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Design Engineer’s
­Sourcebook
Design Engineer’s
­Sourcebook

Keith L. Richards
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Richards, Keith L., author.

Title: Design engineer’s sourcebook / Keith L. Richards.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017021302| ISBN 9781498763417 (hardback) | ISBN
9781315367514 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mechanical engineering--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Machine
design--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Mechanical movements--Handbooks,
manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TJ153 .R483 2018 | DDC 620/.0042--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017021302

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Contents

Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxxv

Section I Reference

1 Mathematics..............................................................................................................................3
1.1 Trigonometry..................................................................................................................3
1.1.1 Right-Angled Triangle......................................................................................3
1.1.2 Oblique-Angled Triangles...............................................................................4
1.1.3 Trigonometric Relations...................................................................................4
1.2 Hyperbolic Functions....................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.........................................................................5
1.3 Solution of the Quadratic Equation.............................................................................6
1.4 Solution of Simultaneous Equations (Two Unknowns)............................................6
1.5 Laws of Exponents.........................................................................................................6
1.6 Expansions......................................................................................................................7
1.7 Real Root of the Equation f(x) = 0 Using the Newton–Raphson Method...............7
1.8 Series................................................................................................................................8
1.9 Logarithms......................................................................................................................8
1.10 Differential Calculus.....................................................................................................9
1.11 Integral Calculus.......................................................................................................... 12
[[p10]]

1.11.1 Integration Is the Inverse of Differentiation............................................... 12

1.11.2 Indefinite Integrals......................................................................................... 12
1.11.3 Determination of an Area.............................................................................. 14
[[p12]]

1.11.4 Approximate Integration............................................................................... 15

1.12 Laplace Transforms...................................................................................................... 16
1.12.1 First Derivative................................................................................................ 16
1.12.2 Second Derivative........................................................................................... 17
[[p15]]

1.12.3 Higher Derivatives.......................................................................................... 18

[[p16]]

1.13 Parallel Axis Theorem................................................................................................. 18

1.13.1 Calculation of the Moment of Inertia Using the
Parallel Axis Theorem.................................................................................. 18
1.14 Complex Numbers....................................................................................................... 20
1.14.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 20
1.14.2 Argand Diagram............................................................................................. 21
[[p20]]

1.14.3 Manipulation of Complex Numbers............................................................22

1.14.3.1 Addition and Subtraction...............................................................22
1.14.3.2 Multiplication...................................................................................22
1.14.3.3 Division............................................................................................. 23
1.14.4 Polar Form of a Complex Number............................................................... 23
1.14.5 Exponential Form of a Complex Number................................................... 25
1.15 Determinates................................................................................................................ 26
1.15.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 26
1.15.2 Description....................................................................................................... 26
[[p24]]

v
vi Contents

1.15.3 Determinant Order......................................................................................... 27

1.15.4 Properties of the Determinant...................................................................... 28
1.15.5 Minors and Cofactors..................................................................................... 28
1.16 Matrices......................................................................................................................... 28
1.16.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 28
1.16.2 Definitions....................................................................................................... 29
1.16.2.1 Square Matrix.................................................................................. 29
1.16.2.2 Row Matrix....................................................................................... 29
[[p28]]

1.16.2.3 Column Matrix................................................................................ 29

1.16.2.4 Diagonal Matrix..............................................................................30
1.16.2.5 Unit Matrix.......................................................................................30
1.16.2.6 Symmetric Matrix...........................................................................30
1.16.2.7 Skew Symmetric Matrix—That Is, Anti-Symmetric (aij = −aji ).......30
1.16.2.8 Null Matrix.......................................................................................30
[[p29]]

1.16.3 Matrix Algebra................................................................................................30

1.16.3.1 Additions of Matrices.....................................................................30
1.16.3.2 Multiplication of Matrices.............................................................. 31
1.16.3.3 Transposition of a Matrix............................................................... 31
1.16.3.4 Adjoint of a Matrix.......................................................................... 31
1.16.3.5 Inverse of a Square Matrix............................................................. 31
1.16.3.6 Transformation from Cylindrical Coordinates to
Cartesian Coordinates.................................................................... 32

2 Introduction to Numerical Methods.................................................................................. 33

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 33
2.2 Numerical Methods for Integration.......................................................................... 33
2.2.1 Manual Method...............................................................................................34
2.2.2 Mid-Ordinate Rule.........................................................................................34
2.2.3 Trapezoidal Rule............................................................................................. 37
2.2.4 Simpson’s Rule................................................................................................ 39
2.3 Evaluation of Errors..................................................................................................... 40
2.4 Round-Off and Truncation Errors............................................................................. 40
2.4.1 Round-Off Errors............................................................................................ 41
2.4.2 Truncation Errors............................................................................................ 41
2.5 Errors Arising from Differentiation..........................................................................43
2.6 Integration Errors.........................................................................................................43
2.7 Series..............................................................................................................................44
2.8 Newton–Raphson Method..........................................................................................44
2.8.1 Demonstration of the Method....................................................................... 45
2.9 Iterative Methods for Solving Linear Equations..................................................... 47
2.9.1 Gauss Elimination Method........................................................................... 47
2.9.2 Jacobi Iterative Method.................................................................................. 47
2.9.3 Gauss–Seidel Method..................................................................................... 49
2.10 Non-Linear Equations................................................................................................. 53
2.10.1 Newton’s Method............................................................................................ 53

3 Probability.............................................................................................................................. 57
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 57
3.2 Numerical Value of Probability................................................................................. 57
Contents vii

3.3 Calculation of Probability........................................................................................... 57

3.3.1 Proportion of Cases Favorable in an Exhaustive Set................................. 58
3.3.2 Addition of Probabilities................................................................................ 59
3.4 Permutations and Combinations............................................................................... 60
3.4.1 Permutations.................................................................................................... 60
3.4.2 Combinations.................................................................................................. 61
3.4.3 Compound Probability and Multiplication of Probabilities.....................64
3.4.3.1 Compound Events and Dependence............................................64
3.5 Binomial, Poisson, and Multinomial Laws of Probability.....................................65
3.5.1 Series of Trials.................................................................................................65
3.5.2 Binomial Distribution.................................................................................... 66
3.5.3 The Poisson Distribution............................................................................... 68
3.5.4 The Multinomial Law of Probability........................................................... 69

4 Statistics................................................................................................................................... 71
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 71
4.1.1 Collection of Data........................................................................................... 71
4.1.2 Tabulation of Data........................................................................................... 71
4.1.2.1 Sample Values.................................................................................. 72
4.1.2.2 Raw Data.......................................................................................... 72
4.1.2.3 Bands................................................................................................. 72
4.1.2.4 Mean.................................................................................................. 73
4.1.2.5 Median.............................................................................................. 74
4.1.2.6 Mode................................................................................................. 74
4.1.2.7 Ogive and Quartiles........................................................................ 74
4.2 Standard Deviation...................................................................................................... 76
4.2.1 Dispersion........................................................................................................ 76
4.2.2 Range................................................................................................................ 76
4.2.3 Variance............................................................................................................ 76
4.2.3.1 Variance of a Population................................................................ 76
4.2.3.2 Variance of a Sample.......................................................................77
4.2.4 Standard Deviation.........................................................................................77
4.3 Fitting Functions to Experimental Data................................................................... 79

5 Properties of Sections and Figures....................................................................................85

5.1 Centroid Cx, Cy, Cz........................................................................................................ 85
5.2 Moment of Inertia/Second Moment of Area...........................................................85
5.3 Polar Moment of Inertia of a Plane Area..................................................................85

6 Properties of Engineering Materials................................................................................. 91

6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 91
6.2 General Physical Properties........................................................................................ 91
6.2.1 Density............................................................................................................. 91
6.2.2 Availability/Manufacturability.................................................................... 91
6.2.3 Cost................................................................................................................... 92
6.2.4 Appearance...................................................................................................... 92
6.3 Mechanical Properties................................................................................................. 92
6.3.1 Strength............................................................................................................ 92
6.3.2 Elastic Limit..................................................................................................... 92
viii Contents

6.3.3 Proportional Limit.......................................................................................... 93

6.3.4 Yield Strength.................................................................................................. 93
6.3.5 Ultimate Tensile Strength.............................................................................. 93
6.3.6 True Fracture Strength................................................................................... 93
6.3.7 Ductility........................................................................................................... 93
6.3.8 Toughness........................................................................................................ 93
6.3.9 Fatigue Ratio.................................................................................................... 94
6.3.10 Loss Coefficient............................................................................................... 94
6.4 Thermal Properties...................................................................................................... 94
6.4.1 Thermal Conductivity.................................................................................... 94
6.4.2 Thermal Diffusivity........................................................................................ 95
6.4.3 Specific Heat.................................................................................................... 95
6.4.4 Melting Point................................................................................................... 95
6.4.5 Glass Transition Temperature....................................................................... 95
6.4.6 Thermal Coefficient of Expansion................................................................ 95
6.4.7 Thermal Shock Resistance............................................................................. 95
6.4.8 Creep Resistance............................................................................................. 95
6.5 Materials: Ferrous Metals........................................................................................... 97
6.5.1 Cast Iron........................................................................................................... 97
6.5.2 Carbon Steel..................................................................................................... 97
6.5.3 Alloy Steel........................................................................................................ 98
6.5.4 Stainless Steel.................................................................................................. 98
6.5.5 Tool Steels......................................................................................................... 99
6.6 Materials: Nonferrous Metals.................................................................................. 100
6.6.1 Aluminum..................................................................................................... 100
6.6.1.1 Some Common Uses..................................................................... 100
6.6.1.2 Properties....................................................................................... 101
6.6.2 Copper............................................................................................................ 101
6.6.3 Nickel.............................................................................................................. 101
6.6.4 Titanium......................................................................................................... 101
6.6.5 Zinc................................................................................................................. 102
6.6.5.1 Uses................................................................................................. 102

Section II Mechanics

7 Statics..................................................................................................................................... 107
7.1 Force, Mass and Moments........................................................................................ 107
7.1.1 System of Units.............................................................................................. 108
7.1.2 Free-Body Diagrams..................................................................................... 108
7.1.3 Forces and Moments..................................................................................... 108
7.1.3.1 Force................................................................................................ 108
7.1.3.2 Moments......................................................................................... 109
7.1.3.3 Couples........................................................................................... 110
7.1.3.4 Rigid-Body Equilibrium............................................................... 110
7.2 Structures.................................................................................................................... 111
7.2.1 Pin Joint.......................................................................................................... 112
7.2.1.1 Struts and Ties............................................................................... 112
7.2.1.2 Bow’s Notation............................................................................... 112
Contents ix

7.2.2 Solving Forces in Pin-Jointed Frames........................................................ 115

7.2.3 Method of Joints............................................................................................ 116
7.2.4 Graphical Methods as Applied to a 2-Dimensional Framework........... 117
7.2.5 Method of Sections as Applied to a Plane Framework........................... 118
7.3 Vectors and Vector Analysis..................................................................................... 121
7.3.1 Vector Addition............................................................................................. 121
7.3.2 Vector Subtraction......................................................................................... 121
7.3.3 Resolving a Vector into Components......................................................... 121
7.3.4 Analytical Determination of the Components of the Vector.................. 122
7.3.5 Resultant of a Number of Coplanar Vectors
(More than Two Vectors)............................................................................ 123
7.3.6 Analytical Solution to Figure 7.22............................................................... 124
7.3.7 Product of Vectors......................................................................................... 124
7.3.7.1 Multiplication of a Vector ‘P’ by a Scalar ‘K’............................. 124
7.3.7.2 Scalar Product of Two Vectors..................................................... 124
7.3.8 Vector (or Cross) Product............................................................................. 125

