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╇ i

L I B E RT Y I N TA C T
ii
╇ iii

Liberty Intact
Human Rights in English Law

M I C H A E L T U G E N D H AT

1
iv

1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© M. Tugendhat 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence
Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI
and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Data available
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
v

For my children and grandchildren

vi
╇ vii

Preface

This book is inspired by a number of American works on the origins of their

Constitution. I am indebted to my American friends, Edward and Désirée von
Saher, who gave me a copy of Edward S Corwin (ed), The Constitution of the United
States of America Analysis and Interpretation. I was at Yale in 1968, on a Fellowship
from the Charles and Julia Henry Fund. This gift kept alive my interest in the origins
of rights at a time when such sources were hard to find in English libraries.1 Jacques
Maritain recounts an exchange at a discussion of rights at UNESCO. Someone
expressed astonishment that champions of opposed ideologies had agreed on the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: ‘â•›“Yes”, they said, “we agree about the
rights but on condition that no one asks us why”â•›’. Maritain was introducing a series
of papers from believers in different ideologies in which each gave their answer to
the question ‘why?’2 Blackstone had given his answer in England in the eighteenth
century. It was based on both reason and faith in the divine revelation in which, at
that time, almost all members of the Christian societies in Europe had believed for
centuries. His answer merits consideration today, as much by those who share his
Christian beliefs as by those who do not. For the framers of the UN Charter, and
of the UDHR, what is required of all people, religious or secular, is (see page 203)
‘faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person
and in the equal rights of men and women’. I hope that this work will make a small
contribution to that end.
I have to thank too many people to be able to list them all. They include Professor
Janet Ulph, for introducing me to writing academic books, Dr Eva Steiner, for
inviting me to talk at King’s College London in November 2012 on the French
Declaration of 1789,3 the University of Leicester Law School for inviting me to give
the Jan Grodecki Lecture 2014, two lectures in which I developed some of the ideas
in this book, then later Roger Errera and Anissia Morel, both of the Conseil d’Etat,
for their advice on talks I have given in or about France, Christopher Tugendhat for
his encouragement to pursue this project, Stephen Silber, Christian Tyler, Charles
Tugendhat, and Janet Ulph for their advice and comments on a draft of this book,
Margaret Clay at the Inner Temple Library, the staff of the London Library, my
editors at OUP, and my wife Blandine, for her help, advice, and patience, and her

1╇ 82d Congress 2d Session Senate Document 170 (United States Government Printing Office 1953).
2╇ Mary Ann Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (Random House 2001) 73–╉4, 77 citing Edward Carr and Jacques Maritain, ‘Introduction’ in
Human Rights: Comments and Interpretations (UNESCO 1949) I. http://╉unesdoc.unesco.org/╉images/╉
0015/╉001550/╉155042eb.pdf accessed 10 June 2016.
3╇ (2014) 25 KLJ 394–╉425.
viii

viii Preface
unsparing willingness to translate into French the talks that I gave in French, at
KCL, and later in France, on some of the topics covered by this book. The errors, of
course, are all my responsibility alone.
The Inner Temple
September 2016
╇ ix

Contents

Table of Cases xiii

Table of Legislation, Statutory Instruments, and International Treaties and
Conventions xvii

1 Introduction 1
The Purpose of this Book 1
The Arguments Advanced 4
Human Rights 6
Structure and Sources 7
Point of View 10
Readership 12
2 Historical Overview 13
The Rights Brought Home 13
Natural Rights to the Eighteenth Century 16
Declarations and the Recognition of Rights 22
Human Rights 24
The Rights of Mankind and other Terms 25
3 Liberty and Equality 31
The Declarations 31
Introduction 32
Status, Public Office, and Suffrage 35
Gender 42
Wealth 45
The Common Good 45
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 47
4 The Rule of Law 49
The Declarations 49
Human Rights and the Rule of Law 50
The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 55
Legality (Supremacy of the Law) 56
Legal Certainty 58
Prohibition of Arbitrariness 60
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 62
5 Access to Justice 63
The Declarations 63
Independent and Impartial Courts 63
Justice before a Court 66
x

x Contents
Independent and Impartial Courts and Separation of Powers 67
Trial by Jury 70
Presumption of Innocence 72
Prosecution and Defence Counsel 74
Rights of the Defendant 74
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 76
6 Right of Resistance 77
The Declarations 77
The Right of Resistance 77
Resistance and Access to Justice 83
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 84
7 Life, Security, Detention, Torture, Liberty, and Villeinage 85
The Declarations 85
Life and Security 85
Detention 90
Torture 93
Reputation 98
Villeinage 99
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 100
8 Property, Taxation, Elections, Work, and Slavery 101
The Declarations 101
Property and Natural Law 101
Property, Taxation, and Representation at Elections 102
Property and Compulsory Purchase 108
Right to Work and Restraint of Trade 110
Slavery 111
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 114
9 Freedom of Expression 115
The Declarations 115
Meaning of Free Speech 115
English Law to 1791 117
US Law 124
French Proposals 1791 126
Freedom of Speech in England since 1791 126
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 129
10 Private and Family Life, Home and Correspondence 131
The Declarations 131
What is Privacy? 132
The Home and other Property 133
Free Speech 137
Self-​incrimination 138
Family Relationships 140
xi

Contents xi

Photographs 141
Privacy and Morality 142
Developments since 1791 143
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 145
11 Conscience, Religion, Association, Assembly, Petition, and Duties 147
The Declarations 147
Conscience and Religion 148
Rights of Assembly, Association, and Petition 152
Duties 154
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 156
12 Sovereignty and Revolution 159
The Declarations 159
1688–​9, 1776, and 1789–​92 159
American Declarations 160
Condorcet 160
The Bill of Rights 162
Hume and Blackstone 164
Early English Precedents 166
Sovereignty in the UK Today 168
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 172
13 Functions of Rights 173
The Declarations 173
Natural Rights and Human Rights 173
Parliament and Rights 174
Judges and Rights 176
The Public’s Use of Rights 178
Social and Economic Rights 180
Relationships between States 181
Summary 184
14 Limits to Legislation 187
The Declarations 187
Hierarchies of Legislation 187
US Law on Judicial Review of Legislation 188
English Law on Judicial Review of Legislation 191
The Interpretation of Legislation 194
Parliament and Human Rights 196
The Human Rights Act 1998 Sch 1 197
15 The Future of British Rights 199
The Common Law and the HRA 199
The Judiciary, Parliament, and the Executive 203
Criticisms of the HRA 206
Consent of the People 208
xii

xii Contents
Appendix I—​Natural Rights, Human Dignity, Duties, and Deserts 211
Natural Rights and the Principle of Necessity 211
Natural Rights, Reason, Self-​evident Truths, and the Pursuit
of Happiness 212
Inalienable Rights 214
Human Dignity 214
Duties and Deserts 216
Appendix II—​Virginia and French Declarations 219
Virginia Declaration of Rights 219
French Declaration 221
Bibliography 225
Index 235
xiii

