Device Physics Modeling Technology

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Iraj Sadegh Amiri · Hossein Mohammadi
Mahdiar Hosseinghadiry

Device Physics,
Modeling,
Technology, and
Analysis for Silicon
MESFET
Device Physics, Modeling, Technology,
and Analysis for Silicon MESFET
Iraj Sadegh Amiri • Hossein Mohammadi
Mahdiar Hosseinghadiry

Device Physics, Modeling,

Technology, and Analysis
for Silicon MESFET
Iraj Sadegh Amiri Hossein Mohammadi
Computational Optics Research Group Pasargad Higher Education Institute
Advanced Institute of Materials Science Shiraz, Iran
Ton Duc Thang University
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Faculty of Applied Sciences

Ton Duc Thang University
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Mahdiar Hosseinghadiry
Allseas Engineering
DELFT, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands

ISBN 978-3-030-04512-8 ISBN 978-3-030-04513-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04513-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964064

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Preface

In the recent years, silicon-on-insulator metal-semiconductor field effect transistor

(SOI MESFET) has attracted extensive attention due to its better mobility degrada-
tion, scalability, isolation between source-drain and substrate, immunity to hot
carrier effect (HCE), and radiation hardness. However, creative approaches are
needed to overcome the problems associated with downscaling. In this research,
two novel designs of SOI MESFET are presented to improve the channel mobility,
threshold voltage roll-off, immunity against short channel effects (SCE), and scal-
ability. In the first design, TMG SOI MESFET, three different metals with different
work functions are used as a singular gate metal. Due to this technique, two step
functions appear in the profile of potential which causes two potential drops in the
channel. Accordingly, the channel is screened from the variations of drain voltage to
get better carrier transport and more scalability. In addition, the location of minimum
potential moves toward the source and, in turn, protection against drain-induced
barrier lowering (DIBL) is found. In the second design, TG SOI MESFET, better
current control is gained by extending of gate metal to the side walls of the channel.
This provides higher current drive, more immunity against SCEs, and further
scalability. Analytical modeling and TCAD simulation for the classical SOI
MESFET and the two proposed designs have been developed. The profiles of
channel potential for the devices under study show the slope of bottom potential
(ΔΦ/Δx) to the drain side at the bias condition of VDS ¼ 0.5 V for TMG MESFET
and TG MESFET as 0.6 V/μm and 0.4 V/μm, respectively, which are much smaller
than for the classical MESFET with a slope of 1.3 V/μm. It implies that the proposed
devices can effectively reduce the electric field near the drain side and related short
channel effects. Moreover, from the profile of threshold voltage, the threshold
voltage roll-off in the classical device does not differ noticeably from that the
proposed designs for longer channel gates. However, for classical SOI MESFET,
the threshold voltage roll-off becomes considerable for channel lengths less than
250 nm. These similar values for TMG and TG MESFETs are 130 nm and 50 nm,
respectively. It indicates the further scalability of the proposed designs. Finally, for
the gate length of 100 nm, DIBL from the value of 300 mV/V, in the classical device,

v
vi Preface

reduces to the values of 70 and 30 mV/V for TMG and TG MESFET, respectively.
This indicates that using the proposed designs of SOI MESFET, better control of
DIBL is obtained.

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Iraj Sadegh Amiri

Shiraz, Iran Hossein Mohammadi
Delft, The Netherlands Mahdiar Hosseinghadiry
Contents

1 Invention and Evaluation of Transistors and Integrated

Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Research Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 The History of Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors . . 4
1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Objective of Research and Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Book Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation
of a Typical Silicon on Insulator Metal–Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor (SOI-MESFET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Basics of SOI-MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 CMOS Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Constant Field Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Constant Voltage Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Short-Channel Effects Associated with Device Scaling . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering and Punch-through . . . . . 16
2.3.2 Hot Carrier Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Impact Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.4 Channel Length Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.5 Surface Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.6 Velocity Saturation of Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Quantum Mechanical Effect [11] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Technical Solutions for Further Scaling of MOS Devices . . . . . . 20
2.6 Architecture-Based Non-classical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.1 Silicon-On-Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.2 Devices with Multiple Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

vii
viii Contents

2.7 Material-Based Non-CLASSICAL Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.7.1 High-k Metal Gate Stack MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7.2 Strained MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.3 Dual Material Gate (DMG) MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.8 Future Generation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.9 A Brief Review of the Previous Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9.1 The Related Works on MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.9.2 The Related Works on Silicon MESFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 Modeling of Classical SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Description of Device Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3 Definition of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 Calculation of Channel Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.2 Definition of Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.3 Definition of Subthreshold Current and Subthreshold
Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Design and Modeling of Triple-Material Gate SOI MESFET . . . . . . 59
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Description of the Device Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Potential Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.1 Mathematical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.3 Solution of Vi(y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.4 Solution of Ui(x, y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Definition of Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Three-Dimensional Analytical Model of the Non-Classical
Three-Gate SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Device Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Definition of Channel Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.1 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.2 1-D Poisson’s Equation for Ф1D(y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.3 2-D Laplace’s Equation for Ф2D(x,y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3.4 3-D Laplace’s Equation for Ф3D(x,y,z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4 Definition of the Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Definition of the Subthreshold Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Contents ix

6 Analytical Investigation of Subthreshold Performance

of SOI MESFET Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Analysis of Short-Channel SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2.1 Device Dimension and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.2.2 Analysis of the Channel Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.2.3 Analysis of Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.4 Analysis of DIBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.5 Analysis of Subthreshold Current and Subthreshold
Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Analysis of Triple-Material Gate SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3.1 Device Parameters and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3.2 Analysis of the Channel Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3.3 Analysis of Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.4 Analysis of Subthreshold Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4 Analysis of Three-Gate SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4.1 Analysis of the Channel Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4.2 Analysis of the Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7 Future Works on Silicon-on-Insulator Metal–Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors (SOI MESFETs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1.1 Fully Depleted Short-Channel SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.1.2 New Design Tri-Material Gate (TMG) SOI MESFET . . . . 114
7.1.3 New Design Three-Gate (TG) SOI MESFET . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2 Future Scope of the Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Appendix: The Work Functions of the Common Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 1
Invention and Evaluation of Transistors
and Integrated Circuits

1.1 Research Background

1.1.1 The History of Transistor

In the early years of the emergence of the electronics industry, electron tubes, or
vacuum tubes, were the basis of almost all electronic devices. Electron tube is an
electronic device that controls transmission of electrons between two metal elec-
trodes through the vacuum or gas within a gastight container made of glass or metal.
Electron tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons provided by a hot
filament or a cathode heated by the filament. The primary application of this device is
to amplify weak currents or operate as a one-way rectifier for electric current [1].
In 1925, the idea of controlling the current flow by a perpendicular electric field,
what today we know as metal–semiconductor FET (MESFET), was planned for the
first time by Lilienfeld in 1925. He recorded a patent on the invention of the transistor
in 1930 as a replacement for the electron tube, but he did not publish any paper
regarding this invention [2]. However, due to the technical problems, the MEFET
could not be successfully fabricated at that time and was ignored by the industry for
many years [3]. Nine years after Lilienfeld, Oskar Heil followed the Lilienfeld’s
research and recorded another patent for the field effect transistor [4]. Afterwards, it
has been demonstrated that Lilienfeld’s transistor gave better results and gain [5].
In 1938, Schottky made a theory that described the rectifying behavior of a
metal–semiconductor contact as dependent on a barrier layer at the surface of contact
between the two materials [6]. The metal–semiconductor diodes later made on the
basis of this theory are called Schottky barrier diodes.
In 1947, a research team at the Bell Laboratories including John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley observed that electric power gain is obtained when
an arrangement of springs and wires are connected to a small crystal of germanium
[7]. Using this observation, they made the first bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
This transistor was constituted from two gold wires which were very closely

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

I. S. Amiri et al., Device Physics, Modeling, Technology, and Analysis for Silicon
MESFET, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04513-5_1
2 1 Invention and Evaluation of Transistors and Integrated Circuits

Fig. 1.1 Replica of the first working transistor invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,
and William Shockley

connected to the top of germanium slice (as emitter and collector), and the third
connection (base) was made to the bottom of the semiconductor [8]. This transistor
could amplify an input power up to 40 times (Fig. 1.1).
In 1960, Atalla and Kahng made the first working silicon insulated-gate field effect
transistor, today known as MOSFET, which had been long expected by Lilienfeld
[9]. The device is principally constructed by a stack of three layers including silicon
semiconductor as a base material, thermally grown native oxide as an insulator, and
the metallic gate electrode as a controlling terminal. They used silicon crystals
because they found that oxidation process of silicon is more comfortable than
germanium. Since then, silicon had become the dominant semiconductor [10].
In 1966, Mead proposed the fabrication of metal–semiconductor field effect
transistor (MESFET) by using the Schottky theory which explained the rectification
between semiconductor and metal junction [11]. Eventually, Hooper and Lehrer
fabricated the first prototype of MESFET using an n-type gallium arsenide (GaAs)
epitaxial layer on semi-insulating GaAs substrate [12]. Figure 1.2 summarizes the
historical growth of the electronic devices from the introduction of vacuum tubes to
the beginning of the nanoscale era.