8 Dynamics.............................................................................................................................. 127
8.1 Kinematics................................................................................................................... 127
8.2 Nomenclature............................................................................................................. 127
8.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion (Constant Acceleration)............................................... 127
8.3.1 Linear Motion Equations............................................................................. 128
8.3.2 Angular Motion Equations......................................................................... 128
8.4 Rectilinear Motions................................................................................................... 128
8.4.1 Uniform Linear Motion................................................................................ 129
8.4.2 Non-Uniform Linear Motion...................................................................... 129
8.4.3 Variable Velocity........................................................................................... 129
8.4.4 Variable Acceleration.................................................................................... 130
8.5 Circular Motion.......................................................................................................... 131
8.5.1 Motion on a Circular Path........................................................................... 131
8.5.2 Rolling Wheel................................................................................................ 131
8.6 Absolute and Relative Motion.................................................................................. 132
8.7 Rotating Unit Vector.................................................................................................. 132
8.8 Vector of Point in a Rotating Reference Frame...................................................... 133
8.9 Velocity of a Point in a Moving Reference Frame................................................. 134
8.10 Acceleration of a Particle........................................................................................... 134
8.11 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies in One Plane.............................................................. 135
8.12 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation............................................................................ 136
8.13 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensions................................................ 137
8.14 Theorems..................................................................................................................... 137
8.15 Translation Motion..................................................................................................... 138
8.16 Rotation about a Fixed Axis..................................................................................... 138
8.17 Rotation about a Fixed Point.................................................................................... 139
8.18 General Motion........................................................................................................... 140

9 Mechanical Vibrations....................................................................................................... 143

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 143
9.2 Single Degree of Freedom: Free Vibrations............................................................ 144
9.2.1 Free Natural Vibrations............................................................................... 144
x Contents

9.2.2 Simple Harmonic Motion............................................................................ 144

9.2.2.1 Angular Frequency, Frequency and Periodic Time................. 147
9.2.2.2 Equations for SHM........................................................................ 147
9.2.2.3 Free Natural Vibrations of a Single-Degree-of-Freedom
System............................................................................................. 149
9.2.2.4 Elementary Parts of a Vibrating System.................................... 151
9.2.2.5 Linear Elastic Oscillations........................................................... 152
9.2.2.6 Transverse Vibrations................................................................... 155
9.2.2.7 Energy Methods (Rayleigh)......................................................... 157
9.2.2.8 Kinetic Energy............................................................................... 158
9.3 Damped Vibrations.................................................................................................... 161
9.3.1 Viscous Damping.......................................................................................... 162
9.3.2 Coulomb Damping....................................................................................... 167
9.3.3 Inertial Damping.......................................................................................... 168
9.3.4 Internal Damping......................................................................................... 168
9.4 Single Degree of Freedom: Forced Vibrations....................................................... 169
9.4.1 Forced Vibrations.......................................................................................... 171
9.4.1.1 Disturbing Force Acting on Mass............................................... 171
9.4.1.2 Phasor Representation.................................................................. 172
9.5 Natural Frequency of Beams and Shafts................................................................ 173
9.5.1 Degrees of Freedom...................................................................................... 173
9.5.2 Beams Subject to Transverse Vibrations.................................................... 174
9.5.3 Simply Supported Beam Subject to Transverse Vibration...................... 174
9.5.4 Torsional Frequency of a Cantilevered Shaft Carrying a Mass
at the Free End............................................................................................... 175
9.5.5 Torsional Frequency of a Shaft Carrying Two Masses............................ 176
9.5.6 Torsionally Equivalent Shafts..................................................................... 176
9.5.7 Torsional Frequency of a Geared Shaft Carrying Two Masses.............. 180
9.5.8 Torsional Frequency of a Shaft Carrying Three Masses......................... 185
9.6 Forced Vibrations....................................................................................................... 186
9.6.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 186
9.6.2 External Forcing............................................................................................ 187
9.6.3 Frequency Response Diagrams.................................................................. 189
9.6.4 Harmonic Movement of the Support......................................................... 193
9.6.5 Magnification Factor..................................................................................... 194
9.6.6 Transmissibility............................................................................................. 197
9.6.7 Using Forced Vibration Response to Measure the Properties of
a Structure...................................................................................................... 198

10 Control Systems................................................................................................................... 203

10.1 Introduction to Control Systems Modelling.......................................................... 203
10.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 203
10.1.1.1 Basics of Control Theory.............................................................. 203
10.1.1.2 Open Loop Control System......................................................... 204
10.1.1.3 Closed Loop Control System....................................................... 205
10.1.1.4 Control System Definitions.......................................................... 205
10.1.1.5 Feedback Characteristics.............................................................. 206
10.1.1.6 Control Models.............................................................................. 206
10.1.1.7 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions................................... 206
Contents xi

10.1.2 Engineering System Models........................................................................ 207

10.1.2.1 Similarities of Elements between Systems........................... 208
10.1.2.2 Laplace Transforms.................................................................. 209
10.1.2.3 Transfer Functions................................................................... 209
10.1.2.4 Linear Mechanical Systems.................................................... 209
10.1.2.5 Rotary Mechanical Systems................................................... 216
10.1.2.6 Thermal Systems...................................................................... 221
10.1.2.7 Hydraulic System..................................................................... 226
10.1.2.8 Electrical System Models........................................................234
10.1.2.9 Closed Loop System Transfer Function with a Unity
Feedback.................................................................................... 238
10.1.3 Block Diagram and Transfer Function Manipulations.......................... 240
10.1.3.1 Open Loop Control System.................................................... 241
10.1.3.2 Closed Loop Control System.................................................. 241
10.1.3.3 Summing Junctions................................................................. 241
10.1.3.4 Closed Loop System Transfer Functions.............................. 243
10.1.3.5 Velocity Feedback.................................................................... 244
10.1.3.6 Disturbance............................................................................... 246
10.1.3.7 Proportional and Differential Control.................................. 248
10.1.3.8 Simplifying Complex Systems............................................... 250
10.2 Analysis of Control Systems..................................................................................... 252
10.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 252
10.2.1.1 System Response...................................................................... 252
10.2.2 On/Off Control............................................................................................ 252
10.2.3 Response of Continuous Control Systems...............................................254
10.2.3.1 Standard Models...................................................................... 255
10.2.4 Standard Inputs........................................................................................... 255
10.2.4.1 Impulse...................................................................................... 255
10.2.4.2 Step Change.............................................................................. 255
10.2.4.3 Ramp or Velocity Change....................................................... 255
10.2.4.4 Parabolic or Acceleration Change.......................................... 256
10.2.4.5 Sinusoidal Change................................................................... 256
10.2.4.6 Exponential Change................................................................ 256
10.2.5 Linear System.............................................................................................. 257
10.2.6 Linear Time-Invariant Systems................................................................. 257
10.2.7 Laplace Transforms..................................................................................... 257
10.2.8 The Standard First-Order System............................................................. 260
10.2.8.1 Response to an Impulse and Step Input............................... 260
10.2.9 First-Order Response Graph to a Step Input........................................... 260
10.2.9.1 First-Order Time Constant..................................................... 261
10.2.10 Response of a Standard First-Order System to a Ramp Input.............. 261
10.2.11 Response of a Standard First-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input...... 262
10.2.12 Gain of a First-Order System..................................................................... 263
10.2.13 The Use of Partial Fractions to Solve Responses.................................... 265
10.2.13.1 Unit Step Input......................................................................... 265
10.2.13.2 Unit Ramp................................................................................. 266
10.2.14 Standard Second-Order System................................................................ 268
10.2.14.1 Forms of the Standard Transfer Functions........................... 268
10.2.14.2 Time Constant Form................................................................ 268
xii Contents

10.2.14.3 Natural Frequency Form......................................................... 269

10.2.14.4 Polynomial Form...................................................................... 269
10.2.14.5 σ and ωr Form........................................................................... 270
10.2.14.6 Poles........................................................................................... 270
10.2.14.7 Response to a Step Input......................................................... 271
10.2.14.8 Amplitude Reduction Factor.................................................. 273
10.2.14.9 Ramp Input............................................................................... 274
10.2.14.10 Sinusoidal Input....................................................................... 275
10.2.14.11 DC Gain of Second-Order Systems....................................... 276
10.2.15 The s-Plane, Poles, and Zeros of the Second-Order System.................. 278
10.2.16 Sinusoidal Response................................................................................... 280
10.2.16.1 Integrator................................................................................... 281
10.2.16.2 Differentiator............................................................................ 282
10.2.16.3 Exponential Delay.................................................................... 282
10.2.17 The Standard First-Order Transfer Function.......................................... 283
10.2.18 The Standard Second-Order Transfer Function..................................... 285
10.2.19 Stability Analysis........................................................................................ 287
10.2.19.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 287
10.2.19.2 Definition.................................................................................. 287
10.2.19.3 Stability of a Linear Control System...................................... 288
10.2.19.4 Analysis of Circuit Stability................................................... 288
10.2.19.5 Nyquist Diagrams.................................................................... 289
10.2.20 Bode Plots..................................................................................................... 290
10.2.21 Gain and Phase Margins Using the Bode Plot........................................ 298

11 Physics.................................................................................................................................... 299
11.1 Heat.............................................................................................................................. 299
11.1.1 Temperature................................................................................................. 299
11.1.1.1 Temperature Scales..................................................................300
11.1.1.2 Kelvin Scale...............................................................................300
11.1.1.3 Effects of Temperature............................................................ 301
11.1.1.4 Newton’s Law of Cooling........................................................ 303
11.1.2 Heat Capacity...............................................................................................305
11.1.3 Heat Transfer................................................................................................305
11.1.3.1 Conduction................................................................................306
11.1.3.2 Convection................................................................................ 307
11.1.3.3 Radiation................................................................................... 307
11.1.4 Calorimetry..................................................................................................308
11.2 Light............................................................................................................................. 310
11.2.1 Fundamentals.............................................................................................. 310
11.2.2 Production of Light..................................................................................... 310
11.2.3 Velocity......................................................................................................... 310
11.2.4 Other Characteristics.................................................................................. 310
11.2.5 Polarization.................................................................................................. 311
11.2.6 Classification of Polarization..................................................................... 312
11.2.6.1 Linear Polarization.................................................................. 312
11.2.6.2 Circular Polarization............................................................... 312
11.2.6.3 Elliptical Polarization.............................................................. 312
11.2.7 Optics............................................................................................................ 313
Contents xiii

11.2.7.1 Propagation................................................................................... 313

11.2.7.2 Rays................................................................................................ 313
11.2.7.3 Interface......................................................................................... 313
11.2.7.4 Angles............................................................................................ 314
11.2.7.5 Reflection....................................................................................... 314
11.2.8 Radiometry and Photometry..................................................................... 314
11.2.8.1 Radiometry................................................................................... 314
11.2.8.2 Photometry.................................................................................... 315
11.2.9 Holography.................................................................................................. 315
11.2.9.1 Principle of Producing a Holographic Image.......................... 316
11.3 Sound........................................................................................................................... 317
11.3.1 Sound............................................................................................................ 317
11.3.2 The Decibel................................................................................................... 317
11.3.3 Intensity and Pitch...................................................................................... 319
11.3.4 Resonance..................................................................................................... 319
11.3.4.1 Beats............................................................................................... 319
11.3.5 Comparison of Common Sounds............................................................. 321
11.4 Atomic Physics........................................................................................................... 321
11.4.1 Atomic Theory............................................................................................. 321
11.4.2 Nomenclature of the Electronic States..................................................... 323
11.4.3 Periodic Table............................................................................................... 323
11.4.4 Van der Waals Forces.................................................................................. 325
11.4.5 Metallic Bonding......................................................................................... 326
11.4.6 Structure of Metals...................................................................................... 326
11.4.6.1 Face-Centered Cubic Structure.................................................. 326
11.4.6.2 Body-Centered Cubic Structure................................................. 326
11.4.6.3 Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure........................................... 326
11.4.7 Atomic Weight and Atomic Number....................................................... 326
11.4.8 Atomic Coordination.................................................................................. 327
11.4.9 Stacking Sequences..................................................................................... 327
11.4.10 Crystal Planes.............................................................................................. 327
11.4.11 Indices Planes.............................................................................................. 327
11.4.12 Miller–Bravais System for HCP................................................................. 327
11.4.13 Allotropy...................................................................................................... 328
11.5 Nuclear Physics.......................................................................................................... 328
11.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 328
11.5.2 Atom Nucleus.............................................................................................. 328
11.5.3 Binding Energy............................................................................................ 329
11.5.4 Radioactivity................................................................................................ 329
11.5.5 Half-Life........................................................................................................ 329

