occurred for it is talked of at
Temple Camp whenever scouts get around a camp-fire. And in a
sense it has never been fully explained.
Mary Temple, with her parents, came up from Bridgeboro by auto,
reaching camp early in the afternoon. They received an ovation as
usual. Mary was exceedingly pretty and looked the more so because
of the color which the breeze had blown into her cheeks. She
reached down out of the car and shook hands merrily with Connie
Bennett and handed Pee-wee an enormous box of peanut brittle,
which caused much laughter.
“Oh, I know you, too,” she said, reaching out her hand to Billy
Simpson who lingered in the background. “I often see you in
Bridgeboro.”
Billy Simpson seemed greatly embarrassed, and he never looked
quite so much alone as he did then, for all the clamor ceased as she
shook his hand, and the throng fell back silent. There was nothing
intentional in this; it just happened that way. But one or two scouts
noticed that Simpson was more perturbed and shy than the very
commonplace little incident seemed to warrant. He just stared at
Mary Temple and did not take his eyes from her. Brent Gaylong said
afterward that there was something in his eyes, he did not know
what, but that he seemed like one possessed....
He was not seen again until the time of his destiny. A tub race
took place, a graceful affair in which all the participants fell in the
water. This was followed by a swimming race, and a couple of boat
races. Next followed a race of several canoes. And then the event of
the day.
The scout who had wriggled his way to the position of challenger
was a red-headed fellow from the Middle West. Pee-wee loathed him
for no other reason than that he dared to try for the cup.
He was lithe and slender, and had a rather attractive way of
holding his head. He looked the young athlete through and through
and there was a kind of aggressiveness about him such as to
disconcert an opponent. His troop seemed very proud of him. He did
not show off exactly, but his manner was such as to make one think
he took his victory for granted. A little deference to his opponents
would have been more becoming. Having seated himself in his
canoe and his companion being seated also, he waited at the float
with a blasé air of patience as if he were anxious to get the thing
over with.
This cut and dried assurance was in marked contrast with
Connie’s demeanor, which was modest and painfully nervous. The
throng, gathered about the float and alongshore for many yards on
either side, cheered as he stepped into his canoe and nervously
accepted the paddle that was handed him.
A silent, solitary figure in a black sweater stood upon the float
near Mr. Currie, the starter. He gazed out across the lake, seeming
very nervous. He seemed to be trying to concentrate his eyes and
thoughts on something quite removed from the scene about him.
One might have fancied something exalted, spiritual, in his aspect,
but the coarse, black sweater and rather hulking shoulders, spoiled
that.
“This your sand-bag?” Mr. Currie asked. He meant nothing
disrespectful. It was just the name used for the one going to steady
the canoe. But there was a tittering here and there in the crowd as
the figure in the black sweater stepped into the bow of Connie’s light,
bobbing little craft and sat hunched up there.
No one thought of him again. They were thinking of pleasanter
things....
CHAPTER XXXII—SOMETHING BIG
The two canoes glided forward abreast. It was a good start. A
chorus of cheers went up from the crowd near the float and was
taken up by the groups which dotted the shore for the distance of
half way round the lake.
The inner side of the course was lined with canoes and rowboats,
and even Pee-wee’s ship, the Hop-toad, had been dislodged and
floated to the cord line and anchored. A group of scouts upon it
cheered themselves hoarse. Goldenrod Cove was filled with canoes.
But the preferable stand was at the float where the race began and
would end. Here a great throng waited, and on its outskirts scouts
sprawled upon the grass, perched upon the roofs of shacks, and
crowded on the diving-board till it almost broke with their weight.
Here the judges waited. Here the string was stretched low across the
course to be snapped asunder by the gliding bow of the victor.
Across the course, at intervals, scout officials rested on their oars
and waited, watchful for violations of the rules.
The green canoe of the red-headed scout crept ahead a yard—
two yards—three yards. Connie strained every muscle and, in his
apprehension as the distance between the canoes widened, he fell
to using shorter strokes. The shorter stroke seems to keep time with
the beating heart; it looks like speed and feels like speed; it is
hustling. It is hard for the amateur to believe that calmness and the
long, mechanically steady stroke, are the only things to depend on.
“Make your stroke longer, not shorter whatever you do,” said
Simpson.
“I’ll take care of it,” said Connie, breathing heavily.
Simpson caught the rebuke and sat silent, watching
apprehensively. Connie seemed to think that his speed would be
proportioned to his frantic exertion and he was surprised to see the
distance between the two canoes widening. His spectacular efforts
were received with applause for action is what the multitude likes,
and that strengthened Connie’s confidence in his method, which was
no method at all. He gained a little (for a spurt will always accomplish
that) but he lost in fatigue what he gained in distance.
“Don’t look at him,” Simpson pled anxiously. “It would be better if
you were rowing, then you couldn’t see him. Bend way forward,
reach out your lower hand—”
“Who’s doing this?” Connie panted. “Don’t—don’t—don’t—don’t
you—you—know what you’re—you’re here for?”
The look of hurt pride on Simpson’s face turned to one of grim
disgust and accusation. He saw the green canoe a couple of lengths
ahead, and saw flags waving, heard the deafening cheers all about
him. He was not shy or fearful now.
“Can’t you guess what I’m here for?” he said, between his teeth.
“It’s so that the kid’s troop will win. It’s because I knew you’d go to