1.1.2 Integrated Circuits

The invention of solid-state devices, which replaced the electron tubes, was the
beginning of microelectronics industry. Since then, the industry has experienced
1.1 Research Background 3

Fig. 1.2 Historic transistor timeline from vacuum tubes to the beginning of nanoscale era. Source:
Morton and Gabriel 2007

phenomenal growth. In 1958, Jack Kilby1 proposed to make transistors and other
electronic components at the same time on a single semiconductor chip instead of
making them separately. This idea allowed the electronic components to be
fabricated by the same procedure with the same materials. In this process, the
resistors could be made from bulk semiconductor, and capacitors could be made
from the p–n junction. Kilby used a wafer of germanium and could build a flip-
flop with two transistors. This was the birth of integrated circuits [13]. Six months
later than Kilby, Robert Noyce2 came up with his idea for integrated circuits and
solved several practical difficulties related to Kilby’s circuit including the prob-
lem of interconnection between the components on the chip. This made the
integrated circuits more admissible for the mass production. The invention of
complementary MOS (CMOS) by Wanlass and Sah has caused the integrated
circuits (IC's) components increase to hundreds of millions [14]. Since then,
integrated circuits have gradually become more complex, and the number of the
components in a chip has begun to increase (Fig. 1.3).
In 1965, Gordon Moore3 described the progress of integrated circuits in a
prediction known as Moore’s law. Based on Moore’s law, the number of transis-
tors per square inch of an integrated chip would be double every 2 years [15].

1
Researcher of Texas Instruments.
2
Researcher of Fairchild Semiconductor company.
3
Co-founder of Intel.
4 1 Invention and Evaluation of Transistors and Integrated Circuits

Fig. 1.3 First IC made by

Jack Kilby at Texas
Instruments in 1958

The transistor geometry must be shrunk every 18–24 months with respect to
Moore’s law. This requires robust process technology and massive research
and development spending on semiconductor foundries. Over the past 50 years,
due to the rapid advances in photolithography techniques, tools and pattern
transfer processes, and equipment, VLSI technology has primarily followed the
Moore’s law. Figure 1.4 shows the level of integration over time for micropro-
cessors. The curve shows the transistor count doubling every 2 years, per Moore’s
law.
Fabrication of integrated circuits with more complexity, higher speed, and a
lower price has been followed on over the last decades to fulfill incessant demands
for enhanced device performance. In the primary 1980s, dimension of the smallest
feature size in IC exceeded the submicron, and in 2015 Intel announced its micro-
processor that used transistors with 14-nm technology. Today, a modern micropro-
cessor contains some billion transistors and a 256-gigabyte secure digital
(SD) memory card, with weight of less than a gram, comprises 1012 transistors,
supposing 2 bits stored in a transistor [16].

1.1.3 International Technology Roadmap

for Semiconductors

Scaling is denoted as the decline of device dimensions along with several parameters
by a given factor to achieve more electronic components per chip, lower power
consumption, and higher speed. For a long time, the scaling trend was only based on
1.1 Research Background 5

Fig. 1.4 Transistor count trend for microprocessors

lowering in feature size. The big challenge was that when the size of the transistors
was about ten nanometers, due to physical limitations, the conventional scaling of
MOS transistors reaches to the end of its roadmap, and the Moore’ law comes to a
standstill.
In the late 1980s, a group of semiconductor experts have teamed up to prepare a
set of documents to evaluate the technological challenges and roadblocks related to
the continuation of Moore’s law and indicate the possible solutions. Therefore, the
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) organization was
established. The first report of ITRS was issued in 1992. Since that time, the ITRS
has been publishing an annual report that avails as a criterion for semiconductor
engineers. These reports clarify the kind of technology, structure, material, design,
equipment, and metrology which have to be used to keep pace with the exponential
growth of integration predicted by Moore’s law.
Figure 1.5 displays the evolution of MOSFET gate length in production-stage
integrated circuits and International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
(ITRS) targets. As seen in the picture, the scaling of silicon MOSFET’s entered
into the nanometer territory around 2000. For the 0.13-μm technology node, the
industry incorporated ~70-nm gate length transistors on average [17].
6 1 Invention and Evaluation of Transistors and Integrated Circuits

Fig. 1.5 The curve of transistor gate length versus the calendar year

1.2 Problem Statement

Nowadays, high-speed, high-performance field effect transistors (FET’s) containing

junction FETs (JFETs), metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs), metal oxide semi-
conductor FETs (MOSFETs), and heterostructure FETs (HFETs) are the building
block of modern analog and digital integrated circuits. It is evident that the semi-
conductor industry owes its incredible growth to the continuous decrease in transis-
tor dimensions. Following the trend of downscaling into the nanometer kingdom
confronted with physical and thermal scaling wall. To overcome the problems
associated with scaling, innovations in the device structure and utilization of new
materials are needed. In this regard, various device engineering including gate
engineering, source/drain engineering, isolation engineering, and channel engineer-
ing have been recommended. Also, new devices with innovative architectures with
better electrostatic control over the channel such as silicon on insulator (SOI), ultra-
thin body, multiple-gate and nanowire devices are developed.
Since MOSFETs are the dominant and most popular transistors used in VLSI
chips, most of the innovative strategies have been done on these devices to enhance
their scalability and efficiency. In comparison to the MOSFETs, MESFETs show
better characteristics in terms of carrier mobility, radiation hardness, hot carrier
effects, punch through effects, and scalability [18]. Moreover, MESFETs can be
integrated with commercial silicon-on-insulator (SOI) or silicon-on-sapphire (SOS)
CMOS ICs without changing the fabrication process or mask layers [19]. Introducing
of complementary SOI MESFET, i.e., CMES gives the advantage of lower standby
power consumption [20]. Also, the CMES circuitries are immune to static electricity
1.3 Objective of Research and Scope of Work 7

and radiation effects, making it very ideal for applications in an ambience with a high
degree of radiation. Further, the speed of CMES is in the same range as for CMOS.
Moreover, due to the same construction of the main building blocks, any design
using CMOS could be converted to CMES [21].
Despite the mentioned excellences of SOI MESFETs, these devices couldn’t find
their mark in the VLSI territory and need more serious efforts to evaluate the
possibility of innovative configurations and materials on SOI MESFET devices.
This leads electronic systems to increased performance with higher processing speed
and lower cost. This research offers two new designs of SOI MESFETs with novelty
in structure and material to achieve ICs with higher packing density together with
high speed and low power dissipation suitable for military communication, satellites,
aerospace, and data storage.

1.3 Objective of Research and Scope of Work

When the dimensions of conventional MOS devices are reduced to nanometers, in

order to maintain the normal performance of the transistor, changes in the structure
of the device and the use of new material with better quality are needed. Modeling
provides the understanding of the performance and operation of semiconductor
devices, and simulation validates the developed model and extremely reduces the
fabrication costs and time to market. Since the advanced devices have a unique
physical structure, model developers need to investigate the structure of these
devices that may originally operate dissimilar to those presently used. The primary
challenge facing model developers is the exact formulation and effective mathemat-
ical implementation of physically based models which can explain the device
performance. This research focuses on the introduction, analysis, and modeling of
novel SOI MESFET designs which eliminate roadblocks for more device scaling.
The presented work contains development of new modeling methods, and also
TCAD simulation. The principal objectives of this book are:
• To present a brief overview about structure and operation of MESFETs.
• To review and investigate the related works on the modeling of MESFETs.
• To present a modified analytical model for single-gate SOI MESFET.
• To propose new MESFET design, triple-material gate SOI MESFET.
• To propose new MESFET design, three-gate SOI MESFET.
• To present analytical models for the proposed devices which can explain their
superiority including potential distribution, threshold voltage, subthreshold cur-
rent, and drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL).
• To use TCAD simulation to examine the accuracy of the analytical models.
• To study and discuss the performance of the innovative devices over the conven-
tional SOI MESFETs.
8 1 Invention and Evaluation of Transistors and Integrated Circuits