12 Thermodynamic Basics...................................................................................................... 331

12.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 331
12.1.1 What Is Thermodynamics?........................................................................ 331
12.1.2 Brief History................................................................................................. 331
12.2 Basic Thermodynamics............................................................................................. 332
12.2.1 Basic Concepts............................................................................................. 332
12.2.2 Extensive....................................................................................................... 332
12.2.3 Intensive........................................................................................................ 332
xiv Contents

12.2.4 Specific and Total Quantities..................................................................... 332

12.2.5 Energy Forms............................................................................................... 332
12.2.6 Internal Energy............................................................................................ 333
12.2.7 Gravitational or Potential Energy.............................................................334
12.2.8 Kinetic Energy.............................................................................................334
12.2.9 Flow Energy................................................................................................. 335
12.2.10 Enthalpy........................................................................................................ 335
12.2.11 Gas Laws....................................................................................................... 335
12.2.12 Theory........................................................................................................... 335
12.2.13 Pressure........................................................................................................ 336
12.2.14 A Perfect Gas................................................................................................ 336
12.2.15 Boyle’s Law................................................................................................... 336
12.2.16 Charles’s Law............................................................................................... 338
12.2.17 Universal Gas Law...................................................................................... 339
12.2.18 Specific Heat Capacity................................................................................ 341
12.2.19 Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Volume (Cv)..................................... 341
12.2.20 Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (Cp)...................................343
12.2.21 Relationship between the Specific Heats.................................................344
12.2.22 Specific Heat Ratio ‘γ’..................................................................................345
12.3 Laws of Thermodynamics........................................................................................346
12.3.1 Conservation of Energy..............................................................................346
12.3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics..................................................................346
12.3.3 Steady Flow Process.................................................................................... 347
12.3.4 Flow Process................................................................................................. 347
12.3.5 Consider a Boiler at Constant Pressure....................................................348
12.3.6 Nozzle........................................................................................................... 350
12.3.7 Pump............................................................................................................. 352
12.3.8 Turbine.......................................................................................................... 353
12.3.9 Throttling.....................................................................................................354
12.3.10 Equation of Continuity............................................................................... 356
12.3.11 Non-Flow Processes.................................................................................... 356
12.3.12 Constant Temperature (Isothermal Process) (pV–C).............................. 357
12.3.12.1 Work Transfer............................................................................ 357
12.3.12.2 Heat Transfer............................................................................. 358
12.3.13 Adiabatic Process (Q = 0)............................................................................. 359
12.3.13.1 Work Transfer............................................................................ 360
12.3.13.2 Heat Transfer............................................................................. 361
12.3.14 Polytropic Process (pVn = C)........................................................................ 362
12.3.14.1 Work Transfer............................................................................ 363
12.3.14.2 Heat Transfer.............................................................................364
12.3.15 Constant Volume Process........................................................................... 365
12.3.15.1 Work Transfer............................................................................ 366
12.3.15.2 Heat Transfer............................................................................. 366
12.3.16 Constant Pressure Process......................................................................... 367
12.3.16.1 Work Transfer............................................................................ 368
12.3.16.2 Heat Transfer............................................................................. 368

13 Fluid Mechanics................................................................................................................... 371

13.1 Fluid Properties.......................................................................................................... 371
Contents xv

13.1.1 Density.......................................................................................................... 371

13.1.2 Pressure........................................................................................................ 373
13.1.3 Static Pressure and Head........................................................................... 373
13.1.4 Viscosity........................................................................................................ 374
13.1.4.1 Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity............................................ 375
13.1.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity................................................................... 375
13.1.4.3 Other Units................................................................................. 376
13.1.5 Compressibility........................................................................................... 376
13.2 Fluid Flow................................................................................................................... 376
13.2.1 Patterns of Flow........................................................................................... 377
13.2.2 Types of Flow............................................................................................... 377
13.2.2.1 Internal Flow.............................................................................. 377
13.2.2.2 External Flow............................................................................. 377
13.2.2.3 Laminar Flow............................................................................. 377
13.2.2.4 Turbulent Flow........................................................................... 378
13.2.3 Laminar Flow.............................................................................................. 378
13.2.4 Derivation of Poiseuille’s Equation for Laminar Flow.......................... 378
13.2.5 Turbulent Flow............................................................................................ 383
13.2.6 Fluid Resistance...........................................................................................384
13.2.7 Moody’s Diagram........................................................................................ 385
13.3 Continuity Equation.................................................................................................. 387
13.3.1 Conservation of Mass................................................................................. 387
13.3.2 Conservation of Energy.............................................................................. 388
13.3.2.1 Flow Energy............................................................................... 388
13.3.2.2 Potential Energy......................................................................... 388
13.3.2.3 Kinetic Energy............................................................................ 389
13.3.2.4 Specific Energy........................................................................... 389
13.3.2.5 Energy Head............................................................................... 389
13.3.3 Bernoulli’s Equation.................................................................................... 390
13.3.4 Stagnation Point........................................................................................... 393
13.4 Hydrostatics................................................................................................................ 393
13.4.1 Buoyancy...................................................................................................... 394
13.4.2 Metacentre and Metacentre Height.......................................................... 396
13.4.3 Pressure in Liquids..................................................................................... 398
13.4.4 Pressure due to the Weight of a Liquid.................................................... 401
13.4.5 Forces on Submerged Surfaces.................................................................. 403
13.4.6 Centre of Pressure.......................................................................................404
13.5 Dimension Analysis.................................................................................................. 407
13.5.1 Dimensions..................................................................................................408
13.5.2 Dimensional Equations..............................................................................408
13.6 Fluid Drag................................................................................................................... 410
13.6.1 Form Drag.................................................................................................... 410
13.6.2 Skin Friction Drag....................................................................................... 411
13.6.3 Estimating Skin Drag................................................................................. 412
13.6.4 General Notes on Drag Coefficients......................................................... 413
13.6.5 Total Drag..................................................................................................... 415
13.6.6 Drag on a Cylinder...................................................................................... 416
13.7 Properties of Water.................................................................................................... 419
13.7.1 Specific Heat Capacity of Water................................................................ 420
xvi Contents

13.7.2 Enthalpy of Fusion......................................................................................422

13.7.3 Enthalpy of Vaporisation............................................................................423
13.8 Channel Flow..............................................................................................................423
13.8.1 Channel Flow............................................................................................... 424
13.8.2 Hydraulic Radius........................................................................................ 424
13.8.3 Flow Rate......................................................................................................425
13.8.4 Roughness.................................................................................................... 426
13.9 Orifice Plate................................................................................................................. 427
13.9.1 Description................................................................................................... 428
13.9.2 Measurement............................................................................................... 429
13.10 Fluid Machines...........................................................................................................430
13.10.1 Positive Displacement Machines..............................................................430
13.10.1.1 Single Rotor................................................................................430
13.10.1.2 Double Rotor.............................................................................. 432

14 Introduction to Analytical Stress Analysis and the Use of Mohr’s Circle.............. 439
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 439
14.2 Notation....................................................................................................................... 439
14.3 Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis...........................................................................440
14.4 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes.................................................................. 441
14.4.1 Maximum Shear Stress...............................................................................442
14.4.2 Geometric Interpretation...........................................................................444
14.5 Construction of Mohr’s Circle..................................................................................444
14.5.1 Conclusions and Deductions.....................................................................446
14.6 Relationship between Direct and Shear Stress......................................................446
14.7 The Pole of Mohr’s Circle..........................................................................................448
14.7.1 A Few Special Cases................................................................................... 449
14.8 Examples..................................................................................................................... 450
14.9 The Analysis of Strain............................................................................................... 456
14.9.1 Sign Conventions for Strains..................................................................... 457
14.10 Comparison of Stress and Strain Equations.......................................................... 457
14.10.1 The Strain Rosette....................................................................................... 458
14.10.2 Construction................................................................................................ 458
14.10.3 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 462
14.11 Theories of Elastic Failure......................................................................................... 462
14.11.1 Steady Load Failure Theories.................................................................... 462
14.11.2 Maximum Principal Stress (Rankine’s) Theory......................................463
14.11.3 Maximum Principal Strain (Saint Venant’s) Theory..............................464
14.11.4 Maximum Shear Stress (Guest’s or Tresca’s) Theory.............................464
14.11.5 Distortion Energy Theory.......................................................................... 465
14.11.5.1 Strain Energy (Haigh’s) Theory............................................... 465
14.11.5.2 Shear Strain Energy (von Mises) Theory................................ 466
14.11.6 Conclusions.................................................................................................. 467
14.12 Interaction Curves, Stress Ratios Margins of Safety,
and Factors of Safety.................................................................................................. 467
14.12.1 Interaction: Stress Ratio.............................................................................. 467
14.12.2 Interactive Curve......................................................................................... 468
14.12.3 Interaction, Stress Ratios, Yield Conditions............................................ 468
14.12.4 Interaction Equations: Yield Conditions.................................................. 469
Contents xvii

14.12.5 Interaction Equations: Failure Conditions............................................... 469

14.12.5.1 Compact Structures: No Bending........................................... 469
14.12.6 Compact Structures: Bending................................................................... 471
14.12.7 General Interaction Relationships............................................................ 471
14.12.8 Determination of Safety Factors............................................................... 475

15 Introduction to Experimental Stress Analysis.............................................................. 477

15.1 Photoelasticity............................................................................................................ 477
15.1.1 The Principles of Photoelasticity............................................................... 478
15.1.2 Principles...................................................................................................... 478
15.1.3 Isoclinics and Isochromatics..................................................................... 479
15.1.4 Plane Polariscope........................................................................................ 479
15.1.5 Circular Polariscope...................................................................................480
15.1.6 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity.................480
15.1.7 Further Development................................................................................. 481
15.2 Photoelastic Coatings................................................................................................ 481
15.2.1 Preparation of the Coating......................................................................... 481
15.2.2 Analysis of the Coating.............................................................................. 481
15.2.3 Coating Materials........................................................................................ 482
15.2.4 Full-Field Interpretation of Strain Distribution...................................... 482
15.3 Introduction to Brittle Lacquer Coatings................................................................484
15.3.1 Loading and Testing Techniques..............................................................484
15.3.2 Effects of Change in Relative Humidity and Temperature...................484
15.3.3 Measuring Strain under Static Loading................................................... 485
15.4 Introduction to Strain Gauges.................................................................................. 485
15.4.1 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges................................................................... 485
15.4.2 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges.......................................................... 486
15.4.3 Unbalanced Bridge Circuit........................................................................ 488
15.4.4 Null Balance or Balanced Bridge Circuit................................................. 489
15.4.5 Installation Procedures.............................................................................. 489
15.5 Extensometers............................................................................................................. 490
15.5.1 Contact Extensometers............................................................................... 490
15.5.2 Noncontact Extensometers........................................................................ 491
15.5.2.1 General Notes............................................................................. 492
15.5.3 Applications................................................................................................. 492

16 Introduction to Fatigue and Fracture............................................................................... 493

16.1 Introduction and Background to the History of Fatigue..................................... 493
16.1.1 Later Developments.................................................................................... 496
16.1.2 Recent Developments................................................................................. 496
16.1.3 Basic Definitions.......................................................................................... 498
16.2 The Fatigue Process................................................................................................... 499
16.3 Initiation of Fatigue Cracks...................................................................................... 503
16.4 Factors Affecting Fatigue Life..................................................................................504
16.4.1 Stress Amplitude.........................................................................................504
16.4.2 Mean Stress..................................................................................................504
16.5 Stress Concentrations................................................................................................ 507
16.5.1 The Elastic Stress Concentration Factor...................................................508
16.5.2 The Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor.................................................508
xviii Contents

16.6 Structural Life Estimations....................................................................................... 509

16.7 Introduction to Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics.............................................. 510
16.7.1 Preamble......................................................................................................... 511
16.7.2 Comparison of Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics..................................... 511
16.7.3 The Difference between Classical Fatigue Analysis and Fracture
Mechanics...................................................................................................... 511
16.7.4 Stress Intensity.............................................................................................. 512
16.7.4.1 General Stress Intensity Solution................................................ 513
16.7.5 Fracture Toughness and Crack Growth.................................................... 514
16.8 Fatigue Design Philosophy....................................................................................... 517
16.8.1 Fail-Safe.......................................................................................................... 517
16.8.2 Safe-Life.......................................................................................................... 518
16.9 Cycle Counting Methods.......................................................................................... 518
16.9.1 Introduction to Spectrum Cycle Counting............................................... 518