Table of Cases

UK
A v Secretary of State for the Home Department (‘the Belmarsh case’) [2004]
UKHL 56, [2005] 2 AC 68���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177, 194, 196
A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKHL 71, [2006]
2 AC 221��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95, 97, 177, 205
AJA v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis [2013] EWCA Civ 1342, [2014]
WLR 285..............................................................................................................................201
Anisminic Ltd v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147.................................. 66, 195
Archbishop of Canterbury v Abbot of Battle (1140) 106 Selden Society 255....................................68
Argyll (Duchess) v Argyll (Duke) [1967] Ch 302................................................................... 141, 200
Ashworth Security Hospital v MGN Ltd [2002] UKHL 29, [2002] 1 WLR 203...........................142
Attorney General v Guardian Newspapers Ltd (No 2) [1988] UKHL 6, [1990]
1 AC 109........................................................................................................................45, 127
Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd [1976] QB 752.................................................................127
AXA General Insurance Ltd v Lord Advocate [2011] UKSC 46, [2012] 1 AC 868..................... 51, 56
Berd v Lovelace (1577) Cary 62.....................................................................................................138
Bonham’s Case (1609) 8 Co Rep 113b, 77 ER 646.......................................................... 69, 189, 194
Bray v Ford [1896] AC 44...............................................................................................................29
Broadnox’s Case (1672) 1 Ventris 195, 86 ER 132.........................................................................192
Bushell’s case (1607) Vaughan 134, 124 ER 1006...................................................... 72, 78, 119, 123
Caudrey’s case (1591-​5) 5 Co Rep, part 1, f 39................................................................................94
Cavendish, In the Matter of (1587) 1 and 152, 123 ER 403............................................................20
Countess of Shrewsbury’s Case (1612) 12 Co Rep 94................................................................ 35, 94
Cudden v Estwick (1704) Holt KB 433, 90 ER 1138............................................................111, 193
Da Costa v Jones (1778) 2 Cowper 729, 98 ER 1331....................................................................141
Dennis v Codrington (1579) Cary 100, 21 ER 53.........................................................................138
Derbyshire CC v Times Newspapers Ltd [1993] AC 534...............................................................129
Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562..........................................................................................154
DPP v Smith [1961] AC 290...........................................................................................................67
Dyer’s Case (1414) YB Pas 2 Hen V, fo 5.......................................................................................111
Elliott v C [1983] 1 WLR 939.........................................................................................................54
Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 St Tr 1029 1066,
95 ER 807......................................................................33, 37, 58, 68, 103, 121, 136, 144, 205
Executors of Skewys v Chamond (1544) 1 Dyer 59, 73 ER 131.......................................................40
Fabrigas v Mostyn (1773) 20 St Tr 162............................................................................................97
Fleyer v Crouch (1568) 3 Dyer 283, 73 ER 636..............................................................................40
Flood v Times Newspapers Ltd [2012] UKSC 11, [2012] 2 AC 273..............................................200
Foone v Blount (1776) 2 Cowper 464, 98 ER 1188....................................................... 104, 148, 175
Francome v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd [1984] 1 WLR 892.....................................................200
Google Inc. v Vidal-​Hall [2015] EWCA Civ 311, [2015] 3 WLR 409...........................................201
Guardian News and Media Ltd, In re [2010] UKSC 1, [2010] 2 AC 697.......................................200
Horrocks v Lowe [1975] AC 135...................................................................................................129
Jackson v Attorney General [2005] UKHL 56, [2006] 1 AC 262...................................................169
Jameel (Mohammed) v Wall Street Journal Europe Sprl [2006] UKHL 44, [2007] 1 AC 359........200
Kaye v Robertson [1991] FSR 62............................................................................................54, 142
Kennedy v Charity Commission [2014] UKSC 20, [2015] 1 AC 455............ 6, 13, 45, 144, 201, 202
Kenward v Knowles (1744) Willes 463, 125 ER 1269...................................................................149
xiv

xiv Table of Cases

Kruse v Johnson [1893] 2 QB 91...................................................................................................193
Lady E S Case (c 1530) BL MS, Hargrave 253, fo. 14v....................................................................43
Lee, ex p (1565) 4 Co Inst 333......................................................................................................139
Lee v The Showmen’s Guild of Great Britain [1952] 2 QB 329........................................................66
Lewis Bowles’s Case (1615) 11 Coke Reports 79b, 77 ER 1252.....................................................133
Liversidge v Anderson [1942] AC 206...........................................................................................177
M v Home Office [1992] QB 270...................................................................................................68
Mackalley’s case (1611) 9 Co Rep 65b, 77 ER 828...........................................................................75
Malone v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1979] Ch 344......................................54, 144
Millar v Taylor (1769) 4 Burr 2303, 98 ER 201....................................... 16, 110, 111, 142, 143, 144
Money v Leach (1765) 3 Burrow 1742, 97 ER 1075......................................................................135
National Westminster Bank v Spectrum Plus [2005] AC 680.........................................................178
Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1976] AC 249, [1973] Ch 264 (CA)........................................... 23, 109
Osborn v The Parole Board [2013] UKSC 61, [2014] 1 AC 1115....................................................13
Othman (aka Abu Qatada) v Secretary of State for the Home Department
[2013] EWCA Civ 277...........................................................................................................11
Pine, Case of Hugh (1628) 3 St Tr 359.................................................................................. 118, 123
PJS v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2016] UKSC 26, [2016] 2 WLR 1253.......................... 143, 200
Practice Note (Judges’ Rules) [1964] 1 WLR 152............................................................................98
Proclamations, In the Case of (1610) 12 Co Rep 74, 77 ER 1352....................................................68
Prohibitions del Roy, In the case of (1608) 12 Co Rep 63, 77 ER 1342............................................68
R (Anufrijeva) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] UKHL 36,
[2004] 1 AC 604.....................................................................................................................56
R (Countryside Alliance) v A-​G [2007] UKHL 52, [2008] 1 AC 719............................................143
R (Evans) v Attorney-​General [2015] UKSC 21, [2015] AC 1787...................................................60
R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport [2014] UKSC 3, [2014]
1 WLR 324...........................................................................................................................191
R (Limbuela) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKHL 66, [2006]
1 AC 396..............................................................................................................................155
R (MM) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2014] EWCA Civ 985, [2015]
1 WLR 1073.........................................................................................................................193
R (Nicklinson) v Minister of Justice [2014] UKSC 38, [2015] AC 657....................................60, 205
R (Pretty) v Director of Public Prosecutions [2002] 1 AC 800.........................................................59
R v Campion (1581) 1 St Tr 1049................................................................. 70, 73, 95, 96, 139, 149
R v Delaval (1763) 3 Burrow 1434, 97 ER 913...............................................................................92
R v Derby Magistrates Court, ex p B [1955] UKHL 18, [1996] 1 AC 487.....................................138
R v Dudley and Stevens (1884) 14 QBD 273..................................................................................46
R v Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council, ex p M (1997) 30 HLR 1998.............155
R v Lilburn and Wharton (1637) 3 St Tr 1315...............................................................................139
R v Moreley (1760) 2 Burr 1040, 97 ER 696..................................................................... 66, 68, 195
R v Offen [2000] EWCA Crim 96, [2001] 1 WLR 253...................................................................90
R v Owen (1752) 18 St Tr 1203....................................................................................................120
R v Paine (1792) 22 St Tr 357.................................................................................................... 4, 120
R v Ponting Criminal Law Review 1986, August, 491–​510.............................................................79
R v R [1991] UKHL 14, [1992] 1 AC 599......................................................................................59
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p Phansopkar [1976] QB 606.........................23
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p Simms [1999] UKHL 33, [2000]
2 AC 115........................................................................................................................26, 194
R v Spragg (1760) 2 Butt 930, 97 ER 637.......................................................................................73
R v Throckmorton (1554) 1 St Tr 869.............................................................................................78
R v Turlington (1761) 2 Burrow 1115, 97 ER 741...........................................................................92
R v Udall (1590) 1 St Tr 1271.......................................................................................................139
╇ xv

Table of Cases xv
R v Warden of the Fleet, ex parte Darnel (Five Knights Case) (1627) 3 St Tr 1........................... 67, 93
R v Webb (25 June 1768, unreported)............................................................................. 73, 149, 175
R v Wilkes (1763) 2 Wilson KB, 95 ER 737..................................................................................135
Reynolds v Times Newspapers Ltd [2001] 2 AC 127
Rooke’s Case (1597) 5 Co Rep 99b, 77 ER 209...............................................................................52
Rothermere v Times Newspapers Ltd [1973] 1 WLR 448................................................................29
Serjeants at Law, In the Matter of (1839) 6 Bingham (New Cases) 187............................................20
Seven Bishops Case (1688) 2 Mod 212, 87 ER 136, (1688) 12 St Tr 183........... 72, 75, 116, 151, 152
Semayne’s case (1604) 5 Coke reports 91a, 77 ER 194...................................................................133
Sir Henry Ferrers Case (1634) Croke, Car 371, 79 ER 924..............................................................82
Sir John Knight’s Case (1686) 3 Mod 117, 87 ER 75.......................................................................78
Slanning v Style (1743) 3 P Wms 334, 24 ER 1089.........................................................................43
Smith v Brown and Cooper (1705) 1 Salkeld 666, 91 ER 566.......................................................112
Smith v Read (1737) 1 Atk 526, 26 ER 332..................................................................................139
Somerset v Stewart (1772) Lofft 1, 98 ER 499, (1772) 20 St Tr 1............... 42, 99, 109, 112, 113, 175
Sommersett v Stewart –╉see Somerset v Stewart
Stradling v Morgan (Exch 1560) 1 Plowd 199, 75 ER 305.............................................................195
Sutherland of Rearquhar v Mr Francis Robertson, Minister at Clyne Court of Session
(1736) Mor 13979..................................................................................................................73
Thoburn v Sunderland City Council [2002] EWHC 195 (Admin), [2003] QB 151......................191
Trial of Sir Thomas More (1535) 1 St Tr 385.................................................................................190
VB v Westminster Magistrates [2014] UKSC 59, [2015] AC 1195..................................................29
Wainwright v Home Office [2003] UKHL 53, [2004] 2 AC 406...........................................142, 201
Wason v Walter (1868–╉9) LR 4 QB 73.................................................................................. 123, 129
Wilkes v Wood (1763) Lofft 1, 98 ER 489...................................................................... 68, 135, 136
Williamson v Secretary of State for Education and Employment [2002]
EWCA Civ 1926, [2003] QB 1300.........................................................................................35

