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PA I N C O N T RO L
An open learning programme
for healthcare workers

Nan Stalker

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
 USING THIS WORKBOOK
The workbook is divided into 'sessions', covering specific subjects.

T
In the introduction to each learning pack there is a learner profile to help y o u
assess your current knowledge of the subjects covered in each session.

T
Each session has clear learning objectives. They indicate what you will be able
to achieve or learn by completing that session.

Each session has a summary to remind you of the key points of the subjects
covered.

T
Each session contains text, diagrams and learning activities that relate to the
stated objectives.

T
It is important to complete each activity, making your own notes and writing in
answers in the space provided. Remember this is your own workbook—you are
allowed to write on it.

T
Now try an example activity.

Acrwm
This activity shows you what happens when cells work without oxygen. This
really is a physical activity, so please only try it i f you are fully fit.

First, raise one arm straight up in the air above your head, and let the other hand
rest by your side. Clench both fists tightly, and then open out your fingers wide.
Repeat this at the rate of once or twice a second. Try to keep clenching both fists
at the same rate. Keep going for about five minutes, and record what you
observe.
 Stop and rest for a minute. Then try again, with the opposite arm raised this time.
Again, record your observations.

T
Suggested timings are given for each activity. These are only a guide. You may
like to note how long it took you to complete this activity, as it may help in
planning the time needed for working through the sessions.

•
Time taken on activity

T
Time management i s i m p o r t a n t . While w e recognise that people learn at
different speeds, this pack is designed to take 15 study hours (your tutor will
also advise you). You should allocate time during each week for study.

T
Take some time now to identify likely periods that you can set aside for study
during the week.

Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

am

pm

eve

•
At the end of the learning pack, there is a learning review to help you assess
whether you have achieved the learning objectives.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writer: Nan Stalker

Reviewer: Gill Young

Director of programmes: Leslie Mapp

Programmes manager: Caroline Pelletier

Production manager: Stephen Moulds, DSM Partnership

The views expressed are those of the team members and do not necessarily reflect those
of The Open Learning Foundation.

The publishers have made all reasonable efforts to contact the holders of copyright
material included in this publication.

© 1999 Open Learning Foundation

Radcliffe Medical Press Ltd

18 Marcham Road, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 1AA

A l l rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 1 85775 436 0

Typset by DSM Partnership, London SW18

Printed and bound by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
 CONTENTS
Introduction 1

Learning Profile 2

Session One: Neurones 7

Session Two: The brain 17

Session Three: The spinal cord 27

Session Four: Voluntary and reflex action and the autonomic nervous system 33

Session Five: The human experience of pain 39

Session Six: Natural analgesic systems 45

Session Seven: The development of chronic pain 51

Session Eight: The pharmacology of pain control 63

Session Nine: The practice of pain management 79

Learning Review 85

Further Reading 89

Useful Web addresses related to pain 91

Resources Section 93

1 Making connections - the synapse 94

2 Action potential 96

3 Pathophysiology of acute pain 98

4 Management of the individual with pain, part 1: physiology and evaluation 101

5 Acupuncture, a brief introduction 104

6 Antidepressants and chronic pain 107

7 How to hit pain before it hurts you 109

 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses primarily on the pharmacological aspects of pain and pain control.

In Session One we revise the topic of neurones. We identify different types of neurone
and discuss nerve impulses, neurotransmitters and types of nerve fibre ending.

In Session Two we revise the topic of the structure and function of the brain. We look at
the different parts of the brain, and discuss the membranes which cover the brain - the
meninges - and the cerebrospinal fluid which protects the brain and the spinal cord.

In Session Three we revise the topic of the structure and function of the spinal cord. We
discuss the structure of the spinal cord, and consider peripheral, cranial, spinal and
cervical nerves.

In Session Four we revise the topic of voluntary and reflex action and the autonomic
nervous system. We start by discussing the function of the central nervous system then
discuss voluntary movement and reflex action. We also consider the two parts of the
autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic
nervous system.

In Session Five we discuss the human experience of pain. We review the history of
pain, distinguish between acute and chronic pain, and discuss the modulation of pain.

In Session Six we look at the natural analgesic systems of the human body. We start by
discussing the endogenous opioid systems of the body and their role in controlling pain.
We then go on to consider how acupuncture draws upon these systems to control pain.
We also discuss the issues of referred pain and projected or phantom pain.

In Session Seven we look at the development of chronic pain. We start by looking at

how different types of pain are transmitted: in particular, we look at the role played by
peripheral sensitisation and hyperalgesia in transmitting chronic pain. We then consider
the role of a range of chemical mediators in transmitting pain. Next, we look at drugs
that relieve pain by sensitising the nociceptors. Finally, we consider the issue of central
sensitisation to pain, and the problem of peripheral nerve damage.

In Session Eight we look at the pharmacology of pain control. We start by defining the
most important terms used in the session, then go on to discuss an important group of
drugs - the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs. We consider the
mechanisms of NSAIDs, their therapeutic uses and some of the side effects which can
be associated with them. Next, we discuss the use of opioids: how they work, their
pharmacological properties, their effects, their therapeutic use and the problems of
tolerance, withdrawal and dependence. Finally, we consider the use of some other drugs
to relieve pain.

In Session Nine we look at the management of pain. We start by considering the World
Health Organisation analgesic ladder of pain management, then look in more detail at
the use of drugs in pain management, and consider the problems of drug dependence
and what is known as 'the pain habit'.
 P A I N CONTROL

Learning Profile
Below is a list of learning statements for this unit. You can use it as a way of identifying
your current knowledge and deciding how the unit can develop your learning. It is for
your general guidance only. You will need to check each individual session in more
detail to identify specific areas on which you need to focus.

For each of the outcomes listed below, tick the box on the scale which most closely
corresponds to your starting point. This will give you a profile of your learning in the
areas covered in each session of this unit. The profile is repeated again at the end of this
unit as a learning review, and you will be able to check the progress you have made by
repeating it again then.

Not at Partly Quite Very

all well well

Session One
I can:

• describe a typical neurone Q Q Q Q

• identify different types of neurone

and explain their functions • • • •

• explain the function of nerve endings • • • •

• identify the electrical and chemical

factors essential in the functioning
of nerve tissue. Q Q Q Q

Session Two
I can:

• summarise the functions of the

central nervous system • • • Q

• identify the structure and function of
the five main parts of the brain • • • Q

• explain the function of the ventricles

of the brain • • • •

• explain the role of the meninges and

cerebrospinal fluid. Q Q Q Q
 P A I N CONTROL

Not at Partly Quite Very

all well well

Session Three
I can:

• explain the structure and function

of the spinal cord • • • •

• identify the peripheral nerves • • • •

• explain the type, function and

distribution of the twelve cranial nerves • • • •
• explain the function and route of
the spinal nerves. • • • •

Session Four
I can:

• explain the anatomical difference between

a voluntary movement and a reflex action • Q Q •
• explain the roles of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems Q Q Q Q

