Design of CMOS Analog Integrated Fractional Order Circuits Applications in Medicine and Biology 1st Edition Georgia Tsirimokou

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
ELEC TRIC AL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Georgia Tsirimokou
Costas Psychalinos
Ahmed Elwakil
Design of CMOS
Analog Integrated
Fractional-Order
Circuits
Applications in
Medicine and Biology
123
SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer
Engineering
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10059

Georgia Tsirimokou • Costas Psychalinos
Ahmed Elwakil
Design of CMOS Analog

Integrated Fractional-Order
Circuits
Applications in Medicine and Biology
Georgia Tsirimokou Costas Psychalinos
Physics Department Physics Department
Electronics Laboratory Electronics Laboratory
University of Patras University of Patras
Rio Patras, Greece Rio Patras, Greece
Ahmed Elwakil
Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering
University of Sharjah
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Nanoelectronics Integrated
Systems Center (NISC)
Nile University
Cairo, Egypt
ISSN 2191-8112 ISSN 2191-8120 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-55632-1 ISBN 978-3-319-55633-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-55633-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935037
© The Author(s) 2017

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Preface
It is known that many dynamic systems in our world can be better described by
differential equations of a non-integer-order, i.e., they behave like non-integer-
order (fractional-order) systems. Such systems can be found not only in electronics
and signal processing, but also in thermodynamics, biology, chemistry, medicine,
mechanics, control theory, nanotechnologies, finances, etc. Thus, fractional-order
systems are an emerging area of multidisciplinary research labeled even as the
“twenty-first century systems.” Electronic engineers are very interested in applying
the concept of fractional calculus. It is motivated mainly by the interdisciplinary
nature of this research and possibility to obtain qualitatively new circuit solutions
that can provide characteristics not available at integer-order systems. For example,
the capability for stepless control of the slope of frequency characteristics in
fractional-order filters in comparison with the corresponding integer-order filters
is an attractive feature. Fractional-order impedance circuits are also very promising
in modeling electrical properties of biological materials, tissues, or cells. Oscilla-
tors of fractional-order provide possibility of obtaining higher oscillation frequen-
cies compared to the integer-order counterparts with the same values of passive
element parameters offering arbitrary phase shift between output signals.
This book deals with the design and realization of analog fractional-order
circuits, which offer the following benefits: (i) capability for on-chip implementa-
tion, (ii) capability for low-voltage operation, and (iii) electronic adjustment of their
characteristics. Applications of fractional-order circuits, including: a preprocessing
stage suitable for the implementation of the Pan-Tompkins algorithm for detecting
the QRS complexes of an electrocardiogram (ECG), a fully tunable implementation
of the Cole-Cole model used for the modeling of biological tissues, and a simple
non-impedance based measuring technique for super-capacitors. A part of the
material presented in this book, originates from the work done by Georgia
v
vi Preface
Tsirimokou for her Ph.D. at University of Patras, Greece. It includes details and
measurement results for each research project, supported by Grant Ε.029 from the
Research Committee of the University of Patras (Programme K. Karatheodori).
Rio Patras, Greece Georgia Tsirimokou

Rio Patras, Greece Costas Psychalinos
Sharjah, UAE Ahmed Elwakil
Cairo, Egypt
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Fractional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Literature Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Book Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Procedure for Designing Fractional-Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Fractional-Order Differentiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Fractional-Order Integrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Fractional-Order Low-Pass Filter (FLPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Fractional-Order High-Pass Filter (FHPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Fractional-Order Band-Pass Filter (FBPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.4 Fractional-Order All-Pass Filter (FAPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.5 Design Equations for Generalized Filters of Order α . . . . . 20
2.4 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order 1 þ α) . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.4 Fractional-Order Band-Stop Filter (FBSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.5 Design Equations for Generalized Filters
of Order 1 þ α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α þ β) . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.4 Fractional-Order Band-Stop Filter (FBSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
vii
viii Contents