EUROPEAN COURT OF€HUMAN€RIGHTS

Chauvy v France (2005) 41 EHRR 29.............................................................................................99
Cumpana and Mazare v Romania (2005) 41 EHRR 200.................................................................99
Golder v UK (1975) 1 EHRR 524...................................................................................................66
Lithgow v UK (9006/╉80, 9262/╉81, 9263/╉8) [1986] ECHR 8, (1986) 8 EHRR 329......................110
Malone v UK (1985) 7 EHRR 14................................................................................................. 145, 200
Serves v France (82/╉1996/╉671/╉893) (1997) 28 EHRR 265..............................................................64
Sunday Times (No 1) (1979) 2 EHRR 524....................................................................................200
Wainwright v UK (2007) 44 EHRR 40.........................................................................................201
Z v Finland (1998) 25 EHRR 371.................................................................................................141

USA
Abrams v United States 250 US 616 (1919) 630............................................................................125
Adkins v Children’s Hospital 261 US 525 (1923)..........................................................................171
Boumedienne v Bush 553 US 723 (2008)........................................................................................93
Dennis v United States 341 US 494 (1951) 521-╉2.........................................................................124
Dred Scott v Sandford, 19 How, 393 (1857)....................................................................................82
Griswold v Connecticut 381 US 479 484, 85 S Ct 1678 (1965)....................................................132
Hammer v Dagenhart 247 US 251................................................................................................171
Herndon v Lowry, 301 US 242 (1937) 258...................................................................................126
Lochner v NY 198 US 45 (1905)...................................................................................................171
xvi

xvi Table of Cases

Marbury v Madison, 5 US 137 (1803)...........................................................................................188
New York Times Co v Sullivan, 376 US 254 (1964).............................................................. 126, 176
Obergefell v Hodges 576, US (2015) 11.......................................................................... 82, 174, 194
Robertson v Baldwin, 165 UD 275, 281 (1897)............................................................................124
Roe v Wade, 410 US 113, 93 S Ct 705 (1973)....................................................................... 132, 194
Telnikoff v Matusevitch (1997) 347 Md. 561, 702 A.2d 230.........................................................176
Whitney v California, 274 US 357 (1927).....................................................................................126
xvii
Table of Legislation, Statutory Instruments, and
International Treaties and Conventions
UK LEGISL ATION
4 Edw 1 (1276)��������������������������������������������� 86
25 Edw I (1297)������������������������������������������ 102
34 Edw I st 4 cap I (1306)��������������������������� 102
5 Edw III c 9 (1331)������������������������������������ 102
14 Edw III st 2 c 1 (1340)��������������������������� 102
20 Edw III c 1 (1346)������������������������������������ 20
25 Edw III st 5 c 4 (1351)��������������������������� 102
28 Edw III 4 3 (1354)����������������������������������� 40
27 Eliz c 2 (1584)���������������������������������������� 150
16 Car I c 10 (1640)�������������������������������������� 66
13 Car II St 2 c 1 (1661)������������������������������ 150
25 Car II c 2 (1673)������������������������������������ 150
11 Will III c 4 (1698–​9)�����������������114, 49, 150
Act of Settlement 1700������21, 36, 70, 102, 150,
165, 191, 196, 197
Act of Union 1707�������������������������������������� 191
Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous
Provisions) Act 1933
s 6(1)��������������������������������������������������������� 29
Articles of the Barons
Art 9��������������������������������������������������������� 89
Bill of Rights 1689��������������������������������5, 8, 12,
21, 22, 23, 36, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67,
78, 83, 84, 88, 89, 91, 102, 104, 105,
108, 118, 123, 148, 150, 162, 163, 165,
167, 191, 192, 196, 197
Art 4������������������������������������������������������� 104
Art 8�������������������������������������������������������� 105
Black Act 1723���������������������������������67, 88, 104
Charter of the Forest Art 3��������������������� 21, 155
Claim of Right Act 1689��������������������� 164, 191
Communications Act 1984������������������������� 145
Constitutional Reform Act 2005�������52, 56, 70,
191, 192, 204
s 1������������������������������������������������������� 55, 56
Contempt of Court Act 1981���������������������� 200
Crime and Security Act 2001
s 23��������������������������������������������������������� 193
Criminal Justice Act 1967
s 8������������������������������������������������������������� 67
Criminal Justice Act 2003
s 148��������������������������������������������������������� 90
s 152��������������������������������������������������������� 90
Crown Proceedings Act 1947���������������� 61, 153
De Tallagio Non Concedendo 1927�������������� 21
Declaratory Act 1766������������������������������������ 22
Defamation Act 2013���������������������������������� 204
Equality Act 2010��������������������������������� 47, 174
European Communities Act 1972������� 191, 192
Foreign Compensation Act 1950
s 4(4)������������������������������������������������������� 195
Habeas Corpus Act 1679���������������8, 61, 67, 91,
93, 204
Habeas Corpus Act 1803������������������������������� 83
Habeas Corpus Act 1804������������������������������� 93
Habeas Corpus Act 1816������������������������������� 93
Habeas Corpus Act 1862������������������������������� 93
Habeas Corpus Amendment Act 1679�������� 196
Human Rights Act 1998���� 2, 3, 6, 7, 13, 15, 23,
56, 76, 129, 138, 144, 145, 155,
175, 179, 185, 188, 191, 195, 197, 199,
200, 201, 202, 203, 205
s 3����������������������������������������56, 90, 191, 194
s 4��������������������������������������56, 113, 193, 203
s 6����������������������������������������������������������� 191
s 7(5)������������������������������������������������������� 201
s 8����������������������������������������������������������� 201
s 19��������������������������������������������������������� 196
Sch 1������������������� 47, 56, 62, 69, 76, 84, 100,
114, 129, 145, 172, 178, 197, 199
Instrument of Government 1653
Art I ������������������������������������������������������� 167
Interception of Communications Act
1985��������������������������������������������������� 200
Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922����������� 22
Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922��� 22, 191
Libel Act 1791��������������������������������70, 120, 123
Local Government Act 1888������������������������ 193
Magna Carta����������������� 3, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23,
27, 40, 64, 81, 92, 93, 98, 102,
155, 167, 177, 185, 209
Art 7���������������������������������������������������������� 22
Art 17(11)����������������������������������������������� 195
Art 20(14)��������������������������������������57, 66, 89
Art 29 (1216 version)���������������18, 25, 87, 94
Art 39�����������������������������������87, 94, 177, 196
Arts 39–​40������������������������������������������������ 19
Art 39(2)��������������������������������������������������� 57
Art 39(29)����������������������64, 91, 98, 102, 103
Art 40�������������������������������������������������������� 68
xviii

xviii Table of Legislation and Treaties

Art 40(29)����������������������������������尓��������������� 64 Protection from Harassment Act 1997��������� 144
Art 45����������������������������������尓���������������������� 64 Public Order Act 1986�������������������������������� 128
Art 47����������������������������������尓���������������������� 21 Quebec Act 1774����������������������������������尓������ 151
Married Women’s Property Act 1882������������� 43 Race Relations Act 1976������������������������������ 179
National Assistance Act 1948 Regulation of Investigatory Powers
s 21����������������������������������尓����������������������� 155 Act 2000����������������������������������尓��� 145, 200
Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 Scotland Act 1998����������������������������������尓����� 192
s 55����������������������������������尓����������������������� 155 Statute of Monopolies 1624������������������������� 110
Offences against the Persons Act 1861��������� 204 Statute of Westminster 1931������������������������ 192
Parliament Act 1911����������������������������������尓�� 169 Statute of Westminster I, c 5 and
Petition of Right 1627�������������������8, 40, 54, 91, c 12 (1275)����������������������������������尓�� 94, 105
93, 98, 102, 177, 191, 196 Succession to the Crown Act 2013��������������� 197
Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984��������� 98 Theft Act 1978����������������������������������尓���������� 204
Prosecution of Offences Act 1985������������������ 74 Treason Act 1695����������������������������������尓������ 118
s 10����������������������������������尓������������������������� 75 Treason Act 1696����������������������������������尓�� 74, 75