• identify the functions of the autonomic

nervous system. • • • •

Session Five
I can:

discuss the belief that pain is not a

sensation but an emotion Q • • Q

identify the different types of pain and

their physiological background • • Q •

explain the functions of the two main

types of nociceptor • • • •

discuss the value of superficial electrical

stimulus in the control of acute pain • • • •

evaluate the stimulation of the brain and

spinal cord in the control of pain. • • • •
 P A I N CONTROL

Not at Partly Quite Very

all well well

Session Six
I can:

• describe the endogenous

opioid system Q Q Q •

• explain the role of the endogenous

opioid system in the control of pain • • Q •

• examine the role of acupuncture

in pain control Q Q Q Q

• explain the pathophysiology of

referred pain • • • •

• discuss the phenomenon of

phantom or projected pain. • • • •

Session Seven
I can:

• distinguish between the three

categories of pain • • • •

• explain the mechanisms which

give rise to chronic pain • • • •

• discuss the concepts of hyperalgesia

and secondary hyperalgesia • • • •

• discuss the notion of 'wind-up'

as a major feature of chronic pain. • • • •

Session Eight
I can:

• identify the three main groups of

analgesic drugs • • Q •
• explain the main functions of
non-opioid drugs • • • •

• explain the main mechanisms of

the opioid drug groups • Q Q Q

• discuss the use of adjutant drugs. Q Q Q Q

 P A I N CONTROL

Not at Partly Quite Very

all well well

Session Nine
I can:

• describe appropriate drug regimes for

the relief of acute and chronic pain • • • •

• outline the characteristics of drug

dependence in patients being treated
with potent analgesics such as morphine • • • •

• explain the term 'the pain habit'

and discuss how this situation
can be prevented • • • •

• describe ways in which 'wind-up'

can be avoided in surgical and
terminal pain. • • • •
SESSION O N E

Neurones
Introduction
In this session we revise the topic of neurones. We identify different types of neurone,
and discuss nerve impulses, neurotransmitters and types of nerve fibre ending.

Session objectives
When you have completed this session you should be able to:

• describe a typical neurone

• identify different types of neurone and explain their functions

• explain the function of nerve endings

• identify the electrical and chemical factors essential in the functioning of nerve
tissue.

1: Nervous tissue
The nervous system is the system of communication between the various parts of the
body. It can be compared to a simple telephone system in which the brain is comparable
to the central switchboard, the spinal cord is comparable to the main cable and the
nerves are comparable to the telephone wires, ending in receivers and dischargers of
messages in the body tissue. It is a two-way system with messages being transmitted
between the brain and the body tissue via the neural network. Like the skeletal and
muscular systems, the nervous system is made up of a special tissue - the nervous
tissue.
 SESSION ONE

// ALLOW 5 MINUTES

Name the two component parts of nervous tissue and identify the name given
collectively to the two parts.

Commentary
The two component parts of the nervous tissue are nerve cells and nerve fibres.
Collectively, the cell and its fibres are called a neurone.

The neurone is the unit on which the nervous system is built. Cells and fibres are bound
together by a special type of connective tissue known as neuroglia - this binds them
into a solid but very soft and delicate tissue.

ACTIVITY 2 // ALLOW 5 MINUTES

Each cell has one long fibre and several short fibres. Name the long fibre and the
short fibres and in one or two sentences identify their function.

Commentary
The long fibre is called the axon, and the short fibre is called the dendrite. The
axon carries impulses from a cell and at its ending passes the impulses on to
another nerve cell or dendrite, or to tissue. The dendrite picks up the impulse or
message and carries the impulse or message to a cell.

Nerve cells are grouped together to form grey matter. Grey matter is found at the
periphery of the brain, the centre of the spinal cord and in the ganglia. (A ganglion is a
small mass of isolated nerve cells.)

Nerve fibres are grouped together to form the white matter of the nervous system.
White matter is found at the centre of the brain, the periphery of the spinal cord and in
the nerves.

A nerve is simply a bundle of nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue.

Whiteness of a nerve fibre is due to its protective sheath, which makes a marked
difference in colour of the tissue, readily obvious to the naked eye.

The nerve sheath consists of two coats, an outer coat of connective tissue called
neurilemma and a thick inner fatty sheath called the myelin sheath. This fatty sheath is
interrupted at intervals and the outer neurilemma dips in and forms notches called
Nodes of Ranvier.
 NEURONES

ACTIVITY 3

Identify and explain the three main functions of the myelin sheath.

Commentary
The three main functions of the myelin sheath are as follows.

• Protection from pressure and injury.

• Nutrition. As the fibres may be of great length, varying from 2.5 cm to

7.5 cm or more, the distal part of the fibre may be a long way from the
cell which controls the nutrition of its protoplasm. For example, nerve
cells in the lumbar region of the spinal cord give off nerve fibres to the
foot and may be more than a metre in length. The sheath may help to
nourish the fibre.

• Insulation. It is also suggested that the sheath acts like the casing of an
electric wire, so that impulses carried by the nerve are not transmitted to
adjacent nerves or tissues except through the end of a fibre.

The nerve cell and its fibres are one living unit, and i f the fibre is cut off from the cell it
will die, as it is the cell which contains the nucleus and the protoplasms of the fibre.
Conversely, i f the cell and the portion of the fibre attached to it remain alive, a new
fibre can grow from the severed end provided the neurilemma remains intact.

It should be remembered that the fibre will not grow through fibrous scar tissue of a
wound; it will, however, grow along an old nerve sheath. As a result, the nerve supply
can be restored i f a nerve is cut, though it will take time for the nerve fibre to grow, as
these fibres, though often short, can be as much as a metre in length. It will, however,
take much longer for the newly grown fibre to learn to function fully. I f the nerve cell is
destroyed by injury or disease the fibre will also die. I f this happens, neither the cell nor
the fibre can be replaced.

ACTIVITY 4 // ALLOWS MINUTES

Draw and label a diagram of a neurone.

 SESSION ONE

Commentary
Your diagram should be similar to that shown in Figure 1, below.

Cell body

Figure 1: Diagram of neurone

2: Types of neurone

ACTIVITY 5 // ALLOWS MINUTES

Identify the two main types of neurone and their functions, and give examples of
these functions.

10
 NEURONES

Commentary
Efferent neurones carry impulses from the brain to the tissues. Examples
include motor neurones, which supply the muscles and produce movement, and
secretory neurones, which supply the glands and produce secretions. Figure 2,
below, shows an efferent neurone.

Afferent neurones carry impulses to the brain from the tissues. These give rise
to sensations such as touch, pain, heat or cold, and are sometimes known as
sensory neurones. Figure 3, below, shows an afferent neurone.

Figure 2: An efferent neurone

Figure 3: An afferent (sensory) neurone

 SESSION ONE

If there is loss of nerve supply to tissues then necrosis of the tissue occurs; healing
cannot take place unless the nerve supply is restored. There are also associate or
connective neurones which run between the efferent and afferent neurones in the brain
and the spinal cord. These connector neurones, to relate them to our telephone system,
are like internal telephones in a building such as a hospital.