of Order α þ β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Fractional-Order Filters of Order n þ α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
of Order n þ α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Current-Mode Fractional-Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Basic Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Fractional-Order Filters with Large Time-Constant . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Simulation and Comparison Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.1 First-Order Filter Using Current Mirrors
with Large Time-Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.2 Fractional-Order Circuits Using Current Mirrors
with Large Time-Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4 Voltage-Mode Fractional-Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Basic Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5 Emulation of Fractional-Order Capacitors (CPEs)
and Inductors (FOIs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Proposed Emulation Scheme for Voltage Exited
CPE and FOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Proposed Emulation Scheme for Current Excited
CPE and FOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 Chip Fabrication and Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4.1 Effects of Variation of the External Capacitors
of the Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.2 Effects of Variation of the Bias Current
of the Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.3 Effects of Variation of both the Bias Current (Io)
and External Capacitors (Cext) of the Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.5 Fractional-Order Resonators Using Emulated
CPEs and FOIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Contents ix
6 Applications of Fractional-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2 A Preprocessing Stage Suitable for Implementation
of the Pan-Tompkins Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 A fully Tunable Implementation of the Cole-Cole Model . . . . . . . 96
6.4 Simple Non-impedance-Based Measuring Technique
for Supercapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.5 Design and Evaluation of a Fractional-Order Oscillator . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7 Conclusions and Motivation for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2 Motivation for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
About the Authors
Georgia Tsirimokou received B.Sc. degree in Physics and M.Sc. degree in

Electronics and Communications from the University of Patras, Greece, in 2011
and 2013, respectively. She is currently a Ph.D. candidate working with the analog
Integrated Circuits Design group of the Electronics Laboratory, Department of
Physics, University of Patras, Greece. Her main research interests are focused on
the design of ultra-low voltage analog signal processing blocks, including
fractional-order circuits as well as circuits for biomedical applications.
Costas Psychalinos received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Physics and
Electronics from the University of Patras, Greece, in 1986 and 1991, respectively.
From 1993 to 1995, he worked as Post-Doctoral Researcher in the VLSI Design
Laboratory, University of Patras. From 1996 to 2000, he was an Adjunct Lecturer in
the Department of Computer Engineering and Informatics, University of Patras.
From 2000 to 2004 he served as Assistant Professor in the Electronics Laboratory,
Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. From 2004 he
serves as faculty member in the Electronics Laboratory, Department of Physics,
University of Patras, Greece and, currently, he is Full Professor. His research area is
in the continuous and discrete-time analog filtering, including fractional-order
circuits, companding filters, current amplifier filters, CCII and CFOA filters, and
sampled-data filters, and in the development of ultra-low voltage building blocks
for biomedical applications. He serves as Area Editor of the International Journal
of Electronics and Communications (AEU) Journal, and Associate Editor of the
Circuits Systems and Signal Processing Journal. He is member of the Editorial
Board of the Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing Journal, and
Microelectronics Journal. He is also an IEEE Senior Member.
Ahmed Elwakil was born in Cairo, Egypt. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.
degrees from the Department of Electronics and Communications at Cairo
University, Cairo, Egypt, and the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering, National University of Ireland, University College
xi
xii About the Authors
Dublin. His research interests are primarily in the areas of circuit theory, nonlinear
dynamics, chaos theory, as well as fractional-order circuits and systems with
diverse applications ranging from the modeling of oscillatory networks and
nonlinear electronic circuits to energy devices and biomaterials. He is the author
and co-author of over 185 publications in these areas. He has served as a reviewer,
review committee member, and organizing committee member for many confer-
ences including ISCAS, NOLTA, ICECS, ECCTD, ICM, NDES, and ISSPA, and
currently serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of Circuit
Theory and Applications (Wiley) and was a past Editor of this journal. He is also an
Associate Editor of the International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos (World
Scientific), and the Journal of Nonlinear Theory and its Applications (NOLTA),
published by the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engi-
neers of Japan (IEICE-Japan) and was a past Associate Editor for the Journal of
Dynamics of Continuous, Discrete and Impulsive Systems: Series-B, published by
the American Institute of Mathematical Sciences (AIMS) and is currently on the
Editorial Board of the IEEE Journal on Emerging and Selected Topics in Circuits
and Systems.
Prof. Elwakil has been a member of the IEEE Technical Committee on
Nonlinear Circuits and Systems (TCNCAS) since 2003 and was a Lead Guest
Editor for the IEEE Journal on Emerging and Selected Topics in Circuits and
Systems, special issue on fractional-order circuits and systems (Sep. 2013) and a
Guest Editor for a special issue on Chaos-Fractals Theories and Applications
published in the Journal of Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2014. He is
also the guest editor for a special issue on Fractional-Order Circuits (June 2016) in
the Journal of Circuits Systems and Signal Processing (Springer). He received the
Egyptian Government first class medal for achievements in Engineering Sciences in
2003, 2009, and 2015, respectively, and was a visiting Professor/Researcher at
Istanbul Technical University (Istanbul, Turkey), University of Calgary (Alberta,
Canada), Queens University (Belfast, UK), Technical University of Denmark
(Lyngby, Denmark), Ohio State University (Columbus, Ohio), University College
Cork (Cork, Ireland), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
(KAUST, Saudi Arabia), and Nile University (Cairo, Egypt). He is currently an
Adjunct Prof. in the Nano-electronics Integrated Systems Center at Nile
University, Egypt.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Fractional Calculus
Fractional calculus is three centuries old as the conventional calculus and consist a
super set of integer-order calculus, which has the potential to accomplish what
integer-order calculus cannot. Its origins dating back to a correspondence from
1695 between Leibnitz and L’Hôpital, with L’Hôpital inquiring about Leibnitz
notation for the n-th derivative of a function dny/dxn, i.e. what would be the result
if n ¼ 1/2. The reply from Leibnitz, “It will lead to a paradox, a paradox from which
one day useful consequences will be drawn, because there are no useless para-
doxes”, was the motivation for fractional calculus to be born. Fractional calculus
does not mean the calculus of fractions, nor does it mean a fraction of any calculus
differentiation, integration or calculus of variations. The fractional calculus is a
name of theory of integrations and derivatives of arbitrary order, which unify and
generalize the notation of integer-order differentiation and n-fold integration. The
beauty of this subject is that fractional derivatives and integrals translate better the
reality of nature! This feature is an efficient tool, offering the capability of having
available a language of nature, which can be used to talk with.
Despite the fact that for the past three centuries this field was of interest to
mathematicians, only the last few years did this appear in several applied fields of
science such as materials theory, diffusion theory, engineering, biomedicine, eco-
nomics, control theory, electromagnetic, robotics, and signal and image processing
[1–6]. Over all these last years fractional order systems or systems containing
fractional derivatives and integrals have been studied in engineering and science
area. A vast number of model make use of the fractional-order derivatives that exist
in the literature. However, there are many of these definitions in the literature
nowadays, but few of them are commonly used, including Riemann-Liouville,
Caputo, Weyl, Jumarie, Hadamard, Davison and Essex, Riesz, Erdelyi-Kober,
and Coimbra. There are two main approaches for defining a fractional derivative.
© The Author(s) 2017 1