Section III Design of Mechanical Elements

17 Introduction to Material Selection................................................................................... 525

17.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 525
17.2 Things to Consider..................................................................................................... 525
17.2.1 Environment.................................................................................................. 527
17.2.2 Strength.......................................................................................................... 527
17.2.3 Durability....................................................................................................... 527
17.2.4 Stiffness.......................................................................................................... 527
17.2.5 Weight............................................................................................................. 527
17.2.6 Manufacturing.............................................................................................. 528
17.2.7 Cost................................................................................................................. 528
17.2.8 Maintainability.............................................................................................. 528
17.3 A Model for Material Selection................................................................................ 528
17.3.1 Geometry....................................................................................................... 528
17.3.2 Analysis.......................................................................................................... 528
17.3.3 Measurement Evaluation............................................................................. 529
17.3.4 Material Selection......................................................................................... 529
17.3.5 Manufacturability......................................................................................... 529
17.3.6 Adequacy of Design..................................................................................... 530
17.4 A Material Database.................................................................................................. 530
17.4.1 Paper-Based Database.................................................................................. 530
17.4.2 Computer-Based Database.......................................................................... 530
17.4.3 Material Classification and Coding........................................................... 532
17.5 Future Developments................................................................................................542
17.5.1 Knowledge-Based Engineering..................................................................542

18 Beams.....................................................................................................................................543
18.1 Introduction................................................................................................................543
18.2 Basic Theory................................................................................................................546
18.3 Parallel Axis Theorem...............................................................................................548
18.4 Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams.................................................. 556
Contents xix

18.4.1 Cantilever with a Concentrated End Load................................................ 557

18.4.2 Cantilever with a Uniformly Distributed Load,
w per Unit Length........................................................................................ 557
18.4.3 Simply Supported Beam with Central Concentrated Load.................... 558
18.4.4 Simply-Supported Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load, w per
Unit Length.................................................................................................... 558

19 Torsion of Solid Sections................................................................................................... 561

19.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 561
19.2 Basic Theory................................................................................................................ 561
19.3 Modulus of Section.................................................................................................... 562
19.4 Angle of Twist............................................................................................................. 563
19.5 Pure Torsion of Open Sections.................................................................................564
19.5.1 Thick-Walled Open Sections.......................................................................564
19.5.2 Thin-Walled Open Sections........................................................................ 566
19.6 Thin-Walled Closed Sections................................................................................... 568
19.6.1 Single Cell Sections....................................................................................... 568
19.7 Curved Members....................................................................................................... 570
19.7.1 Curved Torsion Members............................................................................ 570
19.7.2 Circular Section............................................................................................. 570
19.7.3 Square Section............................................................................................... 571
19.7.4 Rectangular Sections.................................................................................... 572
19.7.5 Springs............................................................................................................ 573
19.8 Torsional Failure of Tubes......................................................................................... 574
19.8.1 Modulus of Rupture: A Theoretical Approach........................................ 575
19.8.1.1 Instability Failure.......................................................................... 575
19.8.2 Material Failure under Plastic Torsion...................................................... 576
19.9 Sand Heap Analogy for Torsional Strength........................................................... 577
19.9.1 Method (Solid Cross Section)...................................................................... 577

20 Combined Torsion and Bending...................................................................................... 583

21 Shaft Design Basics............................................................................................................. 595

21.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 595
21.2 Procedure for Design and Analysis of a Shaft....................................................... 595
21.2.1 Design Requirements for the Shaft............................................................ 595
21.2.2 Geometry of the Shaft.................................................................................. 596
21.2.3 Calculate the Forces Acting on the Shaft.................................................. 596
21.2.4 Calculate the Bending Moments and Shear Forces Acting
on the Shaft.................................................................................................... 598
21.2.5 Determine the Torsional Profile of the Shaft............................................ 598
21.2.6 Calculate the Critical Diameters for the Shaft.......................................... 599
21.3 Section Modulus.........................................................................................................600
21.3.1 Angle of Twist............................................................................................... 601
21.3.2 ASME Shaft Equations................................................................................. 602
21.3.3 Fillet Radii and Stress Concentrations.......................................................604
21.3.4 Undercuts....................................................................................................... 605
xx Contents

22 Keys and Spline Calculations........................................................................................... 611

22.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 611
22.1.1 Feather Key.................................................................................................... 611
22.1.2 Straight Spline............................................................................................... 611
22.1.3 Involute Spline............................................................................................... 611
22.2 Procedure for Estimating the Strength Capacity of Shaft.................................... 612
22.3 Strength Capacity of Key.......................................................................................... 614
22.4 Strength Capacity of an ISO Straight Sided Spline............................................... 614
22.5 Strength Capacity of ISO Involute Spline............................................................... 615
22.6 Example Calculations................................................................................................ 616
22.6.1 Shaft Calculations......................................................................................... 617
22.6.2 Key Calculations........................................................................................... 618
22.6.3 Straight Spline Calculations........................................................................ 618
22.6.4 Involute Spline Calculations....................................................................... 619

23 Columns and Struts............................................................................................................ 623

23.1 Background................................................................................................................. 623
23.2 Rankine–Gordon Method......................................................................................... 624
23.3 Perry–Robertson Method.......................................................................................... 628

24 Eccentric Loading................................................................................................................ 631

25 Thick Cylinders................................................................................................................... 637

25.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 637
25.2 A Thick-Walled Cylinder Subject to Internal and External Pressures............... 637
25.3 General Equations for a Thick-Walled Cylinder Subject to an Internal
Pressure.......................................................................................................................640
25.4 The General Equation for a Thick-Walled Cylinder Subject to Internal and
External Pressures..................................................................................................... 641

26 Compound Cylinders......................................................................................................... 647

26.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 647
26.2 Shrinkage Allowance................................................................................................ 647
Further Reading.................................................................................................................... 655

27 Flat Plates.............................................................................................................................. 657

28 Methods of Attachments.................................................................................................... 665

28.1 Bolts in Tension.......................................................................................................... 665
28.1.1 Loading Producing a Tensile Load in Bolt................................................ 665
28.1.1.1 Permissible Stress.......................................................................... 667
28.1.2 Load Producing a Tension and Shear Load in Bolt.................................. 667
28.1.3 Bolts in Shear due to Eccentric Loading.................................................... 669
28.2 Welding (Permanent)................................................................................................. 671
28.2.1 Strength of Welded Joints............................................................................ 671

29 The Design and Analysis of Helical Compression Springs

Manufactured from Round Wire..................................................................................... 675
29.1 Elastic Stresses and Deflections of Helical Compression Springs
Manufactured from Round Wire............................................................................. 675
Contents xxi

29.1.1
Introduction................................................................................................. 675
29.1.2
Notation........................................................................................................ 676
29.1.3
Notes............................................................................................................. 676
29.1.4
Compression Spring Characteristics........................................................ 677
29.1.4.1 Material Specifications........................................................... 677
29.1.4.2 Wire Diameter......................................................................... 677
29.1.4.3 Mean Diameter........................................................................ 677
29.1.4.4 Spring Index c.......................................................................... 677
29.1.4.5 Spring Rate............................................................................... 678
29.1.4.6 Number of Active Coils.......................................................... 678
29.1.4.7 Total Number of Coils............................................................ 678
29.1.4.8 Solid Length............................................................................. 678
29.1.4.9 Initial (Free) Length................................................................ 678
29.1.4.10 Clearance at Maximum Load................................................ 678
29.1.4.11 Direction of Wind.................................................................... 678
29.1.4.12 Allowable Stresses................................................................... 679
29.1.4.13 Finish......................................................................................... 679
29.1.5 Static Shear Stress........................................................................................ 679
29.1.5.1 Basic Formulas......................................................................... 679
29.1.5.2 Maximum Shear Stress........................................................... 679
29.1.5.3 Useful Relations.......................................................................680
29.1.5.4 Relationships............................................................................ 683
29.1.6 Spring and Deflection Characteristics..................................................... 685
29.1.7 Solid Length Characteristics...................................................................... 686
29.1.8 Buckling of Compression Springs............................................................ 687
29.1.9 Transverse Loading..................................................................................... 688
29.1.10 Increase of Spring Diameter under Compression.................................. 689
29.1.10.1 Ends Free to Rotate................................................................. 689
29.1.10.2 Ends Restrained against Rotation......................................... 690
29.1.11 Helix Warping in Compression Springs.................................................. 690
29.1.12 Natural Frequency...................................................................................... 691
29.1.12.1 First Natural Frequency......................................................... 691
29.1.13 Example 1..................................................................................................... 693
29.1.13.1 Design of a Helical Compression Spring............................. 693
29.1.13.2 End Coil Formulation............................................................. 693
29.1.13.3 Working Stress......................................................................... 693
29.1.13.4 Determination of D, d, and c................................................. 694
29.1.13.5 Determining Spring Rate, Deflection Characteristics,
and Number of Coils.............................................................. 695
29.1.13.6 Conformity with Limitations of Section 29.3...................... 696
29.1.13.7 Closed Length Characteristics.............................................. 696
29.1.13.8 Buckling Characteristics........................................................ 697
29.1.13.9 Determination of Coil Growth under Compression.......... 697
29.1.13.10 Natural Frequency of the Spring.......................................... 698
29.1.13.11 Stress Increase due to Helix Warping.................................. 698
29.2 Allowable Stresses for Helical Compression Springs Manufactured from
Round Wire................................................................................................................. 699
29.2.1 Static Strength Data.................................................................................... 699
29.2.2 Fatigue Data................................................................................................. 700
xxii Contents

29.2.2.1 Estimation of an S-N Curve..................................................... 701

29.2.3 Factors Affecting Spring Life.................................................................... 701
29.2.3.1 Spring Geometry....................................................................... 701
29.2.3.2 Corrosion.................................................................................... 702
29.2.3.3 Surface Finish............................................................................. 702
29.2.3.4 Elevated Temperatures............................................................. 702
29.2.4 Treatments for Improving the Fatigue Life of Springs.......................... 702
29.2.4.1 Prestressing................................................................................ 702
29.2.4.2 Shot Peening............................................................................... 702
29.2.4.3 Abrasive Cleaning..................................................................... 705
29.3 Notes on the Design of Helical Compression Springs Made from Round
Wire.............................................................................................................................. 706
29.3.1 General Notes.............................................................................................. 706
29.3.2 Prestressing.................................................................................................. 706
29.3.3 Choice of Material....................................................................................... 707
29.3.3.1 Operation Reliability................................................................. 707
29.3.3.2 Corrosion and Protection......................................................... 707
29.3.3.3 Working Temperature............................................................... 707
29.3.3.4 Special Requirements................................................................ 708
29.3.4 Loading......................................................................................................... 708
29.3.4.1 Cyclic Loading and Fatigue Properties.................................. 708
29.3.4.2 Transverse Loading................................................................... 708
29.3.4.3 Impact.......................................................................................... 710
29.3.4.4 Eccentric Loading...................................................................... 710
29.3.4.5 Buckling...................................................................................... 710
29.3.5 Design Features........................................................................................... 710
29.3.5.1 End Forms................................................................................... 710
29.3.5.2 Free Length................................................................................. 711
29.3.5.3 Solid Length............................................................................... 712
29.3.5.4 Tolerances................................................................................... 712
29.3.5.5 Surface Finish............................................................................. 713
29.3.5.6 Surface Treatment...................................................................... 713
29.3.6 Design Procedures...................................................................................... 713
29.3.6.1 Basic Design................................................................................ 713
29.3.7 Manufacturing Requirements................................................................... 713
29.4 Nested Helical Compression Springs..................................................................... 716
29.4.1 General Notes to Section 29.4.................................................................... 716
29.4.2 Example 2..................................................................................................... 722
29.4.3 Nested Springs in Series............................................................................ 725
29.4.4 Example 3..................................................................................................... 725
Further Reading.................................................................................................................... 728