The neurone shown in Figure 1, earlier, is a typical neurone, consisting of a cell giving
off many dendrites and one axon. Sensory neurones have a different structure: they have
specialised nerve endings in the skin by which sensations are picked up. Fibres run from
these nerve endings into the vertebral column and they are protected by the bone. The
delicate cell is joined to the fibre by T-like connections; from this cell the fibre runs on
into the cord to pass the impulse to the afferent and associate nerve cells of the cord.
These neurones are called unipolar neurones.

Discuss the method of communication between the axon of one neurone with the
dendrites of another nerve cell.

Commentary
The axon normally ends in a tree-like branching by which the stimuli carried by
the axon are passed on to the dendrites of another nerve cell. The fibre ends in
nervous tissue and passes the impulse on to another nerve cell, the axon of
which must communicate with the dendrites of another nerve cell for the passage
of the impulse to take place; this point is called the synapse.
 NEURONES

Figure 4: A synapse

A synapse permits passage of an impulse in one direction only and offers some
resistance to its passage. However, in the pharmacology of pain it must be remembered
that the dendrites of the adjacent neurones do not actually touch the axon. The impulse
passes across the synapse because of a chemical substance, acetylcholine. This
substance is released at the junction, which then stimulates the dendrites of another
neurone or neurones.

3: The nerve impulse

One of the ways in which substances may enter and exit a cell is via the process of
osmosis. In order for this process to occur the cell membrane has to be semi-permeable.
This means that cell walls have a variety of 'gates' through which various substances
are allowed to pass. There are many types of gate, each one allowing a particular
substance through.

On the outside surface of a membrane there are receptor zones which influence the
gates in a variety of ways. They may open the gate, allowing substances to pass
through, or they may alter the structure of the gate and influence the internal structure of
the membrane.

When a nerve cell is stimulated at any point, its membrane is affected and some of the
gates open, allowing sodium and potassium ions to move in and out. Before the gates
open, the distribution of these ions, which carry an electrical charge, produces a specific
charge across the membrane. When the gate opens the charge changes. This affects the
adjacent section of membrane and causes gates to open there too, and so on across the
nerve cell and down to the nerve end. This is the nerve impulse - a self-generating wave
of electrical activity passing from the point of stimulation to the nerve ending.
 SESSION ONE

4: Neurotransmitters
The nerve impulse is a form of electrical activity. The gap between the nerve end and
the next cell is a fluid-filled space - the synapse. The impulse cannot jump across the
gap like a spark in an electrical circuit. It has to be converted into chemical activity in
order to cross that space. This is where neurotransmitters come in. These chemicals are
released when the electrical impulse reaches one side of a synapse. They pass across it
and influence the membrane on the other side, causing changes in that membrane
leading to the initiation of electrical activity there. So the impulse travels from one cell
to the next.

A similar process occurs when the nerve ending synapses with a structure such as an
endocrine gland, over which it has control. So, throughout the nervous system and the
structures it controls we have the same pattern recurring: electrical activity alternating
with chemical activity. This process begins when a sensory nerve ending receives a
stimulus.

For a more detailed account of how a synapse functions you should read Resource 1
from the Resources Section which has been downloadad from the following web site
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html. You might like to explore this web
site yourself.

5: Types of nerve fibre ending

m ALLOW 5 MINUTES

Name and describe the functions of the two main types of nerve fibre ending.

Commentary
The two main types of nerve fibre ending are:
• motor nerve endings
• sensory nerve endings.

Motor nerve endings give off stimuli to the muscles producing contractions -
these are called motor end plates. Each muscle fibre is stimulated through a
single motor end plate.

Sensory nerve endings pick up impulses and carry them into the spinal cord and
brain. These are the afferent or sensory neurones, which give rise to sensations,
but it must be remembered that many of these sensations remain below the level
of consciousness.

These nerve endings in the tissues are often peculiar in structure. Some of them are
simple tree-like branchings similar to the fibre endings found in nerve tissue. On the
other hand, motor nerve endings branch but the tip of each branch carries a disc-shaped
plate in the actual muscle fibre. This is the motor end plate.

Nerves of touch in the skin end in little round bodies which when sectioned look like an
onion under a microscope - touch and tactile corpuscles which are stimulated on
 NEURONES

pressure. Nerve endings of sight end in cone or rod-shaped cells in the retina of the eye,
and these are stimulated by light. The nerves of hearing end in hair-bearing cells in the
ear which are affected by sound. Nerves of taste end in taste buds in the tongue.

The nature of the impulses carried by nerve tissue is electrical. However, as in an

electric battery chemical reactions are associated with the passing of an electric current,
so in the body chemical changes associated with potassium and chloride ions
accompany the electrical impulse. It is important to remember that the function of nerve
tissue has both an electrical and a chemical factor - in the pharmacology of pain it is
often a chemical imbalance which influences pain, as we have seen above.

Reading Resource 2 will help you to revise how neurones transmit messages through
electrochemical processes.

Before you move on to Session Two, check that you have achieved the objectives given
at the beginning of this session and, if not, review the appropriate sections.
SESSION TWO

The brain
Introduction
In this session we revise the topic of the structure and function of the brain, look at the
different parts of the brain, and discuss the membranes which cover the brain - the
meninges - and the cerebrospinal fluid which protects the brain and the spinal cord.

Session objectives
When you have completed this session you should be able to:

• summarise the functions of the central nervous system

• identify the structure and function of the five main parts of the brain

• explain the function of the ventricles of the brain

• explain the role of the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.

1: The central nervous system

Summarise the functions of the central nervous system.

Commentary
The central nervous system contracts the voluntary muscles of the head, trunk
and limbs and is responsible for all movement in them and for all sensation in
skin, muscle, bones and joints and the special sense organs.
 SESSION TWO

The central nervous system supplies nerves to the limbs and to the structures
which form the walls of the cavities of the head and trunk and the covering
muscles and skin.

Nerves given off by the brain and spinal cord, which go to the outer part of the body are
called peripheral nerves to distinguish them from the nerves supplying the internal
organs.

The central nervous system is present at a very early stage when the developing
fertilised ovum consists of a mass of cells arranged in an outer, middle and inner layer,
with a groove appearing on the surface - this groove is known as the neural groove. The
outer layer of cells in which it is formed develops into the skin, while the middle layer
forms muscles, bone and other connective tissues, and the inner layer forms the lining
membranes of hollow internal organs.

II ALLOW 5 MINUTES

Briefly outline the physiological development of the neural groove.

Commentary
The neural groove gradually turns into a canal, its walls growing up and joining
round it. The walls of the canal develop to form the cord which always has a lining
canal running through the centre of it. At the upper end, where the head is to
develop, the canal becomes enlarged and the walls of the enlarged cavity
develop to form the brain. Although the groove forms on the surface of the
embryo, the other layers gradually grow up around it, so that the brain and spinal
cord become very well protected from injury before birth.

Figure 5 shows how the various elements of the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system relate to one another.
 THE BRAIN

Brain Spinal cord

Central nervous
system (CNS)

Sensory afferent system Motor efferent system

Conveys information from Conveys information from

the sensory receptors to the brain and the spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS) to the muscles
glands and organs

Autonomic Somatic
nervous system nervous system
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous system nervous system

Figure 5: The nervous system

2: The brain
When fully developed the brain is a large organ filling the cranial cavity, and can weigh
anything between one and four kilograms. Its large size compared to the total body
weight is one of the main anatomical differences between humans and other animals.