UK STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS
Civil Procedure Rules (SI 1998/╉3132) Human Rights (Designated Derogation) Order
r 87����������������������������������尓������������������������� 91 2001 (SI 2001/╉3644)��������������������������� 193

LEGISL ATION FROM€OTHER JURISDICTIONS

FRANCE Art 11�����������������32, 115, 175, 181, 187, 197

Art 12����������������������������������尓�������������� 25, 131
Constitution 1791����������39, 126, 128, 152, 159 Art 13����������������������������������尓���������������������� 31
Ch 1, s II, Arts 1–╉5����������������������������������尓������ 39 Art 14����������������������������������尓�19, 32, 101, 103
Ch V, Arts 17–╉18����������������������������������尓������ 126 Art 15����������������������������������尓���������������� 50, 60
Constitution 1793����������������������������������尓����� 126 Art 16����������������������������������尓�������������5, 63, 67
Art 7����������������������������������尓���������������������� 153 Art 17����������������������������45, 50, 57, 101, 102,
Art 32����������������������������������尓�������������������� 153 103, 108, 131, 181, 187
Constitution 1958����������������������������������尓��������� 8
Declaration of Human and Civic Rights
of 26 August 1789 (the French IREL AND
Declaration)�������������� 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 15,
19, 23, 24, 27, 28, 36, 37, 42, 44, 45, 49, Constitution of Ireland Act 1937����������������� 181
54, 56, 58, 61, 65, 74, 88, 103, 104, 107, Art 6����������������������������������尓���������������������� 169
108, 110, 123, 126, 152, 155, 160, 173, Arts 40–╉44����������������������������������尓������������ 181
181, 185, 190, 197, 206 Arts 40–╉45����������������������������������尓������������ 181
Preamble������������������25, 49, 146, 155, 173, 174 Art 45����������������������������������尓�������������������� 181
Art 1��������������������������25, 31, 32, 33, 45, 101 Constitution of the Irish
Art 2 19, 31, 32, 45, 49, 77, 82, 85, 101, 174 Free State Act 1922�����������������22, 169, 191
Art 3������������������������115, 117, 123, 159, 169 Art 2����������������������������������尓���������������� 22, 169
Art 4����������������������������31, 34, 115, 117, 146, Arts 2–╉10����������������������������������尓�������������� 191
156, 174, 175, 181, 187 Arts 6–╉11����������������������������������尓���������������� 22
Art 5����� 49, 85, 131, 142, 143, 175, 181, 187 Arts 64–╉70����������������������������������尓������������ 191
Art 6��������������������������31, 32, 50, 59, 63, 101, Sch 1, Art 2����������������������������������尓����������� 169
156, 159, 169, 187
Art 7���������������������������19, 32, 50, 57, 77, 181
Art 8����������������������������������尓�������50, 57, 58, 59 NETHERL ANDS
Art 9����������������������������������尓������������32, 63, 85
Art 10����������������������������������尓32, 42, 117, 129, Dutch Declaration of Independence
146, 151, 181, 187 (1581)��������������������16, 17, 19, 20, 83, 180
╇ xix

Table of Legislation and Treaties xix

USA
American Declaration of Independence
1776����������������������� 3, 5, 8, 12, 23, 54, 79,
160, 175, 203
Bill of Rights 1791������ 5, 10, 28, 42, 44, 81, 98,
107, 131, 152, 155, 188,
190, 196
First Amendment���������������������131, 147, 152
Second Amendment����������������������������������尓 78
Third Amendment����������������������������� 54, 131
Fourth Amendment��������������������������������� 131
Fifth Amendment�����������������������98, 131, 138
Sixth Amendment����������������������������������尓��� 65
Eighth Amendment����������������������������������尓� 88
Ninth Amendment����������������������������������尓�� 22
Constitution����������������7, 34, 81, 124, 175, 185,
188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194
Art I, s 2����������������������������������尓������������������ 34
Art I, s 6����������������������������������尓���������������� 124
Art III, s 3����������������������������������尓������������� 124
Art IV, s 2����������������������������������尓���������������� 34
Thirteenth Amendment������������������������� 34, 175
Fourteenth Amendment���������������������� 171, 175
Constitution of Virginia 1971������������������������� 8
Declaration of Rights of the Colony of
Delaware 1776
Art 21����������������������������������尓���������������������� 54
Art X����������������������������������尓��������������������� 107
Declaration of Rights of the Colony of
Maryland on 11 November 1776
Art XV����������������������������������尓�������������������� 58
Declaration of Rights of the Colony of
Massachusetts 1780
Art X����������������������������������尓��������������������� 107
Declaration of Rights of the Colony of
Pennsylvania 1776
Art VIII����������������������������������尓����������������� 107
Declaration of Rights of the Colony of
Virginia on 12 June 1776������������������� 3, 7,
8, 12, 22, 24, 34, 35, 37,
42, 44, 45, 49, 54, 58, 61, 65,
81, 83, 88, 104, 107, 108, 110,
123, 152, 160, 173, 187, 206
Art I ���������������� 16, 31, 32, 85, 101, 131, 173
Art II����������������������������������尓����45, 49, 60, 159
Art III�������������������������������31, 32, 45, 49, 77,
115, 117, 123
Art IV����������������������������������尓��������������������� 31
Art V����������������������������������尓������������63, 67, 77
Art VI���������������������������49, 57, 101, 108, 159
Art VII���������������������������������49, 59, 107, 124
Art VIII��������������������49, 57, 63, 85, 131, 138
Art IX�������������������������������49, 57, 85, 88, 136
Art X��������������������������������115, 121, 131, 134
Art XI����������������������������������尓���������������������� 63
Art XII����������������������������������尓���������� 115, 124
Art XIII����������������������������������尓������������������� 77
Art XIV����������������������������������尓����������������� 154
Art XV����������������������������������尓���������� 147, 154
Art XVI����������������������������������尓��117, 146, 179
Maryland Act Concerning Religion
1649����������������������������������尓����������������� 151
Massachusetts Body of Liberties
(1641)����������������������������������尓����89, 98, 175
Art 42����������������������������������尓���������������������� 65
Art 43����������������������������������尓���������������������� 89
Art 42����������������������������������尓���������������������� 65
Art 45����������������������������������尓�������������� 96, 139
Arts 79–╉93����������������������������������尓�������������� 44
Arts 92–╉93����������������������������������尓�������������� 15
New Hampshire Bill of Rights
Art XVI����������������������������������尓������������������� 65
New Jersey Constitution
Art XVI����������������������������������尓������������������� 65
Sedition Act 1798�������������������������������� 125, 171

INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND€CONVENTIONS

Charter of the United Nations (1945) 64, 98, 110, 138, 171, 177,
Preamble����������������������������������尓��������������� 1, 203 178, 179, 180, 181, 191, 194,
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, 196, 199, 200, 201, 202,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or 205, 206, 207, 208
Punishment (1984)������������������������������� 97 Preamble����������������������������������尓������������������� 174
Convention on the Elimination of All Art 1����������������������������������尓�������������2, 15, 114
Forms of Discrimination against Art 2����������������������������������尓�2, 64, 82, 84, 100
Women (1979)����������������������������������尓���� 14 Art 3�������������������������������2, 64, 100, 114, 155
Convention for the Protection of Human Art 4����������������������������������尓�����������2, 114, 128
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950) Art 5����������������������������������尓�����2, 99, 100, 194
(The European Convention on Art 6������������� 2, 64, 66, 69, 76, 138, 143, 202
Human Rights)����������� 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15, Art 7����������������������������������尓�������������������������� 2
xx
xx Table of Legislation and Treaties
Art 8������������������������2, 62, 99, 141, 144, 145,
193, 197, 202
Arts 8–​11���������������������������������������� 143, 199
Art 8(1)��������������������������������������������������� 132
Art 8(2)��������������������������������������������� 60, 143
Art 9�������������������������������2, 62, 136, 156, 197
Art 10������������������������2, 53, 62, 76, 127, 129,
193, 197, 202
Art 10(2)������������������������������������������������� 126
Art 11������������� 2, 62, 128, 146, 153, 156, 197
Art 12�������������������������������������������������� 2, 146
Art 14�������������������������������������2, 47, 174, 194
Protocol 1���������������������������������������������������� 110
Art 2������������������������������������������������ 156, 206
Art 3�����������������������������������������130, 172, 206
Protocol 7
Art 4���������������������������������������������������������� 64
Convention relating to the Status
of Refugees (1951)�������������������������������� 13
Convention on the Rights of the
Child (1989)����������������������������������������� 14
Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities (2006)������������������������� 14
International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (1966)��������������������� 13–​14
International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights (1966)�����������6, 13, 15
Art 26�������������������������������������������������������� 35
International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights
(1966)������������������6, 13, 15, 155, 156, 206
Art 6(1)��������������������������������������������������� 202
Art 11�������������������������������������������������������� 21
Art 21������������������������������������������������������ 156
Art 22������������������������������������������������������ 156
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (1948)�������������� 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 15, 22,
47, 61, 62, 77, 84, 155,
174, 178, 183, 184, 191,
203, 206, 207, 208
Preamble������������������������������14, 47, 50, 77, 180
Art 1���������������������������������������������������� 14, 33
Art 6���������������������������������������������������������� 47
Art 7���������������������������������������������������� 35, 47
Art 12������������������������������������������������ 98, 202
Art 13(2)��������������������������������������������������� 14
Arts 14–​16������������������������������������������������ 14
Art 15(1)��������������������������������������������������� 62
Art 21������������������������������������������������������ 170
Art 21(1)��������������������������������������14, 62, 206
Art 21(2)��������������������������������������������� 14, 62
Art 21(3)������������������������������������������� 62, 206
Art 22������������������������������������������������������ 155
Arts 23–​25������������������������������������������������ 14
Art 23(1)����������������������������������������� 114, 202
Art 23(2)������������������������������������������������� 155
Art 23(3)������������������������������������������������� 114
Art 23(4)������������������������������������������������� 114
Art 24���������������������������������������������� 114, 155
Art 25(1)������������������������������������������������� 155
Art 25(2)������������������������������������������������� 155
Art 26������������������������������������������������������ 155
Art 26(1)–​(8)�������������������������������������������� 14
Art 29������������������������������������������������ 14, 156
Art 29(2)������������������������������������������������� 143
1

1
Introduction

The Purpose of this Book

The United Kingdom (UK) is ‘a country, which surely, more than any other in
Europe, has always shown concern for human rights’. That was the view expressed
in 1956 to the European Commission on Human Rights by an international law-
yer who was later to become President of the European Court of Human Rights.1
The same view of eighteenth-​century England had been expressed in 1789 by the
Marquis de Lally-​Tollendal to the French National Assembly when they were pre-
paring to debate what became the Declaration of Human and Civic Rights of 26
August 1789 (the French Declaration):2
Nowhere has property been more sacred, nowhere has individual liberty been more intact.
Nowhere has greater respect been accorded to the rights of humanity and political equal-
ity … Show us a country in the world where respect for the rights of man has been more
firmly imprinted and more religiously observed.3
Britain had fought the Second World War in part for what Churchill referred
to as ‘the enthronement of human rights’.4 When victory was achieved, Britain,
with the other victorious powers, set up the United Nations (UN) in part because
Britain was determined to re-​affirm our ‘faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small’.5 To fulfil the aspiration set out in the UN

1 Professor Henry Rolin, cited by Alfred William Brian Simpson, Human Rights and the End of
Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (OUP 2010) 322.
2 See Appendix II.
3 Gallois, M, Le Moniteur Vol 1 (réimpression 1840 with Explanatory Notes, Paris 1840) 19 August
1789 355, 360. Author’s translation. ‘Nulle part la propriété n’a été plus sacrée; nulle part la liberté indi-
viduelle n’a été plus intacte; nulle part les droits de l’humanité et l’égalité politique n’ont été plus respectés …
Qu’on nous montre un pays sur la terre où le respect des droits de l’homme soit plus profondément imprimé
et plus religieusement observé.’
4 An address on 29 October 1942 to the World Jewish Congress reported in The Times, London,
30 October 1942, cited by Hersch Lauterpacht and Philippe Sands, An International Bill of the Rights
of Man (first published 1945, OUP 2013) 86. Lauterpacht notes the similar language of Gladstone
(as quoted in Speeches by the Earl of Oxford and Asquith [New York, 1927] 218): ‘The greatest triumph
of our time will be the enthronement of the idea of public right as governing the idea of European
politics.’
5 The Preamble to the Charter of the United Nations, signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco,
at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, and into force on
24 October 1945.
Liberty Intact: Human Rights in English Law. First Edition. Michael Tugendhat.
© Michael Tugendhat 2017. Published 2017 by Oxford University Press.
2

2 Introduction
Charter, in 1948 Britain played a key role in the drafting and adoption of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to ‘set a common standard of
achievement for all peoples’.6 Britain was also a major contributor to the draft-
ing of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (‘the European Convention on Human Rights’, or the ECHR).7 Most
of the rights declared in the UDHR, and all of those declared in the ECHR,
already had the force of law in Britain.8 The goal was to encourage the spread
throughout the world of the legal standards which the people of Britain had
enjoyed for centuries.
But by the 1990s, the position had changed. In a White Paper, Rights Brought
Home: The Human Rights Bill, the government declared that ‘The rights [set out
in the ECHR], originally developed with major help from the United Kingdom
Government, are no longer actually seen as British rights’.9 To remedy this state
of affairs, the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) was enacted. Under English law, a
Treaty such as the ECHR is not enforceable in the English courts unless Parliament
chooses to make it enforceable by incorporating it into a statute. The HRA did
this, making it unlawful for the courts and for other public authorities to act in
a way which was incompatible with the rights set out in the ECHR (and in the
Protocols amending the ECHR which the UK had ratified).
However, at the time of writing the HRA has been in force for some 16 years,
and the rights the HRA enshrines are still not seen as British rights. They have
become controversial. Many references to human rights by ministers and in the
media associate human rights with injustice, and popular rights, such as personal
autonomy and freedom of expression are rarely referred to as the human rights
they are.
In summary the rights included in the ECHR (and British law) are: to life
(Article 2); to be free from torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punish-
ment (Article 3); to be free from slavery and forced labour (Article 4); to liberty
and security of person (Article 5); to a fair trial (Article 6); to be free from ret-
rospective criminal laws (Article 7); to respect for private and family life, home,
and correspondence (Article 8); to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion
(Article 9); to freedom of expression (Article 10); to freedom of peaceful assembly
and freedom of association, including the right to join a trade union (Article 11);
to marry and to found a family (Article 12); to be free from discrimination in the
enjoyment of these specified rights and freedoms (Article 14); and, under the First
Protocol, to protection of property (Article 1), to education (Article 2), and to free
elections to ensure the free expression of the opinion of the people in the choice of
the legislature (Article 3).

6 Adopted and proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly Res 217A (III) (10
December 1948).
7 Agreed by the Council of Europe at Rome on 4 November 1950.
8 Mary Ann Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (Random House 2001) 177–​8, 201.
9 (1997) Cm 3782, para 1.14.
3