G. Tsirimokou et al., Design of CMOS Analog Integrated Fractional-Order
Circuits, SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-55633-8_1
2 1 Introduction
The first considers differentiation and integration as limits of finite differences. The
Grunwald-Letnikov definition follows this approach. The other approach general-
izes a convolution type representation of repeated integration. The Riemann-
Liouville and Caputo definitions employ this approach. Riemann-Liouville and
Caputo fractional derivatives are fundamentally related to fractional integration
operators and, hence, are the most popular.
The Caputo derivative is very useful when dealing with real-world problems,
because it allows traditional initial and boundary conditions to be included in the
formulation of the problem and, in addition, the derivative of a constant is zero
[7]. As a result, the aforementioned definition will be used within this work, the
expression of which is given as
ðt
α 1 f ðnÞ ðτÞ
0 Dt f ðtÞ ¼ dτ ð1:1Þ
Γðn αÞ ðt τÞαþ1n
0
where n-1 α n and Γ() is the gamma function.

In the design and analysis of electronic circuits, the Laplace transform is a very
useful tool, transforming the circuit from the time-domain into the frequency
domain. With this transformation, the analysis of circuits can be algebraically
conducted rather than by solving differential equations. Thus, applying the Laplace
transform to (1.1) yields
X
n1
Lf0 Dαt f ðtÞg ¼ sα FðsÞ sαk1 f ð0ÞðkÞ ð1:2Þ
k¼0
where f (0) is the initial condition.

The variable sα is the fractional Laplacian operator, which allows for the design
and analysis of systems using concepts from fractional calculus without having to
solve time-domain complicated representations.
In the analog domain, such an operation using the aforementioned definitions
can be called as fractance device, which is an electrical element and exhibits
fractional-order impedance properties. The expression for impedance function of
a fractance device is given by
ZðsÞ ¼ κsα ¼ ðκωÞα ej 2

απ
ð1:3Þ
where κ is a constant and α is a fractional-order.