The brain is a complex organ. Early in its development its cavity becomes divided by
constrictures into three parts - forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. From the walls of
these three parts the fully developed brain is formed, the cavities persisting and being
called ventricles.
 SESSION TWO

Name the five main parts of the brain.

Commentary
The five main parts of the brain are:

• cerebrum
• cerebellum

• midbrain

• medulla oblongata.

• pons Varolii

Figure 6 shows the location of the main parts of the brain.

cerebrum

JIB

midbrain cerebellum

Figure 6: The main parts of the brain

 THE BRAIN

The cerebrum
The cerebrum fills the vault of the cranium from the level of the eyebrows in front to
the occiput at the back. It is divided into two hemispheres - right and left - by a deep
central fissure, the longitudinal cerebral fissure. These hemispheres control the opposite
sides of the body, so that disease of the right side of the cerebrum affects the left side of
the body and disease of the left side of the cerebrum affects the right side of the body.
Each hemisphere contains a small cavity or ventricle, known as the right and left lateral
ventricles.

Each hemisphere is subdivided into lobes which correspond approximately with the
bones of the cranium. The chief lobes are:

• the frontal lobe

• the parietal lobe

• the occipital lobe

• the temporal lobe.

Figure 7 shows the location of the most important lobes.

frontal lobe parietal lobe

Figure 7: The main lobes of the brain

These lobes are divided from one another by deep fissures known as sulci. The central
sulcus divides the frontal and parietal lobes; the lateral sulcus divides the temporal lobe
from the frontal and parietal lobes; and the perieto-occipital sulcus passes downwards
and forwards from the back of the hemispheres.

The cerebrum consists of grey matter or nerve cells on the surface, and white matter or
nerve fibres in the centre. The surface is convoluted: this means that it is thrown into
ridges and depressions. This greatly increases its mass and therefore increases the
amount of grey matter, or nerve cells, which are the foundation of our mental capacities.
Convolutions are more extensive than in the lower order animals. This further increases
the possibilities of mental development. The grey matter on the surface of the cortex of
the cerebrum contains many important nerve centres.
 SESSION TWO

// ALLOW 10 MINUTES

Identify and discuss the functions of the cerebral cortex.

Commentary
The cerebrum contains many important nerve centres, which make it not only the
largest but also the most highly developed part of the brain. These centres
include the following:

• motor centres control all the voluntary muscles of the muscular system

• sensory centres interpret sensory impulses, which give sensation to the

skin and to a lesser extent to the muscles, bones and joints

• centres of special sense: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch

• centres of higher mental powers: consciousness, memory, intelligence

and reasoning power.

The position of these centres within the lobes are, to a large extent, known. Motor
centres lie in the frontal lobe in the front of the central sulcus. Those for the lower limbs
are at the top, next come those of the trunk, upper limbs, neck and head, extending
outwards and downwards in front of the fissure. The motor centres for the eye lie
further forward. (For this reason, frontal headache may be due to eye problems.) The
speech centre also lies in the frontal lobe, normally in the left cerebral hemisphere.

Sensory centres for the limbs, trunk and head lie in the parietal lobe just behind the
central sulcus in positions corresponding to the motor areas. The centre of sight is in the
occipital lobe, and the centres of smell and hearing are in the temporal lobe.

Types of fibre
White matter consists of nerve fibres running to, from and between the cells of the
cortex.

Motor fibres run from the motor centres of the cortex out through the base of the brain
into the spinal cord, carrying impulses from the brain.

Sensory fibres run in from the base of the brain to the sensory centres of the cortex.
These carry impulses to the cerebral nerve centres.

Association or connector fibres run from one nerve centre to another and from
hemisphere to hemisphere linking them to one another, so that the various centres of the
brain can work as a whole and communicate with one another. A mass of connector
neurones made up of fibres linking the two hemispheres form a bridge-like structure at
the base of the fissure which separates the hemispheres from one another: this is called
the corpus callosum.