1.4 Book Organization

This book is organized into five chapters. This chapter covers a brief review of the
general configuration and outline of the book. First of all, the history of invention
and evaluation of transistors and integrated circuits are briefly presented. After that,
the concept of scaling, Moore’s law, and International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductor (ITRS) are explained. Finally, the research objectives, the scope of
the work, plan, and the outline of the book are expressed. Chapter 2 states the
physics and fundamental concepts related to different types of field effect transis-
tors. The necessities and various strategies related to scaling are explained. A
detailed description of the origin and impact of various short-channel effects
associated with downscaling and their influence on the normal operation of MOS
transistors are described. The different technical solutions presented to resolve the
problems caused by short-channel effects are discussed. Finally, the structures and
advantages of non-classical devices and their feasibility in the settling of the short-
channel effects are described. Chapter 3 focuses on analytical modeling of short-
channel single-gate SOI MESFETs. In the beginning, we review the existing models
presented for this device and explain the drawbacks related to each one. After that,
using a new technique for solving of Poisson’s equation in the conductive channel,
we develop a modified two-dimensional analytical model for the device which is
free of the problems associated with the previous models. By using the presented
model, the subthreshold behavior of the device is displayed and discussed. Also, the
impact of device parameters and bias conditions on the device performance is
investigated. In Chap. 4, a new non-classical MESFET design “triple-material
gate SOI MESFET” is introduced and expected to exhibit better short-channel
performance. Two-dimensional analytical model of the device is derived to describe
the performance of the device including surface potential, threshold voltage, and
subthreshold swing. In Chap. 5, the non-classical “Three-gate SOI MESFET” is
introduced and investigated by developing a three-dimensional analytical model for
surface potential and threshold voltage. The model is derived by solving the 3-D
Poisson’s equation in the channel of the device using appropriate boundary condi-
tions. Chapter 6 accumulates all the obtained results derived from the analytical
models in Chaps. 3–5. These results take into account the various device parameters
like dimensions of the channel, doping concentration, buried oxide thickness, and
applied biases. For all three devices, the profile of surface potential and threshold
voltage is plotted and discussed. The characteristics and excellence of the devices
under study are investigated and compared with the conventional SOI MESFET.
Also, the improvement in short-channel behavior of the presented devices is shown.
Lastly, the TCAD simulation for each device is accomplished. The accuracy of the
presented analytical models is verified by comparison with the numerical simulation
results obtained by device simulator ATLAS from Silvaco. Finally, in Chap. 7, the
conclusions of our research are summarized as well as some ideas for future
extensions of this study are given.
References 9

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2. J.E. Lilienfeld, Method and apparatus for controlling electric currents. Google Patents, 1930
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devices. British Patent 439, 1935, pp. 10–14
5. A. Facchetti, T. Marks, Transparent Electronics: From Synthesis to Applications (Wiley,
Chichester, 2010)
6. W. Schottky, Halbleitertheorie der sperrschicht. Naturwissenschaften 26, 843–843 (1938)
7. J.W. Orton, Semiconductors and the Information Revolution: Magic Crystals That Made IT
Happen (Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 2009)
8. J. Bardeen, W.H. Brattain, The transistor, a semi-conductor triode. Phys. Rev. 74, 230 (1947)
9. D. Kahng, M. Atalla, Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface devices, in IRE Solid-State
Device Research Conference, 1960
10. G. Hellings, K. De Meyer, High Mobility and Quantum Well Transistors (Springer, Berlin
Heidelberg, 2013)
11. C.A. Mead, Schottky barrier gate field effect transistor. Proc. IEEE 54, 307–308 (1966)
12. W. Hooper, W. Lehrer, An epitaxial GaAs field-effect transistor. Proc. IEEE 55, 1237–1238
(1967)
13. B. Lojek, History of Semiconductor Engineering (Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2007)
14. F. Wanlass, C. Sah, Nanowatt logic using field-effect metal-oxide semiconductor triodes, in
1963 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference. Digest of Technical Papers. IEEE,
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15. G. Moore, Cramming more components onto integrated circuits. Electron. Mag. 38, 82–85
(1965)
16. J.P. Colinge, J.C. Greer, Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One
Dimension (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2016)
17. S.E. Thompson, S. Parthasarathy, Moore’s law: the future of Si microelectronics. Mater. Today
9, 20–25 (2006)
18. C.H. Suh, Analytical model for deriving the threshold voltage of a short gate SOI MESFET with
vertically non-uniformly doped silicon film. IET Circ. Device Syst. 4, 525–530 (2010)
19. W. Lepkowski, M.R. Ghajar, S.J. Wilk, N. Summers, T.J. Thornton, P.S. Fechner, Scaling SOI
MESFETs to 150-nm CMOS technologies. IEEE Trans. Electron. Device 58, 1628–1634
(2011)
20. W. Lepkowski, S.J. Wilk, T.J. Thornton, Complementary SOI MESFETs at the 45-nm CMOS
node. IEEE Electron. Device Lett. 36, 14–16 (2015)
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Electron. Lett. 23, 205–206 (1987)
Chapter 2
General Overview of the Basic Structure
and Operation of a Typical Silicon
on Insulator Metal–Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor (SOI-MESFET)

2.1 Basics of SOI-MESFET

The term MESFET is taken from metal–semiconductor field effect transistor. As

shown in Fig. 2.1, ohmic contacts are used for source and drain terminals, but the
gate electrode is formed by a metal–semiconductor contact (Schottky contact). The
fabrication technology of Schottky barriers provides fabrication of MESFETs in tiny
dimensions with high accuracy. These devices are mostly made using silicon or III–
V group compounds like GaAs, InP, GaN, and SiC [1]. The absence of oxide layer in
the building of MESFET has caused no capacitance formed in the device.
Since the Fermi level of metal and semiconductor is different, a potential barrier is
formed to balance the Fermi levels of the junction when they are connected. The
Fermi level of a semiconductor is more than for the metal. Therefore, the excess n-
type carriers in the semiconductor will leave the bound positive charges behind,
shape the depletion region, and spillover into the metal. The potential barrier
between the gate and the conducting area above the depletion region plays the role
of insulator and separates the gate from the moving electrons in the conducting
channel. The conducting channel is shaped by the gate depletion area and the semi-
insulating substrate. Applying a potential to the drain causes electrons travel from
the source to the drain. Variation of the gate voltage changes the shape of the
depletion region and consequently the current flow.
Since the mobility of electrons is higher than holes, n-channel MESFETs are
mainly more popular than p-channel. However, both types of MESFETs are attrac-
tive because complementary technology, which is the leading technology for fabri-
cation of integrated circuits with the advantage of low-power dissipation, is based on
a combination of both n-channel and p-channel devices [2]. For proper operation of
MESFET, the appropriate biases of gate-source and gate-drain are needed. These
two biases vary the gate depletion width and electric field that, in turn, control the
channel current. Regarding the values of VGS and VDS, three operation modes of
triode, saturation, and pinch-off are available.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 11

I. S. Amiri et al., Device Physics, Modeling, Technology, and Analysis for Silicon
MESFET, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04513-5_2
12 2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation of a Typical. . .

Fig. 2.1 Schematic

illustration of n-channel
MESFET, showing its
difference with JFET in the
formation of gate capacitor

For n-channel MESFET, when the gate-source voltage is zero and drain-source
voltage is small, the depletion area below the Schottky gate is almost thin. In this
case, a low drain current, which linearly depends on voltage, flows in the channel.
Increasing of drain voltage accelerates the movement of electrons in the channel and
the drain current increases. The potential drop along the channel causes the electric
field below the gate, corresponding to the distance from the source, increases. In this
case, the voltage between source and drain varies from zero (at the source) to VDS
(at the drain). This event increases the reverse bias of the Schottky barrier as one
move between the source and drain. When VDS increases, the width of depletion
region becomes broader and, in turn, the width of conducting channel reduces.
Therefore, the channel resistance increases and the current decreases. This area of
device operation is known as linear or triode region (Fig. 2.2a). More increasing of
drain voltage induces more reverse bias of gate and channel toward the drain. Hence,
the width of depletion area becomes wider from drain to source. In a particular value
of drain voltage, the depletion area reaches the semi-insulating substrate. Here, the
source and drain are entirely separated or pinched-off by depletion area (Fig. 2.2b).
The current after this point is saturated and the drain voltage is named saturation
voltage. If drain voltage increases after the saturation, the pinch-off point moves
toward the source (Fig. 2.2c). As shown in Fig. 2.2d, a further negative value of gate
bias reduces the channel opening and also the drain current [3].
Figure 2.3 displayed the I–V curve of an n-type MESFET for different values of
VGS. As the design of MESFET is independent of the diffusion of dopant, the
channel can be fabricated thin enough so that the channel thickness is blocked by
Schottky barrier even without any bias applied to the gate. Therefore the MESFET
can be available either as a “normally-on” or “normally-off” device [4].
In normally-off MESFET, which is known as enhancement mode, the channel is
totally depleted by the gate built-in potential even at zero gate voltage. Therefore, no
channel exists between the source and drain at zero gate voltage. In this case, applying
a positive bias on the gate obtains the drain current in the channel. The threshold
voltage of normally-off device is positive [5]. In normally-on MESFET, which is
known as depletion mode, the channel naturally exists even without gate bias.
Applying a negative voltage to the gate causes the depletion width of Schottky barrier
extends into the semi-insulating substrate and limits the current between source and
2.2 CMOS Scaling 13

Fig. 2.2 Channel situations of MESFET at different biases (a) low drain voltage, (b) onset of
saturation, (c) beyond the saturation, and (d) high negative gate voltage

drain. The certain minimum voltage needed to reach threshold at cutoff is called
threshold voltage. Figure 2.4 compares the structure of normally-on and normally-off
MESFETs.