The Purpose of this Book 3

If asked ‘Which of these rights would you not want there to be?’, few would
say that they did not want these rights, or suggest some substitute rights, or laws.
There are a number of arguments raised about the enforcement of human right,
which should not be confused with arguments about human rights themselves.
People say, and in some cases convincingly, that judges, and other public offi-
cials, have not always interpreted these rights correctly, or that, in upholding the
rights of some people, they have given insufficient regard to the rights of others,
or to the common good. Some argue that the European Court of Human Rights
is not an appropriate court, because its decisions cannot be democratically over-
ruled by an amendment to the ECHR, whereas national constitutions can be
amended democratically. Other arguments include that the question whether
an interference with rights and freedoms is justifiable should, in some cases, be
answered politically (by the elected representatives of the people), rather than
legally (by a judge).
Controversies about the means of enforcement of human rights are beyond the
scope of this book, and should not detract from our pride, as a nation, in our con-
tribution to the recognition of human rights in the UK and throughout the world.
That we are proud was shown in 2015 by the celebration of the 800th anniversary
of Magna Carta. Magna Carta (like other English statutes) is not itself a declara-
tion of human rights. It marks an early point at which English law came to guar-
antee some of the human rights which are now also guaranteed by the ECHR: life,
liberty, security, freedom from torture, property, and a fair trial. What we British
can be proud of is not the invention of human rights: they are universal.10 What
we have to be proud of is the fact that, for centuries, Britons (including Norman
barons), both in Britain, and as colonists in America, fought victoriously for these
rights. For centuries our forebears had the good fortune to be more successful
than other peoples in the struggle for liberty. In the late eighteenth century they
had in large measure succeeded in establishing liberty in England and America.
This was correctly recognized by those who framed the declarations of rights in
1776, on their way to becoming independent Americans. Most notable were the
framers of the first of these, the Declaration of Rights of the Colony of Virginia on
12 June 1776 (the Virginia Declaration),11 just a few weeks before the American
Declaration of Independence on 4 July. It was also recognized by the framers of the
French Declaration in 1789 on their way to throwing off the absolutist monarchy
of the ancien régime.
The rights to which most space is given in this book are freedom of expression
and privacy. There are two reasons for that. One is that these are the areas of English
law which have been changed most under the influence of the ECHR and the
HRA. The second reason is that these fields are also the ones in which the author
had most involvement as a barrister and as a judge.

10 This is shown by the almost universal support for the UDHR in 1948, and the respect in which
it is held worldwide: Glendon (n8) 235–​41.
11 See Appendix II. It was followed by a number of mostly similar Declarations by other American
colonies.
4

4 Introduction

The Arguments Advanced

There are three related arguments advanced in this book. The first argument is
that those who, in the late eighteenth century, framed the first modern declara-
tions of the rights of mankind, or human rights, set out in those documents rights
which were already enshrined in English common law and statutes. In the case of
the Americans, the framers were British until 1776, and their books of law and
politics were the same as the books used in England. They were selecting from
English law those principles which seemed to them to be most important for the
setting up of the new independent states that they were intending to establish.
They were not engaged in reforming the law, but in making sure, as best they
could, that they would, in the future, enjoy the same rights as were enjoyed by the
English who lived in England.12 The French in 1789 were engaged in reforming
their laws, and, although they had their own civil law books and traditions, they
also had the declarations adopted by the Americans 13 years before, and books on
English law written by both French and English writers (most of these books were
available in French as well as in English). It will be argued that the rights which
they selected to include in the French Declaration are almost all to be found in the
books written by English writers. The point of this comparison is not to establish
that the French rights were actually derived from the English texts (although at
least some of them probably were). The point of the comparison with the French
Declaration is to show that, whatever rights the French declared to be the rights
of mankind, those rights were already recognized in English law. Although the
French Declaration undoubtedly had an impact in England in the movement
towards electoral reform, particularly through the popular writings of Tom Paine,
this was not because it introduced significantly new rights. It was because it raised
awareness among a wider public of rights which were already well known to law-
yers and other informed readers in England.13
It follows that human rights are British rights. ‘British’ here means they are part
of the law and political thought of British people, whether or not they are also part
of the law of other countries. ‘British’ is not here an exclusive adjective. With rights,
as with the weather, clothes, or food, what is British can be equally Irish or Dutch.

12 The main grievance of the American colonists was based on the right of equality and the rule
of law, in particular as it related to the right not to be taxed without consent. Unlike those (few)
British subjects who were both resident in the UK and qualified to vote for members of Parliament,
no American residents were represented in the Parliament which passed the tax and other laws that
applied to them.
13 Thomas Paine was born in England in 1737. He went to America in 1774, where he became a
friend of Benjamin Franklin and later of La Fayette. While in America he published his famous pam-
phlet Common Sense, supporting the independence of the American colonies. After little more than two
years in America, he returned to England where he was convicted of sedition (R v Paine (1792) 22 St
Tr 357). He was a member of the French National Convention from 1792 to 1795. He fled to France,
where the National Assembly gave him French citizenship. http://​www.assemblee-​nationale.fr/​syco-
more/​fiche.asp?num_​dept=13981 accessed 17 March 2016, Thomas Paine, Rights of Man (Penguin
1984) 66–​7.
5

The Arguments Advanced 5

The second argument advanced in this book is that human rights did not origi-
nate in the late eighteenth century, about the time when they first appeared in the
form of the American and French Declarations. The argument challenges Hunt’s
claim that ‘[t]‌he equality, universality, and naturalness of rights gained their politi-
cal expression for the first time in the American Declaration of Independence of
1776 and the French Declaration …’.14 The human rights that have all been rec-
ognized in English law and politics since at least the fifteenth century embrace
the rights to life (including the social and economic right to subsistence), security,
freedom from torture and forced labour, property, reputation, equality before the
law, access to an impartial court for a fair trial, and to be governed by the rule of law.
The rights which have been recognized since at least the early seventeenth century
include the rights to freedom from arbitrary arrest, to petition for redress of griev-
ances (a precursor to freedom of expression), to freedom of expression (in the sense
of no prior restraints), privacy (in the sense of freedom from arbitrary interference
with home and family, and from arbitrary searches and seizures, and protection of
the mail), freedom of religion, and freedom to work or to compete in trade. These
developments were in part in judge made (common) law and in part by statutes,
and sometimes by both together (eg habeas corpus, which was invented by judges
but enhanced by Parliament in a number of Habeas Corpus Acts). Some human
rights are purely individual, such as most of the ones mentioned above. But the
term ‘human rights’ is also used to refer to the collective, or constitutional, rights
set out in the French Declaration (by Article 16, the separation of powers), and in
the English Bill of Rights 1688 (by which, for example, legislative powers were to be
exercised only by Parliament). With the demand for extension of the right to vote
came the rights necessary to exercise that liberty (in the sense of participation in the
election of the legislature): freedom of assembly and association, and an extension
of the right of freedom of expression (and the decline and disappearance of treason,
sedition, and blasphemy offences).
To say that a right was recognized, or guaranteed, by English law, is not to say
that there were no interferences with that right in England. Obviously that was not
the case throughout the period referred to, and it was never the case for all sections
of the population. But nor were the rights recognized in the French and American
Declarations applied in those countries in the periods following the making of
those Declarations. In France the Terror erupted in 1793, and in the United States
(US) most of the rights declared in 1776 (and in the Federal Bill of Rights adopted
in 1791) were not effectively enforced for all sections of the population until late in
the twentieth century.
The third argument in this book follows from the other two. It is that those
engaged in the execution or administration of the law—​ministers, public officials,
judges, and lawyers—​should primarily justify what they do, or claim, by reference to

14 Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (WW Norton & Co 2007). For the similar claim
by Michelet, that the French Declaration was a Creed for a New Age, see Jules Michelet, Histoire de la
Révolution française (Chamarot 1847) 201.
6

6 Introduction
British common law and statute law. As stated by the Supreme Court: ‘Since the pass-
ing of the Human Rights Act 1998, there has too often been a tendency to see the law
in areas touched on by the Convention solely in terms of the Convention rights. But
the Convention rights represent a threshold protection.’15 British law, in all but a few
instances, either meets or exceeds human rights standards. So citing human rights law
rarely adds to any argument or justification, except in those cases where British law is,
or is claimed to be, below human rights standards. To refer to human rights in other
circumstances may confuse the issue. It may also encourage the false perception that
human rights are not British, but a recent invention imported from abroad.