30 Design and Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins................................................................ 729

30.1 Notation....................................................................................................................... 729
30.2 Introduction................................................................................................................ 730
30.2.1 Method.......................................................................................................... 731
30.2.2 Loading......................................................................................................... 731
30.2.3 Material Limitations................................................................................... 731
30.2.4 Geometric Limitations................................................................................ 732
Contents xxiii

30.2.5 Failure Modes.............................................................................................. 733

30.2.6 Notes............................................................................................................. 733
30.3 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading: Allowable Loads..................................... 733
30.3.1 Analysis Procedure to Determine the Ultimate Axial Load................ 733
30.4 Analysis of Lugs with Transverse Loading: Allowable Loads............................ 736
30.5 Oblique Loading: Allowable Loading..................................................................... 740
30.5.1 Analysis Procedure..................................................................................... 741
30.5.2 Out-of-Plane Loading................................................................................. 741
30.6 Bearing at Lug-to-Pin or -Bush Interface................................................................ 742
30.7 Shear Pin Analysis..................................................................................................... 743
30.7.1 Shear Pin Bending in Double Shear Joint................................................ 743
30.7.1.1 Shear Pin Bending: Load Peaking between Center
Lug and Pin................................................................................ 744
30.7.1.2 Shear Pin Bending, Including Excess Strength of Lug............. 745
30.7.2 Pin Shear....................................................................................................... 747
30.8 Bush Analysis............................................................................................................. 747
30.9 Special Cases............................................................................................................... 748
30.9.1 Oil Holes....................................................................................................... 748
30.9.1.1 Axial Load.................................................................................. 748
30.9.1.2 Transverse Load......................................................................... 748
30.9.1.3 Oblique Load.............................................................................. 748
30.9.2 Eccentric Hole.............................................................................................. 749
30.9.3 Multiple Shear Connection........................................................................ 749
30.10 Stresses due to Interference-Fit Pins and Bushes.................................................. 750
30.10.1 Solid Circular Interference-Fit Shear Pins............................................... 750
30.10.2 Interference-Fit Bushes............................................................................... 752
30.11 Stress Concentration Factor at Lug-to-Pin Interface............................................. 752
30.12 Examples..................................................................................................................... 753
Further Reading.................................................................................................................... 758

31 Mechanical Fasteners.......................................................................................................... 759

31.1 Threaded Fasteners.................................................................................................... 759
31.2 Basic Types of Threaded Fasteners.......................................................................... 759
31.3 Thread Standards....................................................................................................... 759
31.4 Thread Profiles........................................................................................................... 759
31.5 Thread Series.............................................................................................................. 761
31.6 Thread Designations................................................................................................. 761
31.6.1 Metric Series................................................................................................. 761
31.6.2 Imperial (Inch Series).................................................................................. 762
31.7 Material and Strength Designations....................................................................... 764
31.8 Tensile and Shear Stress Areas................................................................................ 764
31.8.1 Tensile Stress Area...................................................................................... 764
31.8.2 Shear Area of External Threads................................................................ 765
31.8.3 Shear Area of Internal Threads................................................................. 767
31.9 Length of Engagement.............................................................................................. 767
31.9.1 Length of Engagement Using Equal Strength Materials....................... 768
31.9.2 Length of Engagement Using Dissimilar Strength Materials.............. 768
31.10 Fastener and Nut Design Philosophies................................................................... 768
31.11 Pitching of Fasteners.................................................................................................. 768
xxiv Contents

31.11.1 Pressure Cone.............................................................................................. 769

31.12 Tension Connections................................................................................................. 769
31.13 Torque-Tension Relationship.................................................................................... 770
31.14 Proof Load and Proof Stress..................................................................................... 771
31.14.1 Fastener Preload.......................................................................................... 771
31.15 Introduction to Pretension........................................................................................ 772
31.15.1 Why Preload?............................................................................................... 773
31.16 Joint Diagrams............................................................................................................ 774
31.16.1 Joint Diagrams with an External Load Applied..................................... 775
31.16.2 Effects of a Large Increase in the External Load.................................... 776
31.16.3 The Effect of a Compressive External Load............................................777
31.16.4 Nomenclature.............................................................................................. 778
31.16.5 Notes............................................................................................................. 778
31.17 Fastener Stiffness....................................................................................................... 780
31.18 Joint Stiffness.............................................................................................................. 781
31.18.1 Calculation of Load Distribution Using
Fastener/Joint Stiffness.............................................................................. 782
31.19 Thermal Loading....................................................................................................... 782
31.19.1 Initial Tension in Bolt.................................................................................. 783
31.20 Fasteners Subject to Combined Shear and Tension............................................... 784
31.20.1 Interaction Curves: Load Ratios and Factors of Safety.......................... 784
31.20.2 Interaction Curve......................................................................................... 785
31.20.3 Interaction Equation................................................................................... 786
31.21 Eccentric Loads........................................................................................................... 786
31.21.1 Permissible Shear Stress............................................................................. 788
31.22 Prying Forces.............................................................................................................. 788
31.23 Fasteners Subject to Alternating External Force.................................................... 791
31.23.1 Factor of Safety (FoS) with No Preload.................................................... 791
31.23.2 The Minimum Preload to Prevent Any Loss of Compression............. 791
31.23.3 Calculate the FoS for the Bolt with a Preload of 22,000 N..................... 792
31.23.4 The Minimum Force in the Part when the
Preload Is 22,000 N...................................................................................... 794

32 Limits and Fits...................................................................................................................... 795

32.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 795
32.2 Tolerance Grade Numbers........................................................................................ 795
32.2.1 Tolerance....................................................................................................... 795
32.2.2 International Tolerance Grade Numbers................................................. 795
32.3 Fundamental Deviations........................................................................................... 796
32.3.1 Preamble....................................................................................................... 796
32.3.2 Fundamental Deviation............................................................................. 797
32.3.3 Fundamental Deviations for Shafts.......................................................... 798
32.3.4 Fundamental Deviations for Holes .......................................................... 798
32.3.5 Upper and Lower Deviations.................................................................... 799
32.3.5.1 Shaft Letter Codes c, d, f, g, and h............................................. 799
32.3.5.2 Shaft Letter Codes k, n, p, s, and u............................................ 799
32.3.5.3 Hole Letter Code H..................................................................... 799
32.4 Preferred Fits Using the Basic Hole System...........................................................800
32.4.1 Loose Running Fit (Example)......................................................................800
Contents xxv

32.4.2 Location Clearance Fit (Example)............................................................... 801

32.5 Surface Finish............................................................................................................. 802

33 Energy Systems (Flywheels)..............................................................................................803

33.1 Flywheels Basics.........................................................................................................803
33.2 Torque—Angle Diagrams.........................................................................................804
33.3 Coefficient of Speed Fluctuation (Cs).......................................................................806
33.4 Coefficient of Energy Fluctuation (Cf).....................................................................806
33.5 Stresses Generated within Flywheel Section due to Speed of Rotation............808
33.6 Geared Systems.......................................................................................................... 815

34 Introduction to Linkages................................................................................................... 819

34.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 819
34.2 Brief History................................................................................................................ 820
34.3 Kinematic Definitions............................................................................................... 820
34.3.1 Kinematic Chain........................................................................................... 820
34.3.2 Mechanism.................................................................................................... 820
34.3.3 Machine.......................................................................................................... 821
34.3.4 DOF................................................................................................................. 821
34.3.5 Rigid Links.................................................................................................... 821
34.3.6 Order of a Link.............................................................................................. 822
34.3.7 Joints............................................................................................................... 822
34.3.8 Kinematic Pairs............................................................................................. 822
34.3.9 Mobility.......................................................................................................... 822
34.4 Kinematic Pairs.......................................................................................................... 822
34.4.1 Relative Motion between Kinematic Pairs................................................ 823
34.4.1.1 Lower Pairs..................................................................................... 823
34.4.1.2 Higher Pairs................................................................................... 823
34.4.2 Nature of Kinematic Constraints............................................................... 824
34.4.3 Closed Pair..................................................................................................... 824
34.4.4 Open Pair....................................................................................................... 825
34.5 Planar, Spherical and Spatial Mechanisms............................................................ 825
34.5.1 Planar Mechanism........................................................................................ 826
34.5.2 Spherical Mechanism................................................................................... 826
34.5.3 Spatial Mechanism....................................................................................... 826
34.6 Mobility....................................................................................................................... 828
34.7 Chebyshev–Gruber–Kutzbach Criterion................................................................ 828
34.8 Grashof’s Law.............................................................................................................830
34.8.1 Classification.................................................................................................. 831
34.9 Four-Bar Linkage....................................................................................................... 832
34.9.1 Planar Four-Bar Linkages............................................................................ 832
34.9.2 Inversion......................................................................................................... 833
34.9.3 Slider–Crank Linkage..................................................................................834
34.9.3.1 Link 1 Fixed....................................................................................834
34.9.3.2 Link 2 Fixed....................................................................................834
34.10 Mechanical Advantage of a Four-Bar Linkage...................................................... 837
34.11 Freudenstein’s Equation............................................................................................ 839
34.12 Drawing Velocity Vectors for Linkages..................................................................842
34.13 Drawing Acceleration Vectors for Linkages..........................................................846
xxvi Contents

35 Introduction to Cams and Followers............................................................................... 849

35.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 849
35.2 Background................................................................................................................. 849
35.3 Requirements of a Cam Mechanism....................................................................... 850
35.4 Terminology................................................................................................................ 850
35.4.1 Plate Cams..................................................................................................... 850
35.4.2 Cylindrical Cams.......................................................................................... 850
35.4.3 Typical Cam Follower Arrangements for Plate-Type
Cams............................................................................................................... 852
35.5 The Timing Diagram................................................................................................. 853
35.6 Cam Laws....................................................................................................................854
35.6.1 Constant Velocity of the Follower.............................................................. 856
35.6.2 Parabolic Motion........................................................................................... 857
35.6.3 Simple Harmonic Motion............................................................................ 858
35.6.4 Cycloidal Motion........................................................................................... 860
35.7 Pressure Angle........................................................................................................... 862
35.8 Design Procedure....................................................................................................... 863
35.9 Graphical Construction of a Cam Profile...............................................................864

36 Geared Systems.................................................................................................................... 867

36.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 867
36.2 Types of Gears............................................................................................................ 867
36.2.1 Spur Gears..................................................................................................... 868
36.2.2 Internal Spur Gears...................................................................................... 868
36.2.3 Rack and Pinion............................................................................................ 869
36.2.4 Helical Gears................................................................................................. 869
36.2.5 Double Helical Gears.................................................................................... 869
36.2.6 Spiral Bevel Gears......................................................................................... 870
36.2.7 Bevel Gears.................................................................................................... 871
36.2.8 Spiral Gears.................................................................................................... 871
36.2.9 Worm and Worm Wheels............................................................................ 872
36.3 Form of Tooth............................................................................................................. 873
36.4 Layout of Involute Curves......................................................................................... 873
36.5 Involute Functions..................................................................................................... 876
36.6 Spur Gearing: Basic Design Principles................................................................... 879
36.6.1 Notation..........................................................................................................880
36.6.2 Working Stress σw.........................................................................................880
36.6.3 Width of Teeth...............................................................................................880
36.7 Bevel Gearing............................................................................................................. 887
36.7.1 Modified Lewis Formula for Bevel Gears................................................. 887
36.8 Basic Gear Transmission Theory............................................................................. 892
36.8.1 Torque and Efficiency................................................................................... 893
36.9 Types of Gear Trains.................................................................................................. 894
36.9.1 Simple Gear Train......................................................................................... 894
36.9.2 Compound Gears.......................................................................................... 895
36.10 Power Transmission in a Gear Train....................................................................... 896
36.11 Referred Moment of Inertia (Ireferred)........................................................................ 898
36.12 Gear Train Applications............................................................................................ 899
Contents xxvii