Returning to our telephone exchange analogy from Session One, the nerve endings not
only receive messages, they also store them so that they can be recalled, giving rise to
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were regular carpenters—privileged men. There was no time for a
raw hand to learn anything. Every man had to do that which he knew
how to do, and in entering the yard Mr. Gardiner had directed me to
do whatever the carpenters told me to do. This was placing me at
the beck and call of about seventy-five men. I was to regard all these
as my masters. Their word was to be my law. My situation was a
trying one. I was called a dozen ways in the space of a single
minute. I needed a dozen pairs of hands. Three or four voices would
strike my ear at the same moment. It was “Fred, come help me to
cant this timber here,”—“Fred, come carry this timber
yonder,”—“Fred, bring that roller here,”—“Fred, go get a fresh can of
water,”—“Fred, come help saw off the end of this timber,”—“Fred, go
quick and get the crow-bar,”—“Fred, hold on the end of this
fall,”—“Fred, go to the blacksmith’s shop and get a new
punch,”—“Halloo, Fred! run and bring me a cold-chisel,”—“I say,
Fred, bear a hand, and get up a fire under the steam-box as quick as
lightning,”—“Hullo, nigger! come turn this grindstone,”—“Come,
come; move, move! and bowse this timber forward,”—“I say, darkey,
blast your eyes! why don’t you heat up some pitch?”—“Halloo!
halloo! halloo! (three voices at the same time)”—“Come here; go
there; hold on where you are. D——n you, if you move I’ll knock your
brains out!” Such, my dear reader, is a glance at the school which
was mine during the first eight months of my stay at Gardiner’s ship-
yard. At the end of eight months Master Hugh refused longer to allow
me to remain with Gardiner. The circumstances which led to this
refusal was the committing of an outrage upon me, by the white
apprentices of the ship-yard. The fight was a desperate one, and I
came out of it shockingly mangled. I was cut and bruised in sundry
places, and my left eye was nearly knocked out of its socket. The
facts which led to this brutal outrage upon me, illustrate a phase of
slavery which was destined to become an important element in the
overthrow of the slave system, and I may therefore state them with
some minuteness. That phase was this—the conflict of slavery with
the interests of white mechanics and laborers. In the country this
conflict was not so apparent; but in cities, such as Baltimore,
Richmond, New Orleans, Mobile, etc., it was seen pretty clearly. The
slaveholders, with a craftiness peculiar to themselves, by
encouraging the enmity of the poor laboring white man against the
blacks, succeeded in making the said white man almost as much a
slave as the black slave himself. The difference between the white
slave and the black slave was this: the latter belonged to one
slaveholder, and the former belonged to the slaveholders collectively.
The white slave had taken from him by indirection what the black
slave had taken from him directly and without ceremony. Both were
plundered, and by the same plunderers. The slave was robbed by
his master of all his earnings, above what was required for his bare
physical necessities, and the white laboring man was robbed by the
slave system, of the just results of his labor, because he was flung
into competition with a class of laborers who worked without wages.
The slaveholders blinded them to this competition by keeping alive
their prejudice against the slaves as men—not against them as
slaves. They appealed to their pride, often denouncing emancipation
as tending to place the white working man on an equality with
negroes, and by this means they succeeded in drawing off the minds
of the poor whites from the real fact, that by the rich slave-master,
they were already regarded as but a single remove from equality
with the slave. The impression was cunningly made that slavery was
the only power that could prevent the laboring white man from falling
to the level of the slave’s poverty and degradation. To make this
enmity deep and broad between the slave and the poor white man,
the latter was allowed to abuse and whip the former without
hindrance. But, as I have said, this state of affairs prevailed mostly in
the country. In the city of Baltimore there were not unfrequent
murmurs that educating slaves to be mechanics might, in the end,
give slave-masters power to dispose altogether with the services of
the poor white man. But with characteristic dread of offending the
slaveholders, these poor white mechanics in Mr. Gardiner’s ship-
yard, instead of applying the natural, honest remedy for the
apprehended evil, and objecting at once to work there by the side of
slaves, made a cowardly attack upon the free colored mechanics,
saying they were eating the bread which should be eaten by
American freemen, and swearing that they would not work with
them. The feeling was really against having their labor brought into
competition with that of the colored freeman, and aimed to prevent
him from serving himself, in the evening of life, with the trade with
which he had served his master, during the more vigorous portion of
his days. Had they succeeded in driving the black freemen out of the
ship-yard, they would have determined also upon the removal of the
black slaves. The feeling was very bitter toward all colored people in
Baltimore about this time (1836), and they—free and slave—suffered
all manner of insult and wrong.
Until a very little while before I went there white and black
carpenters worked side by side in the ship-yards of Mr. Gardiner, Mr.
Duncan, Mr. Walter Price, and Mr. Robb. Nobody seemed to see any
impropriety in it. Some of the blacks were first rate workmen and
were given jobs requiring the highest skill. All at once, however, the
white carpenters knocked off and swore that they would no longer
work on the same stage with negroes. Taking advantage of the
heavy contract resting upon Mr. Gardiner to have the vessels for
Mexico ready to launch in July, and of the difficulty of getting other
hands at that season of the year, they swore they would not strike
another blow for him unless he would discharge his free colored
workmen. Now, although this movement did not extend to me in
form, it did reach me in fact. The spirit which it awakened was one of
malice and bitterness toward colored people generally, and I
suffered with the rest, and suffered severely. My fellow-apprentices
very soon began to feel it to be degrading to work with me. They
began to put on high looks and to talk contemptuously and
maliciously of “the niggers,” saying that they would take the
“country,” that they “ought to be killed.” Encouraged by workmen
who, knowing me to be a slave, made no issue with Mr. Gardiner
about my being there, these young men did their utmost to make it
impossible for me to stay. They seldom called me to do anything
without coupling the call with a curse, and Edward North, the biggest
in everything, rascality included, ventured to strike me, whereupon I
picked him up and threw him into the dock. Whenever any of them
struck me I struck back again, regardless of consequences. I could
manage any of them singly, and so long as I could keep them from
combining I got on very well. In the conflict which ended my stay at
Mr. Gardiner’s I was beset by four of them at once—Ned North, Ned
Hays, Bill Stewart, and Tom Humphreys. Two of them were as large
as myself, and they came near killing me, in broad daylight. One
came in front, armed with a brick; there was one at each side and
one behind, and they closed up all around me. I was struck on all
sides; and while I was attending to those in front I received a blow on
my head from behind, dealt with a heavy hand-spike. I was
completely stunned by the blow, and fell heavily on the ground
among the timbers. Taking advantage of my fall they rushed upon
me and began to pound me with their fists. I let them lay on for a
while after I came to myself, with a view of gaining strength. They did
me little damage so far; but finally getting tired of that sport I gave a
sudden surge, and despite their weight I rose to my hands and
knees. Just as I did this one of their number planted a blow with his
boot in my left eye, which for a time seemed to have burst my eye-
ball. When they saw my eye completely closed, my face covered
with blood, and I staggering under the stunning blows they had given
me, they left me. As soon as I gathered strength I picked up the
hand-spike and madly enough attempted to pursue them; but here
the carpenters interfered and compelled me to give up my pursuit. It
was impossible to stand against so many.
Dear reader, you can hardly believe the statement, but it is true,
and therefore I write it down; no fewer than fifty white men stood by
and saw this brutal and shameful outrage committed, and not a man
of them all interposed a single word of mercy. There were four
against one, and that one’s face was beaten and battered most
horribly, and no one said, “that is enough;” but some cried out, “Kill
him! kill him! kill the d——n nigger! knock his brains out! he struck a
white person!” I mention this inhuman outcry to show the character
of the men and the spirit of the times at Gardiner’s ship-yard; and,
indeed, in Baltimore generally, in 1836. As I look back to this period,