Human€Rights

The word ‘rights’ is sometimes used to refer only to those rights which are enforce-
able by law, in particular against the state (eg by American-╉style judicial review). In
this book ‘rights’ is used in a wider sense (which includes the narrower), as it was in
the French Declaration and in the UDHR. Neither of these two texts provides for
any means of enforcement of the rights declared in them, although the framers of the
UDHR contemplated enforcement under international law by the Covenants even-
tually agreed 28 years later (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
1966 (ICCPR) and Internation Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1966 (ICESCR)). In this book ‘human rights’ means moral rights possessed by all
men, women, and children, simply by virtue of their being human beings (eg the
right to life). They are a form of higher law, setting a standard, so that, to be just,
national and international laws ought generally to conform to human rights. When
national laws conform to human rights, the provisions of the national law are some-
times called human rights (as in the HRA) because that is what they are derived
from. But incorporation into law makes them legal rights. Similarly, there are treaties
in which state parties have set out agreed lists of rights, such as the ECHR. These
treaties do not create human rights. They create obligations binding states under
international law to guarantee, or to give effect in their national laws to, what are
said, or assumed, to be pre-╉existing human rights. But people sometimes refer to the
treaty obligations as if those treaty obligations were themselves human rights.
There are many rights which particular humans may have, which are not human
rights, such as rights under contracts. For example, an employer may have a right
to the services of an employee, and an employee may have a right to be paid wages.
There are other rights which are not human rights, such as the right to have an
abode in, or to vote in, one country rather than in another.
An important difference between human rights and other rights is that human
rights are said to be inalienable and imprescriptible. These are legal terms. Alienation
is giving up something. So an employee can give up his right to work in the future
for a second employer at any time when he is employed by the first employer. If

15╇ Kennedy v The Charity Commission [2014] UKSC 20; [2015] 1 AC 455 [46].
7

Structure and Sources 7

he does that by a legal agreement, the agreement may be enforced by the courts.
But if the agreement is that the employee will never work for any other employer,
the English courts will not enforce that agreement. Freedom to work is part of the
human right to liberty, and so English law will not hold a person to a bargain by
which that person purports to give up his whole right to that freedom. His right to
work is inalienable.
Prescription is the legal term for losing, or acquiring, a right simply by the passage of
time. If a person does not sue to assert a claim to some property, such as a house or an
antique, within a time set by law, that person may lose the right ever to assert the claim,
and the person who has possession of the item for that period may acquire the legal
ownership of it. Human rights are different. It does not matter for how long a person
has submitted, or even agreed, to being detained or enslaved, the law ought always to
allow him to assert his claim to liberty. His right to it is imprescriptible.
Where ‘English rights’ are distinguished from British rights that is because the
author is an English lawyer with no knowledge of legal history in Scotland and
Ireland. It is not implied that there is in fact any difference. ‘British rights’ is used in
references to the present, because today the same rights are known to be recognized
throughout the UK.

Structure and Sources

The book is divided into three main sections. The first is this Introduction, followed
by a brief history and discussion of the terms used. The second section, the main
body of the book, takes each of the rights which are to be found in the American
and French Declarations and shows how they relate to English law at the time.
These Declarations are taken because they are the earliest models from among the
many used to draft the UDHR.16 The ECHR acknowledges the UDHR as its
source, and in that way they became the ancestors of the HRA.
English law is, for the most part, taken from Blackstone’s Commentaries on the
Laws of England (Blackstone), and to a lesser extent from the sources quoted by
Blackstone, and modern legal historians. The third section of this book discusses
the different functions of rights; that is to say, the uses to which they have been,
and are, put.
This structure is inspired by a number of American books17 which take the text
of the constitution, and set out below the sources, and a discussion. The American
texts at the head of chapters are generally selected from the Virginia Declaration,
but in some instances other Declarations, and the Federal Constitution, are also
cited. At the end of each chapter there is set out the Article of the ECHR which

16 Glendon (n8) 57–​8.

17 Edward S Corwin (ed), The Constitution of the United States of America Analysis and Interpretation,
82d Congress 2d Session Senate Document 170 (United States Government Printing Office 1953);
Bernard Schwartz, The Great Rights of Mankind: A History of the American Bill of Rights (Madison
House 1992); Philip Kurland and Ralph Lerner, The Founders Constitution (University of Chicago and
8

8 Introduction
most closely corresponds to the provision of the American and French Article at the
head of the chapter. Where there is no corresponding Article from the ECHR, the
UDHR is cited. Developments in the 150 years between the eighteenth-​century
Virginia and French Declarations and the twentieth-​century UDHR and ECHR
are referred to only in a few instances, and briefly.
The French Declaration is also cited because it differs from the American
Declarations. It was a programme for law reform. French law is part of the civil
law (derived from Roman law) as opposed to the common law tradition (the
term ‘civil law’ is also used to refer to that part of the common law which is
not criminal law). Both the Virginia and the French Declarations are in force
today: they stand, respectively, at the head of the Constitution of Virginia
1971 (with amendments) and of the French Constitution of 1958. Unlike the
American works, those by modern French authors on the origins of the French
Declaration focus on the philosophical origins, and upon the ‘Cahiers de dolé-
ances’ (books of grievances) and draft declarations produced in 1789 and the
period immediately preceding. They do not attempt to relate the Declaration to
French legal history, but, significantly, they do refer to the Virginia and other
American Declarations, and major English statutes such as Magna Carta, the
Petition of Right 1627, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, and the Bill of Rights
1688 (but not the common law).18
Since the argument of this book is historical, rather than theoretical, ‘human
rights’ will be treated as a term of art, referring to those rights which have been rec-
ognized in the Declarations, Treaties, and other documents which are mentioned.19
There will be no philosophical discussion of the nature of human rights, nor of rights
which might have been, but were not, included in the Declarations discussed.20 The
sources cited will be largely from the centuries up to the end of the eighteenth, when
the American and the French Declarations of Rights were drafted, thus omitting the
important writings of Kant and later theorists.
Sir William Blackstone published his Commentaries on the Laws of England in
1765–​9. He had been politically active as a Tory, and later became a judge. He was
the first English writer to compare rights under English law with natural rights,
and to seek to justify English law by that means. Baker describes the Commentaries

Liberty Fund 2000); Neil H Cogan (ed), The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and
Origins (2nd edn OUP 2015).
18 Stéphane Rials (ed), La déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen (Hachette 1988); Marcel
Gauchet, La Révolution des Droits de l’Homme (Gallimard 1989); Lucien Jaume (ed), Les déclarations
des droits de l’homme: (du débat 1789–​1793 au préambule de 1946) (Flammarion 1989); Frédéric
Rouvillois, Les déclarations des droits de l’homme (Flammarion 2009); Christine Fauré (ed), Les décla-
rations des droits de l’homme de 1789 (Payot 1989); and Claude Albert Colliard (ed), La Déclaration
Des Droits de L’homme et Du Citoyen de 1789, Ses Origines-​Sa Pérennité: Colloque (Documentation
française 1990).
19 Human rights may be used in other senses as well, and there are examples from the seventeenth
century given in the Oxford English Dictionary, eg to distinguish them from divine rights or animal
rights.
20 There is a vast literature, including Martin Loughlin, Foundations of Public Law (OUP 2010) ch
12 and David Feldman, Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales (2nd edn, OUP 2002).
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LP43077.
Clothing: a pair of blue jeans. International Cinemedia Center. 13
min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of America, a division
of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 10May71; LP43077.

LP43078.
 Food: the story of a peanut butter sandwich. International
Cinemedia Center. 13 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company
of America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 20Jul71;
LP43078.

LP43079.
The Middle Ages: a wanderer’s guide to life and letters. 28 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of
Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 4Feb71 (in notice: 1970);
LP43079.

LP43080.
Felipa: north of the border. 17 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning
Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries,
Inc.; 16Feb71 (in notice: 1970); LP43080.

LP43081.
Shakespeare: a mirror to man. 28 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 1Feb71 (in notice: 1970); LP43081.

LP43082.
Elizabeth: the queen who shaped an age. 27 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia
Pictures Industries, Inc.; 4Feb71 (in notice: 1970); LP43082.

LP43083.
Siu Mei Wong: who shall I be? 18 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 29Dec70; LP43083.

LP43084.
 The Symphony sound with Henry Lewis and the Royal
Philharmonic. 27 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of
America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 16Nov70;
LP43084.

LP43085.
The French Revolution: the Bastille. 22 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 23Nov70; LP43085.

LP43086.
The Bible: a literary heritage. 27 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 17Dec70; LP43086.

LP43087.
The Sonnets: Shakespeare’s moods of love. 21 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia
Pictures Industries, Inc.; 11Oct72; LP43087.

LP43088.
A Slave’s story: running a thousand miles to freedom. 29 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of
Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 21Jul72; LP43088.

LP43089.
The Witches of Salem: the horror and the hope. 35 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia
Pictures Industries, Inc.; 21Jul72; LP43089.

LP43090.
Brown wolf. 26 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of
America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 18Sep72;
LP43090.

LP43091.
The Civil War: promise of reconstruction. 28 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia
Pictures Industries, Inc.; 21Jul72; LP43091.

LP43092.
The Civil War: the anguish of emancipation. 27 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia
Pictures Industries, Inc.; 21Jul72; LP43092.

LP43093.
William: from Georgia to Harlem. 16 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 3Mar71; LP43093.