37 Power Screws........................................................................................................................905
37.1 Power Screws..............................................................................................................905
37.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................905
37.2 Terminology................................................................................................................906
37.3 Coefficient of Friction................................................................................................908
37.3.1 Workmanship.............................................................................................908
37.3.2 The Type of Lubrication............................................................................908
37.3.3 The Number of Cycles...............................................................................908
37.4 Thread Forms.............................................................................................................909
37.4.1 Square Thread Form.................................................................................. 910
37.4.2 Trapezoidal Metric Form.......................................................................... 910
37.4.3 Buttress Thread Form................................................................................ 911
37.5 Thread Pitch/Diameter Relationship...................................................................... 911
37.6 Multiple-Threaded Screws........................................................................................ 912
37.7 Screw Torque and Thrust......................................................................................... 913
37.7.1 Torque Required for Raising the Load................................................... 913
37.7.2 Torque Required for Lowering the Load................................................ 914
37.8 Self-Locking................................................................................................................ 917
37.9 Efficiency of a Screw Thread.................................................................................... 917
37.10 Efficiency of a Self-Locking Thread........................................................................ 918
37.11 Efficiency of a Trapezoidal Thread.......................................................................... 919
37.12 Collar Friction............................................................................................................. 920
37.13 Stress Analysis............................................................................................................ 921
37.13.1 Nomenclature............................................................................................. 922
37.13.2 Assumptions............................................................................................... 922
37.13.3 Number of Threads in Nut....................................................................... 923
37.13.4 Length of Thread....................................................................................... 923
37.13.5 Bearing Pressure in the Thread............................................................... 923
37.13.6 Bending Stress in the Thread (σb)............................................................ 924
37.13.7 Shear Stress in the Thread (σs)................................................................. 924
37.13.8 Axial Stress in Root of the Thread (σ)..................................................... 925
37.13.9 Torsional Shear in the Root (σst)............................................................... 925
37.13.10 Combined Shear Stress in the Root of the Thread (σsmax)..................... 925
37.14 Buckling....................................................................................................................... 926
37.14.1 Stability Factor............................................................................................ 926

38 Clutches................................................................................................................................. 927
38.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 927
38.2 Positive Clutches........................................................................................................ 927
38.2.1 Square Jaw (Dog) Clutch........................................................................... 927
38.2.2 Spiral Jaw Clutch........................................................................................ 927
38.3 Friction Clutches........................................................................................................ 928
38.3.1 Single-Plate Clutch........................................................................................ 928
38.3.2 Nomenclature................................................................................................ 929
38.4 Considering Uniform Pressure................................................................................ 929
38.5 Considering Uniform Wear...................................................................................... 931
38.6 Calculating Frictional Clutch Dimensions Using the Uniform Wear
Assumption................................................................................................................. 933
xxviii Contents

38.7 Cone Clutches............................................................................................................. 935

38.7.1 Torque Capacity of a Cone Clutch.............................................................. 936

39 Design of Brakes.................................................................................................................. 941

39.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 941
39.2 Mechanical Brakes..................................................................................................... 941
39.2.1 Shoe or Block Brake...................................................................................... 941
39.2.2 Double-Shoe Brake....................................................................................... 942
39.2.3 Band Brakes................................................................................................... 942
39.2.4 Disc Brakes..................................................................................................... 945
39.2.5 Frictional Linings.......................................................................................... 945

40 Couplings.............................................................................................................................. 949
40.0 Introduction................................................................................................................ 949
40.1 Rigid Couplings......................................................................................................... 949
40.1.1 Keyed Sleeve Coupling................................................................................ 949
40.1.2 Split Clamp Coupling................................................................................... 955
40.1.3 Rigid Flange Coupling................................................................................. 959
40.1.3.1 Size of the Hub............................................................................... 962
40.1.3.2 Key Dimensions............................................................................ 962
40.1.3.3 Flange Diameter............................................................................ 962
40.1.3.4 Design of the Bolts........................................................................ 962
40.2 A Template for Designing a Rigid Flange Coupling............................................ 967
40.3 Pin-Type Flexible Coupling...................................................................................... 970
40.3.1 A Template for Designing a Pin-Type Flexible
Coupling......................................................................................................... 974
40.4 Universal Joint............................................................................................................ 981
40.5 Oldham Coupling...................................................................................................... 982
40.6 CV Joints...................................................................................................................... 983
40.6.1 Rzeppa Joint................................................................................................... 983
40.6.2 Birfield Joint................................................................................................... 985
40.6.3 Carl Weiss CV Joint...................................................................................... 985
40.6.4 Tripode (Tripot)-Type CV Joint................................................................... 985

41 Bearings................................................................................................................................. 987
41.0 Introduction................................................................................................................ 987
41.1 Fluid Film Bearings................................................................................................... 988
41.1.1 Advantages of Fluid Film Bearings............................................................ 988
41.1.2 Journal Bearings............................................................................................ 989
41.1.3 Pivot (or Footstep) Bearing.......................................................................... 989
41.1.4 Flexural Bearing............................................................................................ 990
41.1.5 Thrust Bearing.............................................................................................. 990
41.1.6 Linear Bearings............................................................................................. 991
41.1.6.1 Boxway........................................................................................ 991
41.1.6.2 Dovetail....................................................................................... 991
41.1.6.3 Twin Rail..................................................................................... 992
41.1.7 Factors Covering the Formation of the Thick Oil Film in a
Hydrodynamic Lubricated Bearing.......................................................... 992
41.1.8 Wedge Film Journal Bearings.................................................................... 994
Another random document with
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where everyone had become alive to the fact that all was over for us.
Where was my husband? What had become of them all? This
thought nearly drove me mad with anxiety. I could not imagine what
their fate had been, but I knew the anguish of mind my husband
would endure when the sound of those terrible guns would tell him
that we were being attacked again, as he knew we were almost
powerless to make any resistance, through lack of ammunition.
We knew that our one chance lay in retreating, as that move had
been meditated by Colonel Skene early in the evening, before the
truce had taken place; so after an hour had gone by the doctor
began moving the wounded out of the cellar, as an immediate retreat
had been decided upon.
We were still without any definite tidings of the position of Mr.
Quinton and my husband, and the other officers who had
accompanied them, and our anxiety on their behalf increased every
hour.
It took a long time to get all the wounded on to the grass outside.
Mr. Brackenbury was moved first. Poor lad! he begged so hard to be
left in peace where he was, and the moving caused him terrible
agony. One by one all the poor fellows were helped out, until only a
few remained. I gave my arm to one of these, and we were going out
through the cellar door, when we were met by four Kahars, carrying
someone back into the hospital. The moonlight shone down upon
them as they came, and lit up the white face of him they carried, and
I saw that it was Mr. Brackenbury. The movement had killed him, and
he had died on the grass outside a few seconds after leaving the
cellar. Better thus than if he had lived a few hours longer to bear the
pain and torture of our terrible march; but it made one’s heart ache to
leave that young lad lying there dead, alone in the darkened cellar. I
went back there just before we left the place, and covered him up
gently with a sheet that was lying on the ground, and I almost envied
him, wrapped in the calm slumber of death, which had taken all pain
and suffering away.
I had no hope that we should ever succeed in making our escape,
and it seemed almost useless even to make the attempt. All was
ready, however, by this time for our departure, and I went out too,
hoping that the Manipuris would soon set fire to the house, which
would prevent any indignities being heaped upon the dead by their
victorious enemies.
Outside the noise was deafening. Shells burst around us at every
turn, and kept striking the trees and knocking off great branches. All
idea of going up into the house had to be abandoned, so I could not
get a hat or cloak or anything for the journey before us, and had to
start as I was. Just before lunch-time I had taken off the close-fitting
winter gown which I had put on in the morning, and instead had
arrayed myself in a blue serge skirt and white silk blouse, which
gave me more freedom for my work in the hospital. I could not have
chosen better as far as a walking costume went, and should have
been all right if only I had been able to collect a few outdoor
garments—hat, cloak, and boots, for instance. As things happened, I
was wearing on my feet thin patent leather slippers, which were
never meant for out-of-door use, and my stockings were the ordinary
flimsy kind that women generally wear. My dress had got soiled
already in the hospital, and was not improved by the march
afterwards; but I managed to get it washed when we eventually
reached British territory, and have it by me to this day. It will be
preserved as an interesting relic.
 CHAPTER XVI.
Escape of the servants—Mr. Gurdon comes for me—Away from shelter and one’s
life in one’s hands—Over the hedge and across the river—Lie in the ditch for
shelter from shot—Fired on at Burri Bazaar.

The bustle and confusion outside were great. The Sepoys were
being mustered into marching order, but around them on all sides
people were rushing about, knocking each other over in their
eagerness to make good their escape. These were chiefly servants,
Bunnias,[17] and the many followers who accumulate wherever a
regiment goes.
I stood for some time watching them tearing away, until a sudden
fear took hold of me that I had been forgotten and left behind. I was
meditating going myself, but on second thoughts I remembered I had
promised the officers to remain where I was, and they had said they
would come for me; and just at that moment one of them came and
told me that we were to make a move.
Out in the open, away from the shelter of the house, with one’s life
in one’s hands, as it were, my senses nearly left me. The noise was
awful, for besides the bursting of the shells, the firing was heavier
than it had been before. I had not gone six yards from the house
when a shell exploded almost at my feet, knocking off some
branches of a big tree close by, and wounding me very slightly in the
arm. I jumped behind the tree, in the vain hope that its broad trunk
might save me from further injury, and there I remained for some
seconds. The scurrying of those going towards the river awoke me to
my senses again, and off I went, too, forgetting to look for my
companion, from whom I had managed to get separated.
It was no easy matter to get on to the Cachar road from the back
of the Residency, as there were many obstacles in the way. The
inner garden was separated from the outer compound by a tall
hedge, composed of thorns and sharp twigs. I had superintended the
erection of this hedge myself. We had kept a great many cows, and
they were always making their way into the flower-garden and
destroying the rose-bushes. Nothing seemed to keep them out until
we made this thorn hedge, and that, as I remarked to my husband
when I took him to see it first, ‘was calculated to keep an army of
men out if it came to the point.’
Fortunately, by the time I arrived at this hedge it had become
much broken down, the result of the energy of those who had
already gone through it. I found a convenient hole, and got through
with comparatively little damage to my raiment; but my hands
received a good many scratches, and my poor stockings were
dreadfully torn. However, on I went, perfectly insensible as to who
were travelling with me. The next obstacle was a mud wall, low
enough on our side, but with a six-foot drop on the other. I found
myself sitting on the top of this, wondering how I was going to make
the descent of the other side, when someone gave me a gentle
push, as a sort of warning that I was stopping the traffic, and I slid
gracefully down on the other side into the arms of a friendly Bunnia,
who also helped me down the river bank, which was very slippery
and muddy. I fell two or three times, doing considerable damage to
my already dirty dress; but I got to the water’s edge at last, and
made a valiant effort to cross the river.
Fortunately for us, it was March, and not April or May; for had
these events taken place later in the year, I do not know how we
should have crossed that river. But as it was the end of the cold
weather, and the rains had not commenced, the stream was low and
easily waded. I did not know how deep it was, for we had never
crossed it riding, as we generally did Manipuri rivers. We had often
thought of doing so, but the banks were so steep and slippery that
my husband said it would do the horses no good to clamber down
them, and then we might find the river too deep to ford.
So with this delightful uncertainty about things, I made my first
plunge, and stepped into the water, which was dreadfully cold. I had
got into the middle of the stream, when I was overtaken by the
doctor, who seemed rather astonished at finding me there alone.
However, I explained to him that I had been too frightened to remain
at the house when I saw so many people running away, and had
managed fairly well up to that time, but I did not like the river.
He was certainly a good Samaritan on this occasion, for he carried
me the rest of the way through the water, and was just about to land
me high and dry on the bank, when his foot slipped in the mud, and
down we went. We soon picked ourselves up, however, and
scrambled out, and then I found that the heel had come off my shoe
in the water. I was covered with mud and shivering with cold, for my
skirts were dripping with water and very heavy. But there was no
time to be lost, and I climbed up the bank and crossed the road, on
the other side of which was a deep ditch, into which I retreated and
lay down, for firing was going on, and I did not know from which side
it came, whether from our men, who had all caught me up by this
time, or the Manipuris. Whenever I heard shots afterwards I used to
be alarmed, for I never could tell when our men were firing, and
always feared the worst, unless I was actually in the midst of the
Sepoys, and could see them shooting with my own eyes.
We waited in the ditch some time, until all the Sepoys had crossed
the river, and then we started off again to find the way to Cachar. We
went some way in the opposite direction at first, and had to come
back again; but at length we turned down on to the right road, and
commenced the march in real earnest. It was a moonlight night,
which enabled us to see quite plainly. Had it been dark, our
difficulties would have been increased tenfold. We could not march
fast, for the wounded had to be brought along with us, and the
number of Kahars carrying them was limited. What they must have
endured no one can imagine, being jolted along for so many hours
together without any food or rest. I knew every inch of the road we
were travelling, as I had ridden down and up it so often in my
journeys to and from Cachar, and I was able to give the others the
benefit of my knowledge.
We marched along in silence for some miles. At a place called
Burri Bazaar we were fired on, but we were not followed from the
palace, as we had fully expected. Whether they did not know we had
escaped, or whether they thought discretion the better part of valour,
and preferred remaining behind the shelter of their stone walls, to
following after us with hostile intent, I cannot say. But it was fortunate
for us that they gave us the start, and let us get some distance away
before they attempted to pursue us.
 CHAPTER XVII.
Burning of the Residency and of all our effects—Difficulties of retreat—No food,
wet clothes, burning sun—Pursued—Exhaustive march—Kindness of a Naza
boy—Fired on—Sleep after a march of twenty miles—Have to march again—
Captured—A Manipuri with rice—Enemy lurks around us—Come upon a
stockade—Are attacked—Goorkhas in sight.