pieces. Don’t look at the crowd, you fool! Bend forward—far—”
“I—I can’t,” Connie panted, releasing one hand long enough to
press his side. The fatal kink had come, as it is pretty sure to do in
erratic striving combined with frantic fear and excitement.
“Shall I take it?” he heard.
“You?” he said, surprised. “You can’t—anyway—it—it—wouldn’t
be a race—they’d—they’d—”
In a sudden, abandoned frenzy of striving, Connie brought his
canoe within a length of the other. In its way it was a feat, but it spent
his last ounce of energy and left his side hurting as if he had been
stabbed. Encouraged by the cheering he drove his paddle into the
water with a vertical force that eased his panic fears, but had no
effect upon his progress. The canoe seemed to halt and jerk like a
balky horse.
Now he heard the deafening cheers as in a kind of trance.
“Walk away from him, Red!”
“You’re losing him! Keep it up!”
“Step on it, Red!”
“Give her the gas!”
“Let her out, Red!”
“Oh boy, watch him step!”
“All over but the shouting!”
Not quite, oh crowd. As Connie Bennett’s hand left the paddle to
press his agonized side, he felt another gently take it from him. What
next happened he felt rather than saw. He heard deafening cheers
interspersed with cries of “No fair!” And then derisive shouts and cat
calls. He felt the right side of the canoe dip until his trembling hand
which grasped the gunwale felt the cooling touch of the water.
He was conscious of a form crawling past him. He heard a voice,
hoarse and tense it seemed, urging him to move forward. It all
happened as in a vision. The shouting, the cries of surprise and
derision, sounded far away, like echoes.
He was better now, but his heart was thumping; he had almost
fainted. He saw a rowboat with an official pennant very near. He saw
canoes across the course line. He saw Billy Simpson in the stern of
the canoe; not sitting, not kneeling, but sort of crouching. He looked
strange, different....
“You can’t do that,” the man in the rowboat said.
“Let’s finish anyway,” said Simpson; “I’ll take a handicap that will
shut their mouths. After that if they want to call it off, let them do it.”
He had already grasped the paddle in a strange fashion; his left
arm seemed to be wound around it and his elbow acted as a sort of
brace. The other hand he held above his head, grasping his hat (the
ordinary scout hat) so that all might see. The shorter reach which
this one handed paddling enforced was made up by the lightning
movement of his body back and forth in the canoe. For a moment
the crowd laughed in derision. But as the white canoe of the
Bridgeboro Troop shot forward, those who hooted paused in gaping
amazement.
Now his bow was close upon his rival’s stern. Now it was abreast
of the red-headed figure. Now past it, and clear of the green bow.
The red-headed scout was too proud to complain of a one-armed
rival. And his troop comrades could not see him sheltered by any
rule or custom in the face of such a phenomenal display.
Steadily, steadily, the white canoe glided forward. The reach of the
red-headed paddler was extended. But he could not vie with that
human shuttle which worked with the monotonous steadiness of
machinery. He seemed disconcerted by the mere dull regularity of
that relentless engine just ahead of him.
BILLY SIMPSON WON THE RACE WHILE PADDLING WITH ONE HAND.
They came in sight of the float two lengths apart. The distance
increased to three lengths. The crowd went wild with excitement.
Amid a perfect panic of yells including weird calls of every patrol in
camp, the white canoe swept abreast of the float, snapped the cord
and danced along to the curving shore beyond the finish.
It was in that moment of tumult and clamor, amid the waving of
flags and scarfs, and a medley of patrol calls which made the
neighborhood seem like a jungle, that Pee-wee Harris, forgetting
himself entirely, hurled piece after piece of peanut brittle after the
receding victor, which action he later regretted and dived here and
there to recover these tribute missiles. But alas, they were gone
forever.
CHAPTER XXXIII—AND SOMETHING BIGGER
But the Mary Temple cup was safe upon its little velvet pedestal.
There was only one name upon the lips of all, now. But he heard
the shouts only in a sort of trance. He heard his name called, and it
sounded strange to him to hear his name—Billy Simpson—shrieked
by the multitude. It sounded like a different name, somehow. He
could not face them—no, he could not do that. And no one saw him.
No one saw him as he crept up through the bushes far from the
screaming, howling, clamorous, worshipping crowd. No one saw him
as he sped around the edge of camp and past Outpost Cabin where
his own name echoed against the dead, log walls. His own name! No
one saw him as he climbed up through the woods to Cabin Hill. Yes,
one person saw him. A tenderfoot scout who thought more of some
bobolink or other than of the race, saw him. He was gazing up into
the tree, a small lonely figure, when the victor, the hero, sped by. It
seemed to him that the fleeing figure spoke to him; anyway, it spoke.
“Tell her—tell her I couldn’t have done it if she hadn’t been
watching me.”
The tenderfoot scout did not know whom he was speaking of, so
no one was ever told anything. He thought the fleeing figure in the
black sweater might be a thief.
Reaching the Ravens’ cabin, the victor paused just a second, and
listened to the spent sound of the cheering down at the shore. Then
he fell to ransacking his suitcase for a writing tablet. He had no duffel
bag, for you see he was only a new scout. He had come hastily, with
heart beating high.
Upon his writing tablet he scrawled a few lines, and left the whole
tablet, with a stone for a weight, upon the stump outside. He had
stood by that stump when he had taken the scout oath. His one
frantic fear was that Brent Gaylong would amble along and show him
that what he was going to do was all wrong; call him a quitter.
A sound! No—yes! No, it was only the breeze in the quiet trees.
He gathered together his few poor belongings, then paused for a
last glimpse at the note.
Tell Gaylong I don’t bother with little things. Tell Pee-wee