LP43094.
The Satiric eye. 12 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company
of America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.;
14May71; LP43094.

LP43095.
The Greeks: in search of meaning. 26 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 4May71; LP43095.

LP43096.
The French Revolution: the terror. 20 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Learning Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 9Mar71; LP43096.
LP43097.
The Seven ravens. 22 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning
Company of America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries,
Inc.; 10May71; LP43097.

LP43098.
Go faster. 8 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of
America, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 12May71;
LP43098.

LP43099.
The Weekend murders. 98 min., sd., color, 35 mm. © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 17May72; LP43099.

LP43100.
Earth 2. 98 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.;
21Nov71; LP43100.

LP43101.
Drive hard, drive fast. A Universal Public Arts production. 106
min., sd., color, 35 mm. (World premiere) © Universal Public Arts
Productions; 11Sep73 (in notice: 1970); LP43101.

LP43102.
Sssssss. A Zanuck/Brown production. 99 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
© Universal Pictures; 18Jul73; LP43102.

LP43103.
Tightrope to tomorrow. A Harbour-UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 7Jan73
(in notice: 1972); LP43103.
LP43104.
Amanda Fallon. A Harbour-UTV production. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 23Jan73;
LP43104.

LP43105.
For the love of pizza. A Walter Lantz production. 1 reel, sd., color,
35 mm. © Universal Pictures; 1Aug72; LP43105.

LP43106.
Five days in the death of Sergeant Brown. Pt. 2. A Harbour UTV
production. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal
City Studios, Inc.; 17Sep72; LP43106.

LP43107.
Is this operation necessary? A Harbour UTV production. 53 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
24Sep72; LP43107.

LP43108.
A Nation of human pincushions. A Harbour UTV production. 53
min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Bold Ones) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 1Oct72; LP43108.

LP43109.
Time bomb in the chest. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
8Oct72; LP43109.

LP43110.
A Substitute womb. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
22Oct72; LP43110.

LP43111.
A Very strange triangle. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
29Oct72; LP43111.

LP43112.
A Quality of fear. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd., color,
16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 12Nov72;
LP43112.

LP43113.
An Inalienable right to die. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
26Nov72; LP43113.

LP43114.
A Purge of madness. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
5Dec72; LP43114.

LP43115.
End theme. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 10Dec72;
LP43115.

LP43116.
The Velvet prison. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd., color,
16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 17Dec72;
LP43116.
LP43117.
A Terminal career. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd., color,
16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 31Dec72;
LF43117.

LP43118.
The Deadly trackers. A Cine Film production. 12 reels, sd., color,
35 mm. Based on the story, Riata, by Samuel Fuller. © Warner
Brothers, Inc.; 16Nov73; LP43118.

LP43119.
The All American boy. A My Shoes production. 12 reels, sd., color,
35 mm., Panavision. © Warner Brothers, Inc.; 5Sep73; LP43119.

LP43120.
Christmas looking. Daughters of Saint Paul. 22 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Daughters of Saint Paul; 7Nov73; LP43120.

LP43121.
Zlateh the goat. Weston Woods. Made by Kratky Film. 20 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. From the short story by Isaac Bashevis Singer. ©
Weston Woods a. a. d. o. Weston Woods Studios, Inc.; 12Dec73;
LP43121.

LP43122.
Fifty years of thorns and roses. 65 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Pio
Wenzonsky Productions (in notice: Wenzonsky Productions);
13Apr73; LP43122.

LP43123.
Prostaglandins: tomorrow’s physiology? Omnicom Productions,
Inc. 22 min., sd., color; 16 mm. (The Upjohn vanguard of medicine,
no. 16) © The Upjohn Company; 12Feb74 (in notice: 1973); LP43123.

LP43124.
Marjoe. 88 min., sd., color, 35 mm. © Mauser Productions, Inc.;
24Jul72; LP43124.

LP43125.
Elephants. R. E. Myers, 8 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Robert
Eugene Myers; 15Nov73; LP43125.

LP43126.
Ee-yi-ee-yi-oh. Consumers Power Company. Made by Portafilms.
11 min., sd., color, 16 mm. Add. ti.: Ee-i-ee-i-oh. © Consumers Power
Company; 15Apr72; LP43126.

LP43127.
Decision: alcohol. A Q-ED production. 15 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
© Q-ED Productions, Inc.; 1Feb74; LP43127.

LP43128.
The Butterfly. 6 min., sd., color. 16 mm. © ABBA Productions;
1Mar74; LP43128.

LP43129.
Sole survivor. 120 min., sd., videotape (2 inches) © Cinema Center
Films; 2Jan70 (in notice: 1969); LP43129.

LP43130.
Little Boa Peep. A DePatie-Freleng production. Produced in
association with the Mirisch Cinema Company, Inc. 7 min., sd., color,
35 mm. (The Blue Racer series) © United Artists Corporation;
16Jan74 (in notice: 1973); LP43130.

LP43131.
Phony express. A DePatie-Freleng production. Produced in
association with the Mirisch Cinema Company, Inc. 7 min., sd., color,
35 mm. (Hoot Kloot series) © United Artists Corporation; 9Jan74
(in notice: 1973); LP43131.

LP43132.
Giddy up woe. A DePatie-Freleng production. Produced in
association with the Mirisch Cinema Company, Inc. 7 min., sd., color,
35 mm. (Hoot Kloot series) © United Artists Corporation; 9Jan74
(in notice: 1973); LP43132.

LP43133.
Gold struck. A DePatie-Freleng production. Produced in
association with the Mirisch Cinema Company, Inc. 7 min., sd., color,
35 mm. (Hoot Kloot series) © United Artists Corporation; 16Jan74
(in notice: 1973); LP43133.

LP43134.
Busting. A Robert Chartoff-Irwin Winkler production. 92 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. © United Artists Corporation; 15Nov73; LP43134.

LP43135.
Sleeper. A Jack Rollins-Charles H. Joffe production. 87 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. © Jack Rollins and Charles H. Joffe Productions;
11Dec73; LP43135.

LP43136.
Jeremy. A Kenasset Film production. 90 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
© United Artists Corporation; 19Jun73; LP43136.
LP43137.
Aches and snakes. A DePatie-Freleng production. Produced in
association with the Mirisch Cinema Company, Inc. 7 min., sd., color,
35 mm. (The Blue Racer series) © United Artists Corporation;
10Aug73; LP43137.

LP43138.
Five on the black hand side. A Michael Tolan-Brock Peters
production. Produced in association with the Petersen Company. 96
min., sd., color, 35 mm. Based on the play originally produced by the
American Place Theatre. © United Artists Corporation & Five Hand
Company; 13Aug73; LP43138.

LP43139.
Cutter. 80 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (NBC mystery movie) ©
Universal City Studios, Inc.; 26Jan72; LP43139.

LP43140.
Requiem for young lovers. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 29Jan73; LP43140.

LP43141.
Why is a crooked letter. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 5Feb73;
LP43141.

LP43142.
A Girl named Tham. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 12Mar73;
LP43142.

LP43143.
Some people in a park. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 21Feb73;
LP43143.

LP43144.
Final semester. Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 5Mar73;
LP43144.

LP43145.
Charlie gave me your number. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 11Nov72; LP43145.

LP43146.
Sigh no more, lady. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 16Dec72;
LP43146.

LP43147.
A Piece of God. Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 9Dec72;
LP43147.
LP43148.
Libel is a dirty word. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 23Sep72;
LP43148.

LP43149.
The Trouble with Ralph. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 14Oct72; LP43149.

LP43150.
Journey through limbo. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 7Oct72; LP43150.

LP43151.
Five will get you six. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 21Oct72;
LP43151.

LP43152.
The First day of your life. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 25Nov72; LP43152.

LP43153.
Starting over again. Universal Studios. Produced in association
with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 2Dec72;
LP43153.

LP43154.
Lines from an angry book. Universal Studios. Produced in
association with Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Owen Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios,
Inc.; 16Sep72; LP43154.

LP43155.
Hour of judgment. Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 30Sep72;
LP43155.

LP43156.
Who saw him die? Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 28Oct72;
LP43156.

LP43157.
Words of summer. Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 9Sep72;
LP43157.

LP43158.
Love child. Universal Studios. Produced in association with
Groverton Productions, Ltd. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Owen
Marshall, counselor at law) © Universal City Studios, Inc.; 4Nov72;
LP43158.