It was about two in the morning that we left the Residency, and we
marched steadily on until daybreak. We had not gone four miles
away from the station, when I turned to look back, and found the
whole sky for miles round lit with a red glow, whilst from among the
trees surrounding our house flames were leaping up. Those only
who have feelings of affection for the places where they live, and
which they call home, can picture what that burning house meant for
me.
All we possessed was there—all our wedding presents, and
everything that goes towards making a place homelike and
comfortable; and these were being destroyed under my very eyes,
while I, like Lot’s wife of old, had to turn my face in an opposite
direction, utterly powerless to avert the terrible destruction which was
overtaking all I valued.
I thought of my husband, who I believed to be a prisoner in the
palace, surrounded by enemies, witnessing the demolition of the
house, and not knowing where I was, or what had become of me. He
would see the flames, and hear those terrible guns booming out at
every second, and he would know that I was either flying for my life
or dead, but no more. And yet I thought he was better off than we
were. All hoped that Mr. Quinton and his party would be quite safe,
even though they were prisoners, safer than we were; and I myself,
knowing the Jubraj so well, thought that he would be clever enough
to see his own advantage in keeping them as hostages, even if he
were not influenced by feelings of friendship for my husband. And
with this reflection I had to quiet my own misgivings. But it was hard
to march on in silence without giving way, and it was only by
resolving not to look back at all that I managed to restrain my
feelings.
I was glad when the dawn came. Every misfortune seems so
much harder to bear at night, and there is something in the daylight
which gives us strength. If we are ill, we always seem worse during
the night; if in sorrow, it is harder to bear in the dark when we are
awake and the world is sleeping. And so with myself at this time. The
daylight seemed to lessen the horror of the whole situation, and
when the pink flush of the dawn came, it mingled with the red glow
caused by our burning home, until all was merged into the full light of
the rising sun. Then we halted, and had a consultation as to what
route we were to pursue. If we went straight on for another six or
seven miles, we knew we should have to pass a large Thana
strongly garrisoned. On the other hand, if we forsook the main road
and took to the hills, we stood the chance of losing our way
altogether.
Our great hope was to meet with Captain Cowley and his
detachment of two hundred men, who, we knew, were marching up
from Cachar. They had commenced their journey to Manipur some
days before the rebellion had taken place, and did not know anything
of the sort was likely to occur. We knew they were due at a place
called Leimatak, some thirty miles from the capital, on the 25th, so
that if they had kept to their dates, they could not be more than
twenty miles away from us at that moment.
It was the early morning of the 25th when we found ourselves
debating over the road, twelve miles away from Manipur. It was
decided at length to cut across the fields, and make our way over the
hills, hoping to strike the Cachar road again at a higher point, and
avoid the Bishenpur Thana.
So we started off again. I was then very exhausted. We had had
no food, and the water we met with was very dirty. My feet were cut
and sore from the rough walking I had already had, and my clothes
still damp and heavy. By this time the sun was fairly high in the
heavens, and beat down upon my uncovered head, threatening me
with a bad headache at the least, and possibly sunstroke. It was
quite evident that some sort of head-gear must be provided, so after
trying a turban, which I found insufferably hot and heavy, one of the
officers gave me his helmet, and wore the pugaree himself. Our way
lay for some distance across Dhan-fields.[18] Owing to the heavy
dew which had fallen during the night, these were very wet and
soppy, and we were glad when we reached the first hill and began
the ascent.
We had been unmolested for some hours now, but the boom of
the guns and the crack of the bullets hitting the walls of the house
had left such an impression on me that I fancied firing was still going
on, and could scarcely believe the others when they told me nothing
of the kind was taking place, for the noise in my ears was dreadful.
The first hill was very steep, but only a foretaste of what was to
come later on. It was covered with short straggling green grass,
interspersed with the rough stubble of last year, which had originally
been several feet high, but had been burned, according to the
custom in those parts. Here and there a long tough end that had
escaped the fire hit one in the face, covering one with smuts, and
leaving a black mark where it had touched one, so that after a very
short time we all looked more or less like sweeps.
The hill we were climbing had a small plateau about three-quarters
of the way up, and we steered for this, intending to have a really long
halt, and hoping to find water. It was a shady little spot, and when we
did reach it, we were all glad to lie down and rest after our terrible
exertions. We had a wide view of the plain and the road by which we
had travelled, so knew we should be able to note at once if the
enemy were pursuing us, and could afford to give ourselves a little
breathing space. Water had been found, as we expected, quite near,
and as it was much cleaner than what we had discovered in the
fields below, everyone drank a good deal, and the Sepoys filled up
their bottles with it.
I do not know how long we remained here, as I went to sleep
almost at once on our arrival; but when I woke up at last, the others
were moving on up the hill, and I had to go too with them. Some
distance behind we noted a crowd of natives following us. It was
difficult to distinguish whether they were Manipuris or Nagas, but as
they were armed with spears and Daôs,[19] we concluded they must
be the latter. Manipuris would have had rifles.
They never came very close to us, for fear of being shot
themselves; but we could see them the whole time dancing behind
us, shouting and waving spears about. Once or twice they were fully
within range, and we could have shot some of them; but it was
hardly worth while, and our ammunition was none too plentiful. A
terrible fate would have overtaken any straggler who might have
fallen behind without the means to defend himself. His head would
have been captured as a glorious trophy, carved off while he was
alive, for these tribes never trouble about killing their victim first
before taking his scalp unless he offers great resistance.
We had reached by this time an elevation of about 4,000 feet
above sea-level, and knew that more than 2,000 feet at least still
awaited us to be climbed before the top of the ridge could be
reached. The Leimatak hill, towards which point we were travelling,
was 6,700 feet high, and was the topmost peak of the first range of
hills lying between us and Cachar.
We clambered on steadily, but very slowly. I was so tired that I
could hardly put one foot in front of the other, and felt much more
inclined to lie down in the jungle and go to sleep, than to march on.
We were very hungry, but I think I suffered less in that respect than
the men did; for though I should have eaten probably as heartily as
the rest had we possessed food, as there was none to be got, I
never thought much about it. Sleep seemed much more desirable.
It was two o’clock on the morning of the 25th that we left the
Residency, and it was now between three and four in the afternoon.
Every fresh hill seemed worse than its predecessor, and at last we
began ascending one which appeared almost impossible to climb. Its
sides were very steep and rocky, and there was only the merest
apology for a path to direct us in any way. It was a case of using
hands and knees to perform the ascent, and it seemed as though we
should never reach the summit. When, after wearily toiling on for
some hours, we did arrive at the top, I felt that I could not move
another step.
We did halt for a short time here, and while we waited an incident
occurred which touched me very much. A young Naga, who had
been a Sais[20] in our service for several months at one time, found
his way to our camp at the risk of losing his life had he been
discovered by the enemy, and presented me with three eggs,
expressing at the same time his sorrow at not being able to do more
for me. He stayed till sunset with us, and then crept back under
cover of the darkness to his village. I was much touched at this
simple act of kindness, and I have often remembered it since, and
wished it were in my power to do something for the brave lad. But
unfortunately I have forgotten his name, and that of the village to
which he belonged.
Three eggs are not many among eight hungry people, not to
speak of the Sepoys; but no one would share them with me, in spite
of my begging them to do so. I could not manage a raw egg, though I
made several valiant efforts to swallow one. Eventually they all came
to a bad end, for the two remaining ones were put into somebody’s
pocket for safety, and were smashed later on, so no one benefited
much by the little Naga boy’s well-meant offering.
While we were halting on the top of this hill, one of the officers
took a few men with him and went on to take stock of the
surrounding country, as our exact whereabouts seemed uncertain.
He came to a Manipuri Thana before he had proceeded far, and had
a parley with the native officer in command there, who called to him,
telling him he had something to say. So the party went up to within
speaking distance, and the Manipuri called out that he had orders to
‘pass the Memsahib and Sepoys,’ but that all the officers must return
to Manipur.
However, as soon as he was told that our party intended
proceeding undivided, he ordered his men to fire on us, which they
immediately did, and we had to begin marching again down the hill
and up the other side of the ravine. The firing continued on both
sides the whole time, and it was only when we eventually reached
the summit of the opposite hill to that upon which we had halted, and
disappeared over the crest, that it ceased.
The sun had set, and night was beginning to close in and put an
end to the longest day I have ever known. It seemed months almost
since our departure from the Residency, and yet it was but twenty-
four hours.
How I envied my husband and the others, who, as I then thought,
were at any rate in comparative safety, able to eat and sleep, even
though they were prisoners! Not that anxiety on my husband’s
account did not trouble me. I longed to know how he was being
treated, and whether they would tell him of my escape, and spare
him the torture of not knowing my fate, for I knew how he would fret
over it if he did not know.
It seemed so terrible to be obliged to march away leaving them all
behind, and at times I longed to hurry back and see for myself what
was happening, while, again, I would have given anything to have
reached Cachar, and been able to send up help to those in captivity.
We thought that Mr. Melville had been made prisoner and brought
back to Manipur, as a rumour to that effect had reached us on the
24th, and in that case we supposed he would be with the Chief and
his party, a prisoner in the palace.
Perhaps the utter weariness of body and mind which threatened to
overcome me at this time prevented my brooding too much on the
possible fate of those we had been forced to leave in the hands of
their enemies, and it may have been well that it was so.
All that terrible night we tramped on, I with bare feet, as my thin
shoes had given out long since. At length, about one o’clock in the
morning, we halted in a small grove of trees, lying in a hollow
between two hills. We had marched more than twenty miles, and rest
was absolutely essential. Here we lay down and slept. The officers
gave me their great-coats and bore the intense cold themselves, and
I slept as I have seldom slept in a comfortable bed at home, never
waking once until someone aroused me about half-past three in the
morning, and told me the weary tale again—we were to move on.
 The first glimmer of dawn was appearing as we commenced
marching again—hungry, tired, and dispirited. No one knew the way,
and we only had rough paths here and there to guide us through the
jungle; but the actual walking was not so difficult, as we were
travelling along the top of a ridge of hills, and had no very steep
ascent or descent.
Every now and then we were able to see the Leimatak peak, still
some distance off, which I had recognised and pointed out to the
others, and I knew that the road to Cachar passed right through a
small grove of trees on its summit, so we made it our landmark.
The chances of meeting Captain Cowley’s party seemed growing
less every hour. Had he been obliged to turn back? we wondered.
Would he have gone on towards Manipur, and have passed the
place where we hoped to strike the road? We knew nothing.
We were all utterly weary, and dispirited from want of food and
rest. It was now the morning of the 26th, and we had none of us
tasted food since the 24th. I was so tired that I wished I were dead
more than once, and everything seemed quite hopeless, when we
came upon the road suddenly.
I think from this moment fate favoured us. We had entertained so
little hope of finding the road at all, that it seemed a piece of good
fortune when we came upon it suddenly, even though we had all our
work still before us and were without food.
The next thing that happened cheered our drooping spirits not a
little. We came round a corner and found three Manipuri Sepoys
sitting by the roadside, with their arms and accoutrements by them,
cooking their morning meal. They were taken by surprise at our
sudden advent, and two of them fled, leaving the third a prisoner in
our hands. He was not so active as the rest, and the Ghoorkas were
too quick for him. They tied him up with straps and anything they
could find, and the poor creature evidently thought that his last hour
had come. He fell on his knees when he saw me, calling me ‘Ranee,
Ranee,’ and imploring of me to save him. So I spoke to him as well
as I could in Manipuri, telling him not to be frightened; that we did not
intend to hurt him.
 Meanwhile, the rice they had cooked came in most acceptably,
and perhaps, had a disinterested onlooker been present, he might
have been very much amused at the eager way we all rushed at it to
devour it. How good it seemed, even though there were scarcely two
mouthfuls for each one. What there was was received most
gratefully, and I felt very selfish at discovering that, in their
thoughtfulness for me, the officers had managed to save a small
basketful, which no one would touch, and which they insisted on
keeping for me. After the rice was disposed of, we questioned the
Manipuri we had captured to find out whether he knew anything of
Captain Cowley’s movements. He told us that he knew the Sahib
had arrived at Leimatak on the 25th, and that he had not yet passed
along the road towards Manipur. So we were cheered at the tidings,
for we knew now that, with any luck, we must meet with the
detachment before very long, and could not be more than eight miles
away from Captain Cowley at that moment.
The Manipuri went on to say that there were a number of the
enemy lying in wait for us about half a mile further on, and he
advised us to take to the jungle again, offering to show us a path that
would lead us into Captain Cowley’s camp. The idea of more fighting
struck terror into my heart, and had I been in command I should
have been foolish enough to take the man’s advice; but fortunately
the others decided without hesitation to go on, and said they did not
believe the prisoner was speaking the truth.
We had scarcely gone half a mile when we came suddenly upon a
stockade, and as soon as we appeared round the turn in the road
which disclosed it to our view, we were fired on from the hillside
above us. I threw myself down for protection against the sloping side
of the road, but was not allowed to remain there, as the stockade
was about to be rushed, and I had to get over it too, as best I could.
Fortunately it had been constructed to prevent Captain Cowley’s
party from getting past that point in the road, and was in
consequence easier for us to clamber over, as we had come from
the opposite direction; but I knew that it was useless for me to
attempt climbing over it, as my dress would be certain to catch on
the sharp ends of the bamboos with which the stockade was
constructed, and there I should be suspended, an excellent mark for
any stray bullet. So I made a rush to the other side of the road,
where I lost my footing and fell, rolling down the Khud. But luckily it
was not as steep as it might have been, and I managed to scramble
up and get round the stockade, helped very considerably by my
former friend the Bunnia, before mentioned, who stretched out his
leg from a secure position, and I clambered up by it and lay down
completely exhausted and panting from my exertions down the
hillside.
Meanwhile firing was going on overhead, which was returned by
our men, who killed one or two of the enemy. But the latter were so
well screened by the trees around them that it was difficult to get a
shot at them at all. I do not know how matters might have ended, but
suddenly someone called out that there were more men coming up
the hill. No one knew who they were, for they were a long way off,
and could only be seen every now and then as they appeared in and
out of the trees. Sepoys they were we knew, but were they friends or
enemies?
I felt too exhausted to get up and look at them, as all the others
were doing, until there was an exclamation from someone that the
new arrivals were Ghoorkas. I had felt certain that they would turn
out to be Manipuris, who would put an end to us in a very short time.
But when opinion became divided as to their identity, the longing for
life which we all possess so strongly surged up into my brain, driving
me nearly crazy with excitement, and hope, that takes so much
killing, rose again within me.
Still we were doubtful. We could see as they came nearer that
they wore Kharkee, but the uniform worn by the Jubraj’s men was
almost identical with that of the Ghoorkas. We sounded our bugle,
and it was answered by the advancing party; but then we
remembered the Manipuri bugle call was the same as that of the
43rd Ghoorka Rifles, to which regiment Captain Cowley belonged.
We got out our only pocket-handkerchief, tied it to a stick, and waved
it about, but we could not see whether that signal was returned or
not. The time which had elapsed since they were first sighted
seemed hours; it was in reality only a few minutes.
 Gradually they advanced nearer, running up the hill as fast as they
could, and then the majority cried out that they were the Ghoorkas
from Cachar. I shut my eyes, for I could not bear the strain of
watching them while their identity was uncertain. But at last a Sahib
was descried amongst them, and all doubt was over; they were the
Ghoorkas, and we were saved. I remember someone asking me if I
would make one last effort and run down the hill to meet them, as
the firing was still going on, and a stray bullet might even then find its
billet; and I remember getting up, with a mist in my eyes and a
surging in my head, and running as I have never run before or since
down the hill, helped along by two of the officers.
I remember putting my foot on a stone which rolled away from
under it, and gave my ankle a wrench which sprained it, and turned
me sick and giddy with pain; and I remember meeting Captain
Cowley, and seeing his men rushing past me up the hill, and then I
remember nothing more for some time. I did not faint, but I believe I
sat down on the side of the road and sobbed, for the strain had been
more than I could bear after all the horrors of the previous two days,
and tears were a relief.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
Saved—Captain Cowley pursues the enemy, and we fall on our feet—Have to
wear Sepoys’ boots—Halt at Leimatak—Transitions of climate—Manipuri
attack—Tables turned on them—Shortness of food—The Nagas—Cross the
Jhiri and regain the British frontier.