2.2 CMOS Scaling

The phenomenal progress in the integrated circuits technology is primarily due to the
growing demands for electronic devices with higher performance and more func-
tionality at a reduced cost. The design of very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits
needs that the packing density of electronic components increases as much as
possible. To achieve this goal, the size of electronic components must shrink.
Scaling of MOS devices is defined as the systematic shrinking of total dimensions
of the electronic components as the existing technology allows. Scaling is advanta-
geous due to raising the number of dies in a wafer, to improve the speed of the circuit
14 2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation of a Typical. . .

Fig. 2.3 Current–voltage characteristics of an n-type MESFET with VGS ¼ 0 (top curve), 1 V,
1.5 V, and 2 V

Fig. 2.4 Different modes of MESFET (a) normally-off, (b) normally-on

and the dynamic power consumption [6]. In the scaling, the geometric ratios of larger
devices must be preserved. Therefore, all components of the integrated circuit must
be shrunk by the same. Currently, two strategies of scaling are available: constant
field scaling (full scaling) and constant voltage scaling.
2.2 CMOS Scaling 15

2.2.1 Constant Field Scaling

In this mode of scaling, the geometry dimensions of the device are scaled down by
the factor of S, but the magnitude of internal electric fields remains constant. To
achieve this object, all potentials must scale down proportionally, by the same
scaling factor. Likewise, the gate capacitance is also scaled due to the reduction of
device geometry. But some parameters like thermal voltage and energy band gap do
not be scaled. Therefore, built-in potential and surface potential, which depends on
energy gap, cannot be scaled too. Accordingly, depletion width does not scale as
much as other parameters which result in degraded secondary effects. Also, the
threshold voltage cannot be easily scaled. However, constant field scaling offers a
proper framework for device scaling with keeping the reliability of the device [7].

2.2.2 Constant Voltage Scaling

The scaling of the power supply by the same factor as the device dimension is not
always feasible. Thus, constant voltage scaling is commonly desired. In this mode of
scaling, all dimensions of the MOSFET are reduced by a factor of S, similar to full
scaling, but the power supply voltage and all terminal voltages remain constant. To
keep the charge–field relations, we need to multiply the doping densities by a factor
of S2. Table 2.1 compares the scaling factors of the two scaling modes for all major
dimensions, potentials, and doping densities [8].

Table 2.1 Impact of scaling on MOS device characteristics

Quantity Before scaling Constant field Constant voltage
0 0
Channel length L L ¼ L/S L ¼ L/S
0 0
Channel width W W ¼ W/S W ¼ W/S
0 0
Gate oxide thickness tox t ox ¼ t ox =S t ox ¼ t ox =S
Oxide capacitance Cox C 0ox ¼ S  C ox C 0ox ¼ S  C ox
Junction depth xj x0j ¼ x j =S x0j ¼ x j =S
Power supply voltage VDD V 0DD ¼ V DD =S VDD
Threshold voltage Vth V 0th ¼ V th =S Vth



Substrate doping NA,ND N 0A N 0D ¼ S  N A ðN D Þ N 0A N 0D ¼ S2  N A ðN D Þ
Drain current ID I 0D ¼ I D =S I 0D ¼ S  I D
0 0
Power dissipation P P ¼ P/S2 P ¼SP
0 0 0 0
Area WL W L ¼ WL/S2 W L ¼ WL/S2
16 2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation of a Typical. . .

2.3 Short-Channel Effects Associated with Device Scaling

A FET is defined as a short channel when the channel length is scaled down to
become comparable to drain depth and source depth. The proximity between the
source and the drain helps a better control of the channel area which can be affected
by electric field lines of the source and drain. So some unwanted effects arise which
disturb the normal operation of the device. These effects are famous as short-channel
effects (SCEs) have several damaging effects on device performance. Some signif-
icant short-channel effects are drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL), hot carrier
effects (HCE), impact ionization, channel length modulation, surface scattering, and
velocity saturation of carriers.

2.3.1 Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering and Punch-through

Drain-induced barrier lowering or DIBL is referred to the decrease of the threshold

voltage at higher drain voltages. The movement of carriers in the channel is related to
the condition of the inversion layer. When the gate bias is not sufficient, the mobile
carriers (electrons) in the channel meet a potential barrier which stops them from
flowing. Increasing of the gate voltage reduces this potential barrier and allows the
carriers to flow under the impact of the channel electric field. The carrier transporta-
tion can be performed perfectly if the barrier height depends only on the gate voltage.
In short-channel MOSFETs, the potential barrier is a function of both the gate
voltage (VGS) and the drain voltage (VDS). When a larger drain voltage is applied, the
depletion region of drain encroaches the area under gate and barrier lowering of
electrons in channel occurs. DIBL provides the movement of electrons between the
source and the drain, even if the gate to source voltage is less than the threshold
voltage [9]. The DIBL phenomenon is often accompanied by punch-though. Punch-
through occurs when the depletion layers around the drain and source regions join
together and form a single depletion area as shown in Fig. 2.5.
In this case, the field below the gate strongly depends on the drain to source
voltage so that the gate voltage cannot control the current flow between source and

Fig. 2.5 Representation of

punch-through in short-
channel MOSFET
2.3 Short-Channel Effects Associated with Device Scaling 17

drain. Punch-through causes the current rapidly increases with increasing of drain
voltage. This effect increases the output conductance and limits the maximum
operating voltage of the device.

2.3.2 Hot Carrier Effect

One of the various short-channel effects in CMOS scaling is hot carrier effect (HCE)
or hot electron effects (HEE) which referred to the device degradation caused by hot
carrier injection. The term “hot carriers” is devoted to the carriers (electrons for
n-channel devices) that gain sufficient kinetic energy when they accelerate under a
high electric field. When the device dimension shrinks regardless of the power
supply, the electric field in the device increases. This high electric field causes the
carriers gain high enough kinetic energy to leave their place and tunnel in the oxide
layer as shown in Fig. 2.6. These hot carriers, which are trapped in the oxide layer,
will change the threshold voltage and permanently disturb the normal operation of
the MOSFET.

2.3.3 Impact Ionization

Impact ionization is another undesirable effect related to short-channel devices. The

presence of a high longitudinal field, in short-channel devices, causes electrons
accelerate toward the drain area. These hot electrons can impact silicon atoms and
therefore generate electron-hole pairs by ionization. This phenomenon is continued
by the generation of new electron-hole pairs due to impact ionization as shown in
Fig. 2.7. Most of the generated electrons travel to drain and give an increase in the
drain current which, in turn, decreases the output impedance of the transistor. The
generated holes travel toward the substrate and form a parasitic substrate current
which can bring some undesirable effects like noise and latch-up.

Fig. 2.6 Hot carrier

manages to enter and gets
trapped in the oxide layer
18 2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation of a Typical. . .

Fig. 2.7 Impact ionization

in MOSFET

Moreover, further generation of electron-hole pairs can increase drain current

abruptly so that the breakdown happens. The substrate current can also effect on the
adjacent devices on the chip.

2.3.4 Channel Length Modulation

Channel length modulation (CLM) is referred to shortening of the length of the

inverted channel with an increase in drain bias for high drain biases when the
MOSFET is in saturation. When the channel pinches off at the drain and the drain
voltage increases to exceed VD(sat), the pinch-off point starts to move from the drain
toward the source. Accordingly, the inverted channel length shortens, and the length
of inversion layer continuously decreases with more increasing of drain bias. The
MOSFET under this condition operates as if its channel length L was shortened by
ΔL, so that drain current becomes larger than its value at the onset of saturation when
ΔL was zero. Thus, in the saturation mode, the channel region splits into two
different regions: one on the source side where the GCA is valid, and a second on
the drain side where the GCA is violated. If the channel of the device is long enough,
the length of the pinch-off area is negligible. But if the device channel is short, as
shown in Fig. 2.8, the extension of the non-inverted region toward the source causes
the pinch-off area occupies a considerable part of the channel length. The decline of
channel length results in increases of current with drain bias and reduction of output
resistance in the saturation region. The CLM effect more happens in the devices with
a low-doped substrate [10].

2.3.5 Surface Scattering

In operation of MOS devices, the electric field of the gate causes the carriers, which
are traveling along the channel, are absorbed to the surface. These carriers are limited
2.3 Short-Channel Effects Associated with Device Scaling 19

Fig. 2.8 Channel length

modulation effect

Fig. 2.9 Zigzag movement

of carriers affected by gate
electric field

in a small thickness near the interface of silicon oxide. Consequently, they crash and
bounce against the surface during their movement. This phenomenon causes the
carriers follow a zigzagging path which is depicted in Fig. 2.9.
Surface scattering efficiently degrades the surface mobility of the carriers. In
short-channel devices, the lateral electric field created by drain voltage is stronger.
As a result, surface scattering becomes heavier, reducing the efficient mobility in
comparison with long channel devices.