I am almost amazed that I was not murdered outright, so murderous
was the spirit which prevailed there. On two other occasions while
there I came near losing my life, on one of which I was driving bolts
in the hold through the keelson with Hays. In its course the bolt bent.
Hays cursed me, and said that it was my blow which bent the bolt. I
denied this, and charged it upon him. In a fit of rage he seized an
adze and darted toward me. I met him with a maul and parried his
blow, or I should have lost my life.
 After the united attack of North, Stewart, Hays, and Humphreys,
finding that the carpenters were as bitter toward me as the
apprentices, and that the latter were probably set on by the former, I
found my only chance for life was in flight. I succeeded in getting
away without an additional blow. To strike a white man was death by
lynch law, in Gardiner’s ship-yard; nor was there much of any other
law toward the colored people at that time in any other part of
Maryland.
After making my escape from the ship-yard I went straight home
and related my story to Master Hugh; and to his credit I say it, that
his conduct, though he was not a religious man, was every way more
humane than that of his brother Thomas, when I went to him in a
somewhat similar plight, from the hands of his “Brother Edward
Covey.” Master Hugh listened attentively to my narration of the
circumstances leading to the ruffianly assault, and gave many
evidences of his strong indignation at what was done. He was a
rough but manly-hearted fellow, and at this time his best nature
showed itself.
The heart of my once kind mistress Sophia was again melted in
pity towards me. My puffed-out eye and my scarred and blood-
covered face moved the dear lady to tears. She kindly drew a chair
by me, and with friendly and consoling words, she took water and
washed the blood from my face. No mother’s hand could have been
more tender than hers. She bound up my head and covered my
wounded eye with a lean piece of fresh beef. It was almost
compensation for all I suffered that it occasioned the manifestation
once more of the originally characteristic kindness of my mistress.
Her affectionate heart was not yet dead, though much hardened by
time and circumstances.
As for Master Hugh he was furious, and gave expression to his
feelings in the forms of speech usual in that locality. He poured
curses on the whole of the ship-yard company, and swore that he
would have satisfaction. His indignation was really strong and
healthy; but unfortunately it resulted from the thought that his rights
of property, in my person, had not been respected, more than from
any sense of the outrage perpetrated upon me as a man. I had
reason to think this from the fact that he could, himself, beat and
mangle when it suited him to do so.
Bent on having satisfaction, as he said, just as soon as I got a
little the better of my bruises Master Hugh took me to Esquire
Watson’s office on Bond street, Fell’s Point, with a view to procuring
the arrest of those who had assaulted me. He related the outrage to
the magistrate as I had related it to him, and seemed to expect that a
warrant would at once be issued for the arrest of the lawless ruffians.
Mr. Watson heard all he had to say, then coolly inquired, “Mr. Auld,
who saw this assault of which you speak?” “It was done, sir, in the
presence of a ship-yard full of hands.” “Sir,” said Mr. Watson, “I am
sorry, but I cannot move in this matter, except upon the oath of white
witnesses.” “But here’s the boy; look at his head and face,” said the
excited Master Hugh; “they show what has been done.” But Watson
insisted that he was not authorized to do anything, unless white
witnesses of the transaction would come forward and testify to what
had taken place. He could issue no warrant on my word, against
white persons, and if I had been killed in the presence of a thousand
blacks, their testimony combined would have been insufficient to
condemn a single murderer. Master Hugh was compelled to say, for
once, that this state of things was too bad, and he left the office of
the magistrate disgusted.
Of course it was impossible to get any white man to testify
against my assailants. The carpenters saw what was done; but the
actors were but the agents of their malice, and did only what the
carpenters sanctioned. They had cried with one accord, “Kill the
nigger! kill the nigger!” Even those who may have pitied me, if any
such were among them, lacked the moral courage to volunteer their
evidence. The slightest show of sympathy or justice toward a person
of color was denounced as abolitionism; and the name of abolitionist
subjected its bearer to frightful liabilities. “D——n abolitionists,” and
“kill the niggers,” were the watch-words of the foul-mouthed ruffians
of those days. Nothing was done, and probably there would not have
been had I been killed in the affray. The laws and the morals of the
Christian city of Baltimore afforded no protection to the sable
denizens of that city.
 Master Hugh, on finding he could get no redress for the cruel
wrong, withdrew me from the employment of Mr. Gardiner and took
me into his own family, Mrs. Auld kindly taking care of me and
dressing my wounds until they were healed and I was ready to go to
work again.
While I was on the Eastern Shore, Master Hugh had met with
reverses which overthrew his business; and he had given up ship-
building in his own yard, on the City Block, and was now acting as
foreman of Mr. Walter Price. The best he could do for me was to take
me into Mr. Price’s yard, and afford me the facilities there for
completing the trade which I began to learn at Gardiner’s. Here I
rapidly became expert in the use of calker’s tools, and in the course
of a single year, I was able to command the highest wages paid to
journeymen calkers in Baltimore.
The reader will observe that I was now of some pecuniary value
to my master. During the busy season I was bringing six and seven
dollars per week. I have sometimes brought him as much as nine
dollars a week, for the wages were a dollar and a half per day.
After learning to calk, I sought my own employment, made my
own contracts, and collected my own earnings—giving Master Hugh
no trouble in any part of the transactions to which I was a party.
Here, then, were better days for the Eastern Shore slave. I was
free from the vexatious assaults of the apprentices at Mr. Gardiner’s,
and free from the perils of plantation life, and once more in favorable
condition to increase my little stock of education, which had been at
a dead stand since my removal from Baltimore. I had on the Eastern
Shore been only a teacher, when in company with other slaves, but
now there were colored persons here who could instruct me. Many
of the young calkers could read, write, and cipher. Some of them had
high notions about mental improvement, and the free ones on Fell’s
Point organized what they called the “East Baltimore Mental
Improvement Society.” To this society, notwithstanding it was
intended that only free persons should attach themselves, I was
admitted, and was several times assigned a prominent part in its
debates. I owe much to the society of these young men.
 The reader already knows enough of the ill effects of good
treatment on a slave to anticipate what was now the case in my
improved condition. It was not long before I began to show signs of
disquiet with slavery, and to look around for means to get out of it by
the shortest route. I was living among freemen, and was in all
respects equal to them by nature and attainments. Why should I be a
slave? There was no reason why I should be the thrall of any man.
Besides, I was now getting, as I have said, a dollar and fifty cents
per day. I contracted for it, worked for it, collected it; it was paid to
me, and it was rightfully my own; and yet upon every returning
Saturday night, this money—my own hard earnings, every cent of it
—was demanded of me and taken from me by Master Hugh. He did
not earn it; he had no hand in earning it; why, then, should he have
it? I owed him nothing. He had given me no schooling, and I had
received from him only my food and raiment; and for these my
services were supposed to pay from the first. The right to take my
earnings was the right of the robber. He had the power to compel me
to give him the fruits of my labor, and this power was his only right in
the case. I became more and more dissatisfied with this state of
things, and in so becoming I only gave proof of the same human
nature which every reader of this chapter in my life—slaveholder, or
non-slaveholder—is conscious of possessing.
To make a contented slave, you must make a thoughtless one. It
is necessary to darken his moral and mental vision, and, as far as
possible, to annihilate his power of reason. He must be able to
detect no inconsistencies in slavery. The man who takes his
earnings must be able to convince him that he has a perfect right to
do so. It must not depend upon mere force: the slave must know no
higher law than his master’s will. The whole relationship must not
only demonstrate to his mind its necessity, but its absolute
rightfulness. If there be one crevice through which a single drop can
fall, it will certainly rust off the slave’s chain.
 CHAPTER XXI.
ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY.