We were saved! That was the one thought in my mind when I was
able to recover my senses sufficiently to be able to think at all.
Saved from the terrors of starvation, and from the hands of our
enemies; and in my heart I thanked God for having given me the
strength which had enabled me to bear all the misery and weariness
of the last few days. We human beings are so given to forgetfulness,
and fail so often to remember that we owe thanks to Providence for
preserving us when man’s help is of no avail. We are ready enough
to thank our fellow-men for what they do for us, but we forget the
rest. This time I can honestly say that I thanked God from the bottom
of my heart.
As I sat there by the side of the road, bereft of everything I
possessed in the world save only the clothes I wore, I did not think of
what I had lost, but only of the life that was still mine. This world is
very good and pleasant to live in. Home and friends are very dear to
one at all times. But all these are never so precious as when we see
them slipping from our grasp, and feel that even our breath, and the
lifeblood coursing through our veins, are to be taken from us; then
alone do we fully rouse ourselves to action, while we struggle and
fight for the life that is so dear.
It was some time before I recovered my senses sufficiently to be
able to join with the rest in giving the rescuing party a detailed
account of our miraculous escape. Some of Captain Cowley’s men
were still pursuing the now-retreating foe, and we could hear shots
being fired from the brow of the hill above us. We remained where
we were for some time, and our rescuers produced biscuits and
potted meat and soda-water. They had whisky with them too, so we
really felt we had fallen on our feet. I was too exhausted to eat much,
and did not feel at all hungry; but I was glad enough to drink a peg,
[21] and felt very much better for it. My ankle was very painful, so the
doctor, who was among the newcomers, bound it up for me, and I
went to sleep by the roadside for a short time.
I have said we were saved, but that does not mean that we were
entirely out of danger of being fired upon by the Manipuris. They had
not spared Captain Cowley’s party, though they had allowed him to
march up to within twenty miles of us without making themselves
unpleasant. But the night before he met us he had marched as usual
into a new camping-ground, wholly ignorant of what had occurred in
Manipur, and to his great surprise had been fired on. Shortly
afterwards fugitives from our party arrived, and told him that we were
wandering about in the jungle with every chance of coming to grief
before very long, unless rescued. This news was startling, to say the
least of it, and caused him to hurry on to our help. When, some miles
away, he heard shots being fired from the top of the hill, he
concluded that we were not far off, and before long caught sight of
the stockade and arrived in the nick of time with men, food, and
ammunition to our aid.
The rest of our march was a different thing to what the
commencement had been, though discomforts were still many and
great. Food was none too plentiful for the Sepoys, though we did not
fare badly, and after two days of starvation one is not particular. The
43rd had got a supply of beer, whisky, and cocoa, which were all
most acceptable commodities, and I was able to get other luxuries
from one of the party, viz., a brush, a sponge, a grand pair of woollen
stockings, and some Sepoys’ boots, which each measured about a
foot and a half in length and were broad in proportion. However,
beggars can’t be choosers, and as my ankle was very much swollen
the commodious boots did not come amiss.
After we had rested some hours we pushed on down the hill to
Leimatak, which place was reached before sunset. I was carried in a
dooly, as my ankle was too painful to allow of my walking.
 When we arrived at the camp we found a string of elephants and
mules, which had been travelling up with the detachment, and which
had been left behind by Captain Cowley when he discovered the
state of affairs we were in, and had to hurry on to our help. It seemed
difficult to realize that we were still in a hostile country, surrounded
by enemies, for the camp looked just the same as it had done in
more peaceful regions.
I had travelled down from Shillong, in the winter of 1890, with the
43rd Ghoorka Rifles, and was consequently quite accustomed to the
bustle and movement accompanying a regiment on the march.
We halted at Leimatak for four or five hours, and had a very
respectable dinner, to which we did full justice. Afterwards I lay down
and went to sleep again, until it was time to move on.
From this time our march was very monotonous. We got up at
three every morning and marched until sunset. We had a meal of
army rations and cocoa in the morning, and another meal of army
rations and beer in the evening, after which we all went to sleep as
we were, and never woke until the bugle sounded the reveille.
We were always dead-tired. The hills were very steep, and as we
got nearer Cachar the heat was intense during the day, and the cold
piercing at night. We could only move very slowly, and with caution,
for we never knew when we might be attacked. Pickets were posted
all around us on the hills at night, for the purpose of keeping a look-
out against the enemy.
We were fired at several times during the march, but the Manipuris
did not like the look of a large party, and kept a respectful distance,
sometimes firing at us from such a long way off that we did not take
the trouble to reply to it. And yet I was more nervous and unstrung at
this time than I had been when the danger was really imminent, and
bullets coming fast. A stray shot used to make my heart beat with
terror, and at last I got so nervous that whenever a shot was fired my
companions used to say it was only a bamboo burning in the jungle
behind us.
 We set fire to nearly all the Thanas on the road, which we found
for the most part deserted and empty. At one place called Khowpum,
the Manipuris had only left the Thana a few minutes before our
arrival. They were lying in wait for us though, on the top of a small
ridge, hoping to catch us as we came round the turn of the road. But
they were caught themselves, as the Ghoorkas made a small detour
and appeared on the top of the ridge instead of below it, and opened
fire upon them, causing them to retreat hastily, after a very slight
show of resistance.
We then marched into the Thana, and found a quantity of rice in
baskets, which had evidently just arrived from the Maharajah’s
Godowns[22] for the monthly rations. We could not take the whole
amount with us, but the Sepoys were allowed to carry as much as
they could, and it was a lucky find. It was often very difficult to
procure food for the men, and they had more than once to go without
dinner when they got in at night, though as a rule they had half-
rations. We had managed to get a supply of rice from one of the
Naga villages situated near the road.
The Nagas were for the most part friendly disposed towards us,
but here and there they gathered together near their villages, which
they had deserted for the meanwhile, and had a stray shot at us as
we passed along. We never burned these villages, thinking they
might be useful to the troops when they should return.
I walked most of the way, except the first march after meeting
Captain Cowley. He had a pony which he lent me, but the hills were
very steep at the best of times for riding, and on this occasion I had
to balance myself as best I could on a man’s saddle, with the off
stirrup crossed over the pony’s neck to make some sort of pommel.
Riding thus downhill was an impossibility, and I never made the
attempt.
My ankle pained me very much at times, but for the most part it
seemed to have no feeling in it at all, and was swollen into an
unsightly mass.
We came across one or two poor old Manipuri women on the road
as we neared the frontier. They had been peaceably travelling up to