2.3.6 Velocity Saturation of Carriers

This phenomenon, which is one of the significant SCEs, has a damaging influence on
device performance by degrading the movement of carriers in the device. In the long
channel MOSFETs, the increase of drain voltage increases the corresponding drain
current. When the drain voltage reaches the pinch-off point, the drain current
becomes saturated. But in short-channel devices, the electric field across the channel
is very high so that the velocity of carrier becomes saturated at lower drain voltages.
In this case, the carrier velocity won’t rise by more increasing of the applied electric
field.
20 2 General Overview of the Basic Structure and Operation of a Typical. . .

2.4 Quantum Mechanical Effect [11]

Since the first integrated circuit is invented, the technology progress mostly has
focused on three issues: improved functionality, higher performance, and decreased
cost. For many years, the conventional bulk MOSFETs were assumed as the only
available devices to follow the technology progress. During this period, the archi-
tecture and operation principle of scaled MOS devices have fundamentally not been
changed. The continuous shrinking of physical dimensions has carried improved
performance and lower cost.

2.5 Technical Solutions for Further Scaling of MOS Devices

In the year 2000, the downscaling trend of silicon MOSFETs encroached into the
submicron territory when the gate length had been reduced to about 100 nm. Hence,
the device performance faced several challenges like short-channel effects (SCEs)
and the junction leakage current which make challenging to preserve the power
consumption at a satisfying level. In this condition, the following of Moore’s law
with classical MOS devices became impossible. Therefore, unconventional devices
are considered as a candidate to overcome scaling related difficulties to continue the
scaling trend in the submicron region.
Regarding international technology roadmap for semiconductor (ITRS), the
non-classical MOS devices are categorized in five groups of transport-enhanced
FETs, UTB-SOI FETs, source/drain engineered, gate engineered, and multiple gate
transistors [12]. Transport-enhanced FETs include the devices that their current drive
is increased by improving the average mobility of carriers in the channel. It is
achieved by using new channel material like germanium, silicon-germanium, or
III–V compound semiconductors which have higher carrier mobility than silicon.
The UTB SOI FETs contain a very thin fully depleted body (tsi  10 nm) to provide
better electrostatic control of the channel by the gate. Source and drain engineering
techniques are used to maintain the resistance of the source and drain to a suitable
fraction of the channel resistance (about 10%). Two methods are used to address this
matter. The first is replacing of heavily doped source and drain areas by silicide to
form Schottky contacts which minimize the parasitic series resistance [13]. Second is
the degrading of fringing/overlap gate. Since the device dimensions are scaled down,
the current drivability of device is suffered from the detrimental impact of the
parasitic capacitance between the gate and source/drain areas. This event is due to
the overlap between the source/drain to the gate which increases the gate overlap
capacitances. In the non-overlapped gate structure, the gate electrode is fabricated so
that no overlap occurs with source and drain which results diminishing of the
parasitic fringing/overlap capacitance [14]. The gate engineering method such as
the dual metal gate (DMG) structure uses two different materials with different
work-functions merged laterally together as a single gate. Due to this configuration,
2.6 Architecture-Based Non-classical Devices 21

the electron velocity and electric field along the channel abruptly rise near the
interface of two gate materials, causing improved gate transport efficiency. Multiple
gate transistors are non-classical structures which have been proposed to perform the
electrostatic integrity.

2.6 Architecture-Based Non-classical Devices

In the recent years, according to technical solutions, various types of non-classical

devices including silicon-on-insulator (SOI) devices, double-gate (DG) MOSFETs,
triple-gate (TG) MOSFETs, quadruple-gate (QG) MOSFETs, strained MOSFETs,
and dual material gate (DMG) MOSFET’s have been invented.

2.6.1 Silicon-On-Insulator

Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology is one of the solutions to continue the scaling

trend of electronic devices which has became practical in early 1990 by IBM in 1998
[15] and it was introduced at around 45 nm technology node mass production [16].
Devices with SOI substrate offer a higher performance such as better channel
mobility and diminished short-channel effects over bulk devices [17]. The substrate,
material, and fabrication process of SOI devices are same as bulk devices, but the
fundamental difference is that the source, drain, and body of SOI devices are placed
on an insulating oxide layer unlike the bulk MOSFETs that the silicon channel is
directly placed on the substrate. The cross-section view of a basic n-MOS on bulk
and SOI devices is shown and compared in Fig. 2.10. The SOI configuration consists
of a thin layer of silicon over an insulator which is called “buried oxideor BOX.”
The thickness of the silicon film is typically between 50 and 200 nm, while the
buried oxide thickness usually ranges between 80 and 400 nm. The insulating layer
is created by flowing oxygen onto a plain silicon wafer and then heating the wafer for
oxidizing the silicon, thereby forming a uniform buried layer of silicon dioxide. The
transistor is enclosed by SiO2 on all sides.
SOI technique brings many advantages over bulk MOSFETs in aspects of the
device and circuit performance. First of all, it enhances device performance by
diminishing parasitic capacitances due to isolating of the junction from bulk silicon
which, in turn, reduces the delays in CMOS digital circuits. In other words, using
SOI technology increases the speed of digital integrated circuits. Moreover, due to
the decreasing of leakage current through the buried oxide layer (BOX), the power
delay of CMOS integrated circuits immensely reduces. In summary, SOI offers high-
speed and low-power advantages. In the device feature, since the channel is isolated
from the substrate, the SOI devices exhibit excellent latch-up immunity [18]. Fur-
thermore, a finite number of electric field lines can propagate into the silicon film and
the channel area. This event efficiently degrades the short-channel effects. Also, the
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for fear to make an enemy. But, on the other hand, it was
complained that he was bitter and harsh, that his zeal burned with
too hot a flame. It is so difficult, in evil times, to escape this charge!
for the faithful preacher most of all. It was his merit, like Luther, Knox
and Latimer, and John Baptist, to speak tart truth, when that was
peremptory and when there were few to say it. But his sympathy for
goodness was not less energetic. One fault he had, he
overestimated his friends,—I may well say it,—and sometimes vexed
them with the importunity of his good opinion, whilst they knew better
the ebb which follows unfounded praise. He was capable, it must be
said, of the most unmeasured eulogies on those he esteemed,
especially if he had any jealousy that they did not stand with the
Boston public as highly as they ought. His commanding merit as a
reformer is this, that he insisted beyond all men in pulpits—I cannot
think of one rival—that the essence of Christianity is its practical
morals; it is there for use, or it is nothing; and if you combine it with
sharp trading, or with ordinary city ambitions to gloze over municipal
corruptions, or private intemperance, or successful fraud, or immoral
politics, or unjust wars, or the cheating of Indians, or the robbery of
frontier nations, or leaving your principles at home to follow on the
high seas or in Europe a supple complaisance to tyrants,—it is a
hypocrisy, and the truth is not in you; and no love of religious music
or of dreams of Swedenborg, or praise of John Wesley, or of Jeremy
Taylor, can save you from the Satan which you are.
His ministry fell on a political crisis also; on the years when
Southern slavery broke over its old banks, made new and vast
pretensions, and wrung from the weakness or treachery of Northern
people fatal concessions in the Fugitive Slave Bill and the repeal of
the Missouri Compromise. Two days, bitter in the memory of Boston,
the days of the rendition of Sims and of Burns, made the occasion of
his most remarkable discourses. He kept nothing back. In terrible
earnest he denounced the public crime, and meted out to every
official, high and low, his due portion.[159] By the incessant power of
his statement, he made and held a party. It was his great service to
freedom. He took away the reproach of silent consent that would
otherwise have lain against the indignant minority, by uttering in the
hour and place wherein these outrages were done, the stern protest.
But whilst I praise this frank speaker, I have no wish to accuse the
silence of others. There are men of good powers who have so much
sympathy that they must be silent when they are not in sympathy. If
you don’t agree with them, they know they only injure the truth by
speaking. Their faculties will not play them true, and they do not wish
to squeak and gibber, and so they shut their mouths. I can readily
forgive this, only not the other, the false tongue which makes the
worse appear the better cause. There were, of course, multitudes to
censure and defame this truth-speaker. But the brave know the
brave. Fops, whether in hotels or churches, will utter the fop’s
opinion, and faintly hope for the salvation of his soul; but his manly
enemies, who despised the fops, honored him; and it is well known
that his great hospitable heart was the sanctuary to which every soul
conscious of an earnest opinion came for sympathy—alike the brave
slave-holder and the brave slave-rescuer. These met in the house of
this honest man—for every sound heart loves a responsible person,
one who does not in generous company say generous things, and in
mean company base things, but says one thing, now cheerfully, now
indignantly, but always because he must, and because he sees that,
whether he speak or refrain from speech, this is said over him; and
history, nature and all souls testify to the same.
Ah, my brave brother! it seems as if, in a frivolous age, our loss
were immense, and your place cannot be supplied. But you will
already be consoled in the transfer of your genius, knowing well that
the nature of the world will affirm to all men, in all times, that which
for twenty-five years you valiantly spoke; that the winds of Italy
murmur the same truth over your grave; the winds of America over
these bereaved streets; that the sea which bore your mourners
home affirms it, the stars in their courses, and the inspirations of
youth; whilst the polished and pleasant traitors to human rights, with
perverted learning and disgraced graces, rot and are forgotten with
their double tongue saying all that is sordid for the corruption of man.
The sudden and singular eminence of Mr. Parker, the importance
of his name and influence, are the verdict of his country to his
virtues. We have few such men to lose; amiable and blameless at
home, feared abroad as the standard-bearer of liberty, taking all the
duties he could grasp, and more, refusing to spare himself, he has
gone down in early glory to his grave, to be a living and enlarging
power, wherever learning, wit, honest valor and independence are
honored.[160]
 XIII
AMERICAN CIVILIZATION

To the mizzen, the main, and the fore

Up with it once more!—
The old tri-color,
The ribbon of power,
The white, blue and red which the nations adore!
It was down at half-mast
For a grief—that is past!
To the emblem of glory no sorrow can last!