Closing incidents in my “Life as a Slave”—Discontent—Suspicions—Master’s

generosity—Difficulties in the way of escape—Plan to obtain money—
Allowed to hire my time—A gleam of hope—Attend camp-meeting—Anger
of Master Hugh—The result—Plans of escape—Day for departure fixed—
Harassing doubts and fears—Painful thoughts of separation from friends.

MY condition during the year of my escape (1838) was

comparatively a free and easy one, so far, at least, as the wants of
the physical man were concerned; but the reader will bear in mind
that my troubles from the beginning had been less physical than
mental, and he will thus be prepared to find that slave life was
adding nothing to its charms for me as I grew older, and became
more and more acquainted with it. The practice from week to week
of openly robbing me of all my earnings, kept the nature and
character of slavery constantly before me. I could be robbed by
indirection, but this was too open and barefaced to be endured. I
could see no reason why I should, at the end of each week, pour the
reward of my honest toil into the purse of my master. My obligation to
do this vexed me, and the manner in which Master Hugh received
my wages vexed me yet more. Carefully counting the money, and
rolling it out dollar by dollar, he would look me in the face as if he
would search my heart as well as my pocket, and reproachfully ask
me, “Is that all?”—implying that I had perhaps kept back part of my
wages; or, if not so, the demand was made possibly to make me feel
that after all, I was an “unprofitable servant.” Draining me of the last
cent of my hard earnings, he would, however, occasionally, when I
brought home an extra large sum, dole out to me a sixpence or a
shilling, with a view, perhaps, of kindling up my gratitude. But it had
the opposite effect; it was an admission of my right to the whole sum.
The fact that he gave me any part of my wages, was proof that he
suspected I had a right to the whole of them; and I always felt
uncomfortable after having received anything in this way, lest his
giving me a few cents might possibly ease his conscience, and make
him feel himself to be a pretty honorable robber after all.
Held to a strict account, and kept under a close watch,—the old
suspicion of my running away not having been entirely removed,—to
accomplish my escape seemed a very difficult thing. The railroad
from Baltimore to Philadelphia was under regulations so stringent
that even free colored travelers were almost excluded. They must
have free papers; they must be measured and carefully examined
before they could enter the cars, and could go only in the day time;
even when so examined. The steamboats were under regulations
equally stringent. And still more, and worse than all, all the great
turnpikes leading northward were beset with kidnappers; a class of
men who watched the newspapers for advertisements for runaway
slaves, thus making their living by the accursed reward of slave-
hunting.
My discontent grew upon me, and I was on a constant lookout
for means to get away. With money I could easily have managed the
matter, and from this consideration I hit upon the plan of soliciting the
privilege of hiring my time. It was quite common in Baltimore to allow
slaves this privilege, and was the practice also in New Orleans. A
slave who was considered trustworthy could, by paying his master a
definite sum regularly, at the end of each week, dispose of his time
as he liked. It so happened that I was not in very good odor, and I
was far from being a trustworthy slave. Nevertheless, I watched my
opportunity when Master Thomas came to Baltimore (for I was still
his property, Hugh only acting as his agent) in the spring of 1838, to
purchase his spring supply of goods, and applied to him directly for
the much-coveted privilege of hiring my time. This request Master
Thomas unhesitatingly refused to grant; and he charged me, with
some sternness, with inventing this stratagem to make my escape.
He told me I could go nowhere but he would catch me; and, in the
event of my running away, I might be assured he should spare no
pains in his efforts to recapture me. He recounted, with a good deal
of eloquence, the many kind offices he had done me, and exhorted
me to be contented and obedient. “Lay out no plans for the future,”
said he; “if you behave yourself properly, I will take care of you.”
Now, kind and considerate as this offer was, it failed to soothe me
into repose. In spite of all Master Thomas had said, and in spite of
my own efforts to the contrary, the injustice and wickedness of
slavery was always uppermost in my thoughts, strengthening my
purpose to make my escape at the earliest moment possible.
About two months after applying to Master Thomas for the
privilege of hiring my time, I applied to Master Hugh for the same
liberty, supposing him to be unacquainted with the fact that I had
made a similar application to Master Thomas, and had been refused.
My boldness in making this request fairly astounded him at first. He
gazed at me in amazement. But I had many good reasons for
pressing the matter, and, after listening to them awhile, he did not
absolutely refuse, but told me he would think of it. There was hope
for me in this. Once master of my own time, I felt sure that I could
make over and above my obligation to him, a dollar or two every
week. Some slaves had made enough in this way to purchase their
freedom. It was a sharp spur to their industry; and some of the most
enterprising colored men in Baltimore hired themselves in that way.
After mature reflection, as I suppose it was, Master Hugh
granted me the privilege in question, on the following terms: I was to
be allowed all my time; to make all bargains for work, and to collect
my own wages; and in return for this liberty, I was required or obliged
to pay him three dollars at the end of each week, and to board and
clothe myself, and buy my own calking tools. A failure in any of these
particulars would put an end to the privilege. This was a hard
bargain. The wear and tear of clothing, the losing and breaking of
tools, and the expense of board made it necessary for me to earn at
least six dollars per week to keep even with the world. All who are
acquainted with calking know how uncertain and irregular that
employment is. It can be done to advantage only in dry weather, for it
is useless to put wet oakum into a ship’s seam. Rain or shine,
however, work or no work, at the end of each week the money must
be forthcoming.
Master Hugh seemed much pleased with this arrangement for a
time; and well he might be, for it was decidedly in his favor. It
relieved him of all anxiety concerning me. His money was sure. He
had armed my love of liberty with a lash and a driver far more
efficient than any I had before known; and while he derived all the
benefits of slaveholding by the arrangement, without its evils, I
endured all the evils of being a slave, and yet suffered all the care
and anxiety of a responsible freeman. “Nevertheless,” thought I, “it is
a valuable privilege—another step in my career toward freedom.” It
was something even to be permitted to stagger under the
disadvantages of liberty, and I was determined to hold on to the
newly gained footing by all proper industry. I was ready to work by
night as by day, and being in the possession of excellent health, I
was not only able to meet my current expenses, but also to lay by a
small sum at the end of each week. All went on thus from the month
of May till August; then, for reasons which will become apparent as I
proceed, my much-valued liberty was wrested from me.
During the week previous to this calamitous event, I had made
arrangements with a few young friends to accompany them on
Saturday night to a camp-meeting, to be held about twelve miles
from Baltimore. On the evening of our intended start for the camp-
ground, something occurred in the ship-yard where I was at work
which detained me unusually late, and compelled me either to
disappoint my friends, or to neglect carrying my weekly dues to
Master Hugh. Knowing that I had the money and could hand it to him
on another day, I decided to go to camp-meeting, and to pay him the
three dollars for the past week on my return. Once on the camp-
ground, I was induced to remain one day longer than I had intended
when I left home. But as soon as I returned I went directly to his
home on Fell street to hand him his (my) money. Unhappily the fatal
mistake had been made. I found him exceedingly angry. He
exhibited all the signs of apprehension and wrath which a
slaveholder might be surmised to exhibit on the supposed escape of
a favorite slave. “You rascal! I have a great mind to give you a sound
whipping. How dare you go out of the city without first asking and
obtaining my permission?” “Sir,” I said, “I hired my time and paid you
the price you asked for it. I did not know that it was any part of the
bargain that I should ask you when or where I should go.” “You did
not know, you rascal! You are bound to show yourself here every
Saturday night.” After reflecting a few moments, he became
somewhat cooled down; but evidently greatly troubled, he said:
“Now, you scoundrel, you have done for yourself; you shall hire your
time no longer. The next thing I shall hear of will be your running
away. Bring home your tools at once. I’ll teach you how to go off in
this way.”
Thus ended my partial freedom. I could hire my time no longer;
and I obeyed my master’s orders at once. The little taste of liberty
which I had had—although as it will be seen, that taste was far from
being unalloyed, by no means enhanced my contentment with
slavery. Punished by Master Hugh, it was now my turn to punish him.
“Since,” thought I, “you will make a slave of me, I will await your
order in all things.” So, instead of going to look for work on Monday
morning, as I had formerly done, I remained at home during the
entire week, without the performance of a single stroke of work.
Saturday night came, and he called upon me as usual for my wages.
I, of course, told him I had done no work, and had no wages. Here
we were at the point of coming to blows. His wrath had been
accumulating during the whole week; for he evidently saw that I was
making no effort to get work, but was most aggravatingly awaiting his
orders in all things. As I look back to this behavior of mine, I scarcely
know what possessed me, thus to trifle with one who had such
unlimited power to bless or blast me. Master Hugh raved, and swore
he would “get hold of me,” but wisely for him, and happily for me, his
wrath employed only those harmless, impalpable missiles which roll
from a limber tongue. In my desperation I had fully made up my mind
to measure strength with him, in case he should attempt to execute
his threats. I am glad there was no occasion for this, for resistance to
him could not have ended so happily for me as it did in the case of
Covey. Master Hugh was not a man to be safely resisted by a slave;
and I freely own that in my conduct toward him, in this instance,
there was more folly than wisdom. He closed his reproofs by telling
me that hereafter I need give myself no uneasiness about getting
work; he “would himself see to getting work for me, and enough of it
at that.” This threat, I confess, had some terror in it, and on thinking
the matter over during the Sunday, I resolved not only to save him
the trouble of getting me work, but that on the third day of September
I would attempt to make my escape. His refusal to allow me to hire
my time therefore hastened the period of my flight. I had three weeks
in which to prepare for my journey.
Once resolved, I felt a certain degree of repose, and on Monday
morning, instead of waiting for Master Hugh to seek employment for
me, I was up by break of day, and off to the ship-yard of Mr. Butler,
on the City Block, near the drawbridge. I was a favorite with Mr.
Butler, and, young as I was, I had served as his foreman, on the
float-stage, at calking. Of course I easily obtained work, and at the
end of the week, which, by the way, was exceedingly fine, I brought
Master Hugh nine dollars. The effect of this mark of returning good
sense on my part, was excellent. He was very much pleased; he
took the money, commended me, and told me I might have done the
same thing the week before. It is a blessed thing that the tyrant may
not always know the thoughts and purposes of his victim. Master
Hugh little knew my plans. The going to camp-meeting without
asking his permission, the insolent answers to his reproaches, the
sulky deportment of the week after being deprived of the privilege of
hiring my time, had awakened the suspicion that I might be
cherishing disloyal purposes. My object, therefore, in working
steadily was to remove suspicion; and in this I succeeded admirably.
He probably thought I was never better satisfied with my condition
than at the very time I was planning my escape. The second week
passed, and I again carried him my full week’s wages—nine dollars;
and so well pleased was he that he gave me twenty-five cents! and
bade me “make good use of it.” I told him I would do so, for one of
the uses to which I intended to put it was to pay my fare on the
“underground railroad.”
Things without went on as usual; but I was passing through the
same internal excitement and anxiety which I had experienced two
years and a half before. The failure in that instance was not
calculated to increase my confidence in the success of this, my
second attempt; and I knew that a second failure could not leave me
where my first did. I must either get to the far North or be sent to the
far South. Besides the exercise of mind from this state of facts, I had
the painful sensation of being about to separate from a circle of
honest and warm-hearted friends. The thought of such a separation,
where the hope of ever meeting again was excluded, and where
there could be no correspondence, was very painful. It is my opinion
that thousands more would have escaped from slavery but for the
strong affection which bound them to their families, relatives, and
friends. The daughter was hindered by the love she bore her mother,
and the father by the love he bore his wife and children, and so on to
the end of the chapter. I had no relations in Baltimore, and I saw no
probability of ever living in the neighborhood of sisters and brothers;
but the thought of leaving my friends was the strongest obstacle to
my running away. The last two days of the week, Friday and
Saturday, were spent mostly in collecting my things together for my
journey. Having worked four days that week for my master, I handed
him six dollars on Saturday night. I seldom spent my Sundays at
home, and for fear that something might be discovered in my
conduct, I kept up my custom and absented myself all day. On
Monday, the third day of September, 1838, in accordance with my
resolution, I bade farewell to the city of Baltimore, and to that slavery
which had been my abhorrence from childhood.
His Present Home in Washington.
SECOND PART
 CHAPTER I.
ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY.