Harris the cup is safe till next summer anyway. Tell him his place
is open in the patrol because I’m through. He knows what fixing
means, because he’s a fixer. So tell him I fixed it. He’s the best
little scout that ever was—he’s my idea of a scout.
Then he was gone. He hurried up through the woods and waited

for the bus. He had to carry his suitcase continuously in his right
hand, because his left hand and arm were nearly numb. The driver
had to help him up into the bus, he was so stiff and lame.
As he sat in the seat, nursing his stinging hand, and saw the
beautiful Catskill country, the wide fields where the men were cutting
hay, the woods through which the scout trails ran, the distant smoke
arising from the cooking shack at Temple Camp, the whole episode
of his coming, of his triumph and of his going away seemed like
happenings in a wonderful dream....
THE END
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Meteorology Today: An Introduction to

Weather, Climate and the Environment

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Meteorology today an introduction to weather climate

Essentials of Meteorology: An Invitation to the

Essentials of Meteorology An Invitation to the

Introducing meteorology a guide to weather Second

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An Introduction to Clouds From the Microscale to

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C. Donald Ahrens Robert Henson

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Content Project Manager: Hal Humphrey

Project Manager: Matthew Fox, SPi Global Loose-leaf Student Edition:

Printed in United States of America

CHAPTER 1 Earth and Its Atmosphere 3

CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 59

CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity 91

CHAPTER 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 113

CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development 143

CHAPTER 7 Precipitation 167

CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds 197

CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems 227

CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems 263

CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts 293

CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 321

CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting 347

CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms 383

CHAPTER 15 Tornadoes 415

CHAPTER 16 Hurricanes 439

CHAPTER 17 Global Climate 473

CHAPTER 18 Earth’s Changing Climate 503

CHAPTER 19 Air Pollution 537

CHAPTER 20 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 567

Preface xv Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere 36

Energy: Warming and Cooling Earth

Latent Heat—The Hidden Warmth 34

Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 59 Atmospheric Humidity 91

Some Unusual Clouds 130

Focus On An Advanced Topic 8.3

Air Masses and Fronts 293

Problems and Exercises 413

Earth’s Changing Climate 503 Future Climate Change: Projections 524

The Role of the Wind 552

Light, Color, and Atmospheric

● Air Temperature, Dew Point, and Relative Humidity

● Ice Crystals (Bergeron) Process (Chapter 5)

● Geostrophic Wind (Chapter 8)

●● Thermally Driven Circulations (Chapter 9)

● General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Chapter 10)

● Introduction to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

© UCAR, Photo by Carlye Calvin

Earth and Its Atmosphere 5

Nitrogen N2 78.08 Water vapor H2O 0 to 4

Oxygen O2 20.95 Carbon dioxide CO2 0.041 410*

Argon Ar 0.93 Methane CH4 0.00018 1.8

Neon Ne 0.0018 Nitrous oxide N2O 0.00003 0.3

Helium He 0.0005 Ozone O3 0.000004 0.04**