AMERICAN CIVILIZATION
Use, labor of each for all, is the health and virtue of all beings. Ich
dien, I serve, is a truly royal motto. And it is the mark of nobleness to
volunteer the lowest service, the greatest spirit only attaining to
humility. Nay, God is God because he is the servant of all. Well, now
here comes this conspiracy of slavery,—they call it an institution, I
call it a destitution,—this stealing of men and setting them to work,
stealing their labor, and the thief sitting idle himself; and for two or
three ages it has lasted, and has yielded a certain quantity of rice,
cotton and sugar. And, standing on this doleful experience, these
people have endeavored to reverse the natural sentiments of
mankind, and to pronounce labor disgraceful, and the well-being of a
man to consist in eating the fruit of other men’s labor. Labor: a man
coins himself into his labor; turns his day, his strength, his thought,
his affection into some product which remains as the visible sign of
his power; and to protect that, to secure that to him, to secure his
past self to his future self, is the object of all government. There is no
interest in any country so imperative as that of labor; it covers all,
and constitutions and governments exist for that,—to protect and
insure it to the laborer. All honest men are daily striving to earn their
bread by their industry. And who is this who tosses his empty head
at this blessing in disguise, the constitution of human nature, and
calls labor vile, and insults the faithful workman at his daily toil? I see
for such madness no hellebore,—for such calamity no solution but
servile war and the Africanization of the country that permits it.
At this moment in America the aspects of political society absorb
attention. In every house, from Canada to the Gulf, the children ask
the serious father,—“What is the news of the war to-day, and when
will there be better times?” The boys have no new clothes, no gifts,
no journeys; the girls must go without new bonnets; boys and girls
find their education, this year, less liberal and complete.[161] All the
little hopes that heretofore made the year pleasant are deferred. The
state of the country fills us with anxiety and stern duties. We have
attempted to hold together two states of civilization: a higher state,
where labor and the tenure of land and the right of suffrage are
democratical; and a lower state, in which the old military tenure of
prisoners or slaves, and of power and land in a few hands, makes an
oligarchy: we have attempted to hold these two states of society
under one law. But the rude and early state of society does not work
well with the later, nay, works badly, and has poisoned politics, public
morals and social intercourse in the Republic, now for many years.
The times put this question, Why cannot the best civilization be
extended over the whole country, since the disorder of the less-
civilized portion menaces the existence of the country? Is this
secular progress we have described, this evolution of man to the
highest powers, only to give him sensibility, and not to bring duties
with it? Is he not to make his knowledge practical? to stand and to
withstand? Is not civilization heroic also? Is it not for action? has it
not a will? “There are periods,” said Niebuhr, “when something much
better than happiness and security of life is attainable.” We live in a
new and exceptionable age. America is another word for
Opportunity. Our whole history appears like a last effort of the Divine
Providence in behalf of the human race; and a literal, slavish
following of precedents, as by a justice of the peace, is not for those
who at this hour lead the destinies of this people. The evil you
contend with has taken alarming proportions, and you still content
yourself with parrying the blows it aims, but, as if enchanted, abstain
from striking at the cause.[162]
If the American people hesitate, it is not for want of warning or
advices. The telegraph has been swift enough to announce our
disasters. The journals have not suppressed the extent of the
calamity. Neither was there any want of argument or of experience. If
the war brought any surprise to the North, it was not the fault of
sentinels on the watch-tower, who had furnished full details of the
designs, the muster and the means of the enemy. Neither was
anything concealed of the theory or practice of slavery. To what
purpose make more big books of these statistics? There are already
mountains of facts, if any one wants them. But people do not want
them. They bring their opinion into the world. If they have a
comatose tendency in the brain, they are pro-slavery while they live;
if of a nervous sanguineous temperament, they are abolitionists.
Then interests were never persuaded. Can you convince the shoe
interest, or the iron interest, or the cotton interest, by reading
passages from Milton or Montesquieu? You wish to satisfy people
that slavery is bad economy. Why, the Edinburgh Review pounded
on that string, and made out its case, forty years ago. A democratic
statesman said to me, long since, that, if he owned the state of
Kentucky, he would manumit all the slaves, and be a gainer by the
transaction. Is this new? No, everybody knows it. As a general
economy it is admitted. But there is no one owner of the state, but a
good many small owners. One man owns land and slaves; another
owns slaves only. Here is a woman who has no other property,—like
a lady in Charleston I knew of, who owned fifteen sweeps and rode
in her carriage. It is clearly a vast inconvenience to each of these to
make any change, and they are fretful and talkative, and all their
friends are; and those less interested are inert, and, from want of
thought, averse to innovation. It is like free trade, certainly the
interest of nations, but by no means the interest of certain towns and
districts, which tariff feeds fat; and the eager interest of the few
overpowers the apathetic general conviction of the many. Banknotes
rob the public, but are such a daily convenience that we silence our
scruples and make believe they are gold. So imposts are the cheap
and right taxation; but, by the dislike of people to pay out a direct tax,
governments are forced to render life costly by making them pay
twice as much, hidden in the price of tea and sugar.
In this national crisis, it is not argument that we want, but that rare
courage which dares commit itself to a principle, believing that
Nature is its ally, and will create the instruments it requires, and more
than make good any petty and injurious profit which it may disturb.
There never was such a combination as this of ours, and the rules to
meet it are not set down in any history. We want men of original
perception and original action, who can open their eyes wider than to
a nationality, namely, to considerations of benefit to the human race,
can act in the interest of civilization. Government must not be a
parish clerk, a justice of the peace. It has, of necessity, in any crisis
of the state, the absolute powers of a dictator. The existing
administration is entitled to the utmost candor. It is to be thanked for
its angelic virtue, compared with any executive experiences with
which we have been familiar. But the times will not allow us to
indulge in compliment. I wish I saw in the people that inspiration
which, if government would not obey the same, would leave the
government behind and create on the moment the means and
executors it wanted. Better the war should more dangerously
threaten us,—should threaten fracture in what is still whole, and
punish us with burned capitals and slaughtered regiments, and so
exasperate the people to energy, exasperate our nationality. There
are Scriptures written invisibly on men’s hearts, whose letters do not
come out until they are enraged. They can be read by war-fires, and
by eyes in the last peril.
We cannot but remember that there have been days in American
history, when, if the free states had done their duty, slavery had been
blocked by an immovable barrier, and our recent calamities forever
precluded. The free states yielded, and every compromise was
surrender and invited new demands. Here again is a new occasion
which heaven offers to sense and virtue. It looks as if we held the
fate of the fairest possession of mankind in our hands, to be saved
by our firmness or to be lost by hesitation.
The one power that has legs long enough and strong enough to
wade across the Potomac offers itself at this hour; the one strong
enough to bring all the civility up to the height of that which is best,
prays now at the door of Congress for leave to move. Emancipation
is the demand of civilization. That is a principle; everything else is an
intrigue. This is a progressive policy, puts the whole people in
healthy, productive, amiable position, puts every man in the South in
just and natural relations with every man in the North, laborer with
laborer.
I shall not attempt to unfold the details of the project of
emancipation. It has been stated with great ability by several of its
leading advocates. I will only advert to some leading points of the
argument, at the risk of repeating the reasons of others. The war is
welcome to the Southerner; a chivalrous sport to him, like hunting,
and suits his semi-civilized condition. On the climbing scale of
progress, he is just up to war, and has never appeared to such
advantage as in the last twelvemonth. It does not suit us. We are
advanced some ages on the war-state,—to trade, art and general
cultivation. His laborer works for him at home, so that he loses no
labor by the war. All our soldiers are laborers; so that the South, with
its inferior numbers, is almost on a footing in effective war-population
with the North. Again, as long as we fight without any affirmative step
taken by the government, any word intimating forfeiture in the rebel
states of their old privileges under the law, they and we fight on the
same side, for slavery. Again, if we conquer the enemy,—what then?
We shall still have to keep him under, and it will cost as much to hold
him down as it did to get him down. Then comes the summer, and
the fever will drive the soldiers home; next winter we must begin at
the beginning, and conquer him over again. What use then to take a
fort, or a privateer, or get possession of an inlet, or to capture a
regiment of rebels?
But one weapon we hold which is sure. Congress can, by edict, as
a part of the military defence which it is the duty of Congress to
provide, abolish slavery, and pay for such slaves as we ought to pay
for. Then the slaves near our armies will come to us; those in the
interior will know in a week what their rights are, and will, where
opportunity offers, prepare to take them. Instantly, the armies that
now confront you must run home to protect their estates, and must
stay there, and your enemies will disappear.
There can be no safety until this step is taken. We fancy that the
endless debate, emphasized by the crime and by the cannons of this
war, has brought the free states to some conviction that it can never
go well with us whilst this mischief of slavery remains in our politics,
and that by concert or by might we must put an end to it. But we
have too much experience of the futility of an easy reliance on the
momentary good dispositions of the public. There does exist,
perhaps, a popular will that the Union shall not be broken,—that our
trade, and therefore our laws, must have the whole breadth of the
continent, and from Canada to the Gulf. But since this is the rooted
belief and will of the people, so much the more are they in danger,
when impatient of defeats, or impatient of taxes, to go with a rush for
some peace; and what kind of peace shall at that moment be easiest
attained, they will make concessions for it,—will give up the slaves,
and the whole torment of the past half-century will come back to be
endured anew.
Neither do I doubt, if such a composition should take place, that
the Southerners will come back quietly and politely, leaving their
haughty dictation. It will be an era of good feelings. There will be a
lull after so loud a storm; and, no doubt, there will be discreet men
from that section who will earnestly strive to inaugurate more
moderate and fair administration of the government, and the North
will for a time have its full share and more, in place and counsel. But
this will not last;—not for want of sincere good will in sensible
Southerners, but because Slavery will again speak through them its
harsh necessity. It cannot live but by injustice, and it will be unjust
and violent to the end of the world.[163]
The power of Emancipation is this, that it alters the atomic social
constitution of the Southern people. Now, their interest is in keeping
out white labor; then, when they must pay wages, their interest will
be to let it in, to get the best labor, and, if they fear their blacks, to
invite Irish, German and American laborers. Thus, whilst Slavery
makes and keeps disunion, Emancipation removes the whole
objection to union. Emancipation at one stroke elevates the poor-
white of the South, and identifies his interest with that of the Northern
laborer.
Now, in the name of all that is simple and generous, why should
not this great right be done? Why should not America be capable of
a second stroke for the well-being of the human race, as eighty or
ninety years ago she was for the first,—of an affirmative step in the
interests of human civility, urged on her, too, not by any romance of
sentiment, but by her own extreme perils? It is very certain that the
statesman who shall break through the cobwebs of doubt, fear and
petty cavil that lie in the way, will be greeted by the unanimous
thanks of mankind. Men reconcile themselves very fast to a bold and
good measure when once it is taken, though they condemned it in
advance. A week before the two captive commissioners were
surrendered to England, every one thought it could not be done: it
would divide the North. It was done, and in two days all agreed it
was the right action.[164] And this action, which costs so little (the
parties injured by it being such a handful that they can very easily be
indemnified), rids the world, at one stroke, of this degrading
nuisance, the cause of war and ruin to nations. This measure at
once puts all parties right. This is borrowing, as I said, the
omnipotence of a principle. What is so foolish as the terror lest the
blacks should be made furious by freedom and wages? It is denying
these that is the outrage, and makes the danger from the blacks. But
justice satisfies everybody,—white man, red man, yellow man and
black man. All like wages, and the appetite grows by feeding.
But this measure, to be effectual, must come speedily. The
weapon is slipping out of our hands. “Time,” say the Indian
Scriptures, “drinketh up the essence of every great and noble action
which ought to be performed, and which is delayed in the
execution.”[165]
 I hope it is not a fatal objection to this policy that it is simple and
beneficent thoroughly, which is the tribute of a moral action. An
unprecedented material prosperity has not tended to make us Stoics
or Christians. But the laws by which the universe is organized
reappear at every point, and will rule it. The end of all political
struggle is to establish morality as the basis of all legislation. It is not
free institutions, it is not a republic, it is not a democracy, that is the
end,—no, but only the means. Morality is the object of government.
[166] We want a state of things in which crime shall not pay. This is
the consolation on which we rest in the darkness of the future and
the afflictions of to-day, that the government of the world is moral,
and does forever destroy what is not. It is the maxim of natural
philosophers that the natural forces wear out in time all obstacles,
and take place: and it is the maxim of history that victory always falls
at last where it ought to fall; or, there is perpetual march and
progress to ideas. But in either case, no link of the chain can drop
out. Nature works through her appointed elements; and ideas must
work through the brains and the arms of good and brave men, or
they are no better than dreams.