Reasons for not having revealed the manner of escape—Nothing of romance

in the method—Danger—Free Papers—Unjust tax—Protection papers
—“Free trade and sailors’ rights”—American eagle—Railroad train—
Unobserving conductor—Capt. McGowan—Honest German—Fears—
Safe arrival in Philadelphia—Ditto in New York.

IN the first narrative of my experience in slavery, written nearly forty

years ago, and in various writings since, I have given the public what
I considered very good reasons for withholding the manner of my
escape. In substance these reasons were, first, that such publication
at any time during the existence of slavery might be used by the
master against the slave, and prevent the future escape of any who
might adopt the same means that I did. The second reason was, if
possible, still more binding to silence—for publication of details
would certainly have put in peril the persons and property of those
who assisted. Murder itself was not more sternly and certainly
punished in the State of Maryland, than that of aiding and abetting
the escape of a slave. Many colored men, for no other crime than
that of giving aid to a fugitive slave, have, like Charles T. Torrey,
perished in prison. The abolition of slavery in my native State and
throughout the country, and the lapse of time, render the caution
hitherto observed no longer necessary. But even since the abolition
of slavery, I have sometimes thought it well enough to baffle curiosity
by saying that while slavery existed there were good reasons for not
telling the manner of my escape, and since slavery had ceased to
exist there was no reason for telling it. I shall now, however, cease to
avail myself of this formula, and, as far as I can, endeavor to satisfy
this very natural curiosity. I should perhaps have yielded to that
feeling sooner, had there been anything very heroic or thrilling in the
incidents connected with my escape, for I am sorry to say I have
nothing of that sort to tell; and yet the courage that could risk
betrayal and the bravery which was ready to encounter death if need
be, in pursuit of freedom, were essential features in the undertaking.
My success was due to address rather than courage; to good luck
rather than bravery. My means of escape were provided for me by
the very men who were making laws to hold and bind me more
securely in slavery. It was the custom in the State of Maryland to
require of the free colored people to have what were called free
papers. This instrument they were required to renew very often, and
by charging a fee for this writing, considerable sums from time to
time were collected by the State. In these papers the name, age,
color, height, and form of the free man were described, together with
any scars or other marks upon his person, which could assist in his
identification. This device of slaveholding ingenuity, like other
devices of wickedness, in some measure defeated itself—since
more than one man could be found to answer the same general
description. Hence many slaves could escape by personating the
owner of one set of papers; and this was often done as follows: A
slave nearly or sufficiently answering the description set forth in the
papers, would borrow or hire them till he could by their means
escape to a free State, and then, by mail or otherwise, return them to
the owner. The operation was a hazardous one for the lender as well
as the borrower. A failure on the part of the fugitive to send back the
papers would imperil his benefactor, and the discovery of the papers
in possession of the wrong man would imperil both the fugitive and
his friend. It was therefore an act of supreme trust on the part of a
freeman of color thus to put in jeopardy his own liberty that another
might be free. It was, however, not unfrequently bravely done, and
was seldom discovered. I was not so fortunate as to sufficiently
resemble any of my free acquaintances as to answer the description
of their papers. But I had one friend—a sailor—who owned a sailor’s
protection, which answered somewhat the purpose of free papers—
describing his person, and certifying to the fact that he was a free
American sailor. The instrument had at its head the American eagle,
which gave it the appearance at once of an authorized document.
This protection did not, when in my hands, describe its bearer very
accurately. Indeed, it called for a man much darker than myself, and
close examination of it would have caused my arrest at the start. In
order to avoid this fatal scrutiny on the part of the railroad official, I