Since the above pages were written, President Lincoln has

proposed to Congress that the government shall coöperate with any
state that shall enact a gradual abolishment of slavery. In the recent
series of national successes, this message is the best. It marks the
happiest day in the political year. The American Executive ranges
itself for the first time on the side of freedom. If Congress has been
backward, the President has advanced. This state-paper is the more
interesting that it appears to be the President’s individual act, done
under a strong sense of duty. He speaks his own thought in his own
style. All thanks and honor to the Head of the State! The message
has been received throughout the country with praise, and, we doubt
not, with more pleasure than has been spoken. If Congress accords
with the President, it is not yet too late to begin the emancipation; but
we think it will always be too late to make it gradual. All experience
agrees that it should be immediate.[167] More and better than the
President has spoken shall, perhaps, the effect of this message be,
—but, we are sure, not more or better than he hoped in his heart,
when, thoughtful of all the complexities of his position, he penned
these cautious words.
 XIV
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

AN ADDRESS DELIVERED IN BOSTON IN

SEPTEMBER, 1862

To-day unbind the captive,

So only are ye unbound;
Lift up a people from the dust,
Trump of their rescue, sound!

Pay ransom to the owner

And fill the bag to the brim.
Who is the owner? The slave is owner,
And ever was. Pay him.

O North! give him beauty for rags,

And honor, O South! for his shame;
Nevada! coin thy golden crags
With freedom’s image and name.

Up! and the dusky race

That sat in darkness long,—
Be swift their feet as antelopes,
And as behemoth strong.

Come, East and West and North,

By races, as snow-flakes,
And carry my purpose forth,
Which neither halts nor shakes.

My will fulfilled shall be,

For in daylight or in dark,
My thunderbolt has eyes to see
His way home to the mark.

THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

In so many arid forms which states encrust themselves with, once
in a century, if so often, a poetic act and record occur. These are the
jets of thought into affairs, when, roused by danger or inspired by
genius, the political leaders of the day break the else insurmountable
routine of class and local legislation, and take a step forward in the
direction of catholic and universal interests. Every step in the history
of political liberty is a sally of the human mind into the untried Future,
and has the interest of genius, and is fruitful in heroic anecdotes.
Liberty is a slow fruit. It comes, like religion, for short periods, and in
rare conditions, as if awaiting a culture of the race which shall make
it organic and permanent. Such moments of expansion in modern
history were the Confession of Augsburg, the plantation of America,
the English Commonwealth of 1648, the Declaration of American
Independence in 1776, the British emancipation of slaves in the
West Indies, the passage of the Reform Bill, the repeal of the Corn-
Laws, the Magnetic Ocean Telegraph, though yet imperfect, the
passage of the Homestead Bill in the last Congress, and now,
eminently, President Lincoln’s Proclamation on the twenty-second of
September. These are acts of great scope, working on a long future
and on permanent interests, and honoring alike those who initiate
and those who receive them. These measures provoke no noisy joy,
but are received into a sympathy so deep as to apprise us that
mankind are greater and better than we know.[168] At such times it
appears as if a new public were created to greet the new event. It is
as when an orator, having ended the compliments and pleasantries
with which he conciliated attention, and having run over the
superficial fitness and commodities of the measure he urges,
suddenly, lending himself to some happy inspiration, announces with
vibrating voice the grand human principles involved;—the bravos
and wits who greeted him loudly thus far are surprised and
overawed; a new audience is found in the heart of the assembly,—
an audience hitherto passive and unconcerned, now at last so
searched and kindled that they come forward, every one a
representative of mankind, standing for all nationalities.
The extreme moderation with which the President advanced to his
design,—his long-avowed expectant policy, as if he chose to be
strictly the executive of the best public sentiment of the country,
waiting only till it should be unmistakably pronounced,—so fair a
mind that none ever listened so patiently to such extreme varieties of
opinion,—so reticent that his decision has taken all parties by
surprise, whilst yet it is just the sequel of his prior acts,—the firm
tone in which he announces it, without inflation or surplusage,—all
these have bespoken such favor to the act that, great as the
popularity of the President has been, we are beginning to think that
we have underestimated the capacity and virtue which the Divine
Providence has made an instrument of benefit so vast. He has been
permitted to do more for America than any other American man. He
is well entitled to the most indulgent construction. Forget all that we
thought shortcomings, every mistake, every delay. In the extreme
embarrassments of his part, call these endurance, wisdom,
magnanimity; illuminated, as they now are, by this dazzling success.
When we consider the immense opposition that has been
neutralized or converted by the progress of the war (for it is not long
since the President anticipated the resignation of a large number of
officers in the army, and the secession of three states, on the
promulgation of this policy),—when we see how the great stake
which foreign nations hold in our affairs has recently brought every
European power as a client into this court, and it became every day
more apparent what gigantic and what remote interests were to be
affected by the decision of the President,—one can hardly say the
deliberation was too long. Against all timorous counsels he had the
courage to seize the moment; and such was his position, and such
the felicity attending the action, that he has replaced government in
the good graces of mankind. “Better is virtue in the sovereign than
plenty in the season,” say the Chinese. ’Tis wonderful what power is,
and how ill it is used, and how its ill use makes life mean, and the
sunshine dark. Life in America had lost much of its attraction in the
later years. The virtues of a good magistrate undo a world of
mischief, and, because Nature works with rectitude, seem vastly
more potent than the acts of bad governors, which are ever
tempered by the good nature in the people, and the incessant
resistance which fraud and violence encounter. The acts of good
governors work a geometrical ratio, as one midsummer day seems
to repair the damage of a year of war.
A day which most of us dared not hope to see, an event worth the
dreadful war, worth its costs and uncertainties, seems now to be
close before us. October, November, December will have passed
over beating hearts and plotting brains: then the hour will strike, and
all men of African descent who have faculty enough to find their way
to our lines are assured of the protection of American law.
It is by no means necessary that this measure should be suddenly
marked by any signal results on the negroes or on the rebel masters.
The force of the act is that it commits the country to this justice,—
that it compels the innumerable officers, civil, military, naval, of the
Republic to range themselves on the line of this equity. It draws the
fashion to this side. It is not a measure that admits of being taken
back. Done, it cannot be undone by a new administration. For
slavery overpowers the disgust of the moral sentiment only through
immemorial usage. It cannot be introduced as an improvement of the
nineteenth century. This act makes that the lives of our heroes have
not been sacrificed in vain. It makes a victory of our defeats. Our
hurts are healed; the health of the nation is repaired. With a victory
like this, we can stand many disasters. It does not promise the
redemption of the black race; that lies not with us: but it relieves it of
our opposition. The President by this act has paroled all the slaves in
America; they will no more fight against us: and it relieves our race
once for all of its crime and false position. The first condition of
success is secured in putting ourselves right. We have recovered
ourselves from our false position, and planted ourselves on a law of
Nature:—
 “If that fail,
The pillared firmament is rottenness,
And earth’s base built on stubble.”[169]

The government has assured itself of the best constituency in the

world: every spark of intellect, every virtuous feeling, every religious
heart, every man of honor, every poet, every philosopher, the
generosity of the cities, the health of the country, the strong arms of
the mechanic, the endurance of farmers, the passionate conscience
of women, the sympathy of distant nations,—all rally to its support.
Of course, we are assuming the firmness of the policy thus
declared. It must not be a paper proclamation. We confide that Mr.
Lincoln is in earnest, and as he has been slow in making up his
mind, has resisted the importunacy of parties and of events to the
latest moment, he will be as absolute in his adhesion. Not only will
he repeat and follow up his stroke, but the nation will add its
irresistible strength. If the ruler has duties, so has the citizen. In
times like these, when the nation is imperilled, what man can,
without shame, receive good news from day to day without giving
good news of himself? What right has any one to read in the journals
tidings of victories, if he has not bought them by his own valor,
treasure, personal sacrifice, or by service as good in his own
department? With this blot removed from our national honor, this
heavy load lifted off the national heart, we shall not fear
henceforward to show our faces among mankind. We shall cease to
be hypocrites and pretenders, but what we have styled our free
institutions will be such.[170]
In the light of this event the public distress begins to be removed.
What if the brokers’ quotations show our stocks discredited, and the
gold dollar costs one hundred and twenty-seven cents? These tables
are fallacious. Every acre in the free states gained substantial value
on the twenty-second of September. The cause of disunion and war
has been reached and begun to be removed. Every man’s house-lot
and garden are relieved of the malaria which the purest winds and
strongest sunshine could not penetrate and purge. The territory of
the Union shines to-day with a lustre which every European emigrant
can discern from far; a sign of inmost security and permanence. Is it
feared that taxes will check immigration? That depends on what the
taxes are spent for. If they go to fill up this yawning Dismal Swamp,
which engulfed armies and populations, and created plague, and
neutralized hitherto all the vast capabilities of this continent,—then
this taxation, which makes the land wholesome and habitable, and
will draw all men unto it, is the best investment in which property-
holder ever lodged his earnings.
Whilst we have pointed out the opportuneness of the
Proclamation, it remains to be said that the President had no choice.
He might look wistfully for what variety of courses lay open to him;
every line but one was closed up with fire. This one, too, bristled with
danger, but through it was the sole safety. The measure he has
adopted was imperative. It is wonderful to see the unseasonable
senility of what is called the Peace Party, through all its masks,
blinding their eyes to the main feature of the war, namely, its
inevitableness. The war existed long before the cannonade of
Sumter, and could not be postponed. It might have begun otherwise
or elsewhere, but war was in the minds and bones of the
combatants, it was written on the iron leaf, and you might as easily
dodge gravitation. If we had consented to a peaceable secession of
the rebels, the divided sentiment of the border states made
peaceable secession impossible, the insatiable temper of the South
made it impossible, and the slaves on the border, wherever the
border might be, were an incessant fuel to rekindle the fire. Give the
Confederacy New Orleans, Charleston, and Richmond, and they
would have demanded St. Louis and Baltimore. Give them these,
and they would have insisted on Washington. Give them
Washington, and they would have assumed the army and navy, and,
through these, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. It looks as if the
battle-field would have been at least as large in that event as it is
now. The war was formidable, but could not be avoided. The war
was and is an immense mischief, but brought with it the immense
benefit of drawing a line and rallying the free states to fix it
impassably,—preventing the whole force of Southern connection and
influence throughout the North from distracting every city with
endless confusion, detaching that force and reducing it to handfuls,
and, in the progress of hostilities, disinfecting us of our habitual
proclivity, through the affection of trade and the traditions of the
Democratic party, to follow Southern leading.[171]
These necessities which have dictated the conduct of the federal
government are overlooked especially by our foreign critics. The
popular statement of the opponents of the war abroad is the
impossibility of our success. “If you could add,” say they, “to your
strength the whole army of England, of France and of Austria, you
could not coerce eight millions of people to come under this
government against their will.” This is an odd thing for an
Englishman, a Frenchman or an Austrian to say, who remembers
Europe of the last seventy years,—the condition of Italy, until 1859,
—of Poland, since 1793,—of France, of French Algiers,—of British
Ireland, and British India. But granting the truth, rightly read, of the
historical aphorism, that “the people always conquer,” it is to be
noted that, in the Southern States, the tenure of land and the local
laws, with slavery, give the social system not a democratic but an
aristocratic complexion; and those states have shown every year a
more hostile and aggressive temper, until the instinct of self-
preservation forced us into the war. And the aim of the war on our
part is indicated by the aim of the President’s Proclamation, namely,
to break up the false combination of Southern society, to destroy the
piratic feature in it which makes it our enemy only as it is the enemy
of the human race, and so allow its reconstruction on a just and
healthful basis. Then new affinities will act, the old repulsion will
cease, and, the cause of war being removed, Nature and trade may
be trusted to establish a lasting peace.
We think we cannot overstate the wisdom and benefit of this act of
the government. The malignant cry of the Secession press within the
free states, and the recent action of the Confederate Congress, are
decisive as to its efficiency and correctness of aim. Not less so is the
silent joy which has greeted it in all generous hearts, and the new
hope it has breathed into the world. It was well to delay the steamers
at the wharves until this edict could be put on board. It will be an
insurance to the ship as it goes plunging through the sea with glad
tidings to all people. Happy are the young, who find the pestilence
cleansed out of the earth, leaving open to them an honest career.
Happy the old, who see Nature purified before they depart. Do not let
the dying die: hold them back to this world, until you have charged
their ear and heart with this message to other spiritual societies,
announcing the melioration of our planet:—

“Incertainties now crown themselves assured,

And Peace proclaims olives of endless age.”[172]

Meantime that ill-fated, much-injured race which the Proclamation

respects will lose somewhat of the dejection sculptured for ages in
their bronzed countenance, uttered in the wailing of their plaintive
music,—a race naturally benevolent, docile, industrious, and whose
very miseries sprang from their great talent for usefulness, which, in
a more moral age, will not only defend their independence, but will
give them a rank among nations.[173]