Depending upon the values of α, the behavior of the element changes from
inductor to capacitor. In the range 0 < α < 2, this element may generally be
considered to represent a fractional-order inductor, while for the range 2 < α < 0,
it may be considered to represent a fractional-order capacitor. For the special case
of α ¼ 1 this element represents an inductor while for α ¼ 1 it represents a
capacitor.
1.1 Fractional Calculus 3
Fig. 1.1 Classification

diagram of fractional-order
elements
At α ¼ 2, it represents the well-known frequency-dependent negative resistor

(FDNR). A typical diagram for classifying these elements is depicted in Fig. 1.1.
However, there are no commercial available fractance devices for the physical
realization of fractional-order circuits and systems. Therefore, until commercial
fractance devices become available to physically realize circuits that make use of
the advantages of sα, integer-order approximations have to be used. There are many
methods used to create an approximation of sα that include continued fraction
expansions (CFEs) as well as rational approximation methods [2]. These methods
present a large array of approximations with varying accuracy, which depends on
the order of the approximation. It is known that the continued fraction expansion for
(1 þ x)α is given as [8]
1 αx ð1 þ αÞx ð1 αÞx ð2 þ αÞx ð2 αÞx

ð1 þ x Þα ¼ ð1:4Þ
1 1þ 2þ 3þ 2þ 5þ
The above expression converges in the finite complex s-plane, along with the
negative real axis from x ¼ 1 to x ¼ 1. Substituting x ¼ s-1 and taking up to
10 number of terms in Eq. (1.4), the rational approximations obtained for sα are
presented in Table 1.1. In order to obtain the rational approximation of 1/ sα, the
expressions have to be simply inverted or the variable has to be set to α ! -α.
Higher-order rational approximations can be obtained by increasing the number of
terms in Eq. (1.4). Thus, the general form of the obtained rational approximation of
the variable sα around a specific frequency ωo is that given in (1.5)
α0 ðτsÞn þ α1 ðτsÞn1 þ þ αn1 ðτsÞ þ αn

ðτsÞα ffi ð1:5Þ
αn ðτsÞn þ αn1 ðτsÞn1 þ þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α0
where n is the order of the approximation and (ωo ¼ 1/τ) the center frequency where
the approximation is performed.
4 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Rational approximation for (τs)α

No.
of
terms Rational approximation for α Design equations of coefficients
2 α0 ðτsÞ þ α1 α0 ¼ (1 α)α1 ¼ (1 þ α)
α1 ðτsÞ þ α0
4 α0 ðτsÞ2 þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α2 α0 ¼ (α2 þ 3α þ 2)
2
α2 ðτsÞ þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α0 α1 ¼ (8 2α2)
α2 ¼ (α2 3α þ 2)
6 α0 ðτsÞ3 þ α1 ðτsÞ2 þ α2 ðτsÞ þ α3
α0 ¼ (α3 þ 6α2 þ 11α þ 6)
α3 ðτsÞ3 þ α2 ðτsÞ2 þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α0
α1 ¼ (3α3 6α2 þ 27α þ 54)
α2 ¼ (3α3 6α2 27α þ 54)
α3 ¼ (α3 þ 6α2 11α þ 6)

4 3 2
8 α0 ðτsÞ þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α2 ðτsÞ þ α3 ðτsÞ þ α4
α0 ¼ (α4 þ 10α3 þ 35α2 þ 50α þ 24)
α4 ðτsÞ4 þ α3 ðτsÞ3 þ α2 ðτsÞ2 þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α0
4α4 20α3 þ 40α2
α1 ¼
þ320α þ 384
α2 ¼ (6α4 150α2 þ 864)

4α4 þ 20α3 þ 40α2
α3 ¼
320α þ 384
α4 ¼ (α4 10α3 þ 35α2 50α þ 24)

10 5 4 3 2
α0 ðτsÞ þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α2 ðτsÞ þ α3 ðτsÞ þ α4 ðτsÞ þ α5
α5 15α4 85α3
α5 ðτsÞ5 þ α4 ðτsÞ4 þ α3 ðτsÞ3 þ α2 ðτsÞ2 þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α0 α0 ¼
225α2 274α 120

5α5 þ 45α4 þ 5α3
α1 ¼
1005α2 3250α 3000

10α5 30α4 þ 410α3
α2 ¼
þ1230α2 4000α 12000

10α5 30α4 410α3
α3 ¼
þ1230α2 þ 4000α 12000

5α5 þ 45α4 5α3
α4 ¼
1005α þ 3250α 3000
2

α5 15α4 þ 85α3
α5 ¼
225α þ 274α 120
2
In terms of circuit complexity and magnitude and phase accuracy, the second-
order approximation of variable sα is an efficient tool for implementing fractional-
order circuits. The corresponding expression for approximating variable (τsα) is
also given by (1.6) as
1.1 Fractional Calculus 5
ðα2 þ 3α þ 2ÞðτsÞ2 þ ð8 2α2 ÞðτsÞ þ ðα2 3α þ 2Þ

ðτsÞα ffi
ðα2 3α þ 2ÞðτsÞ2 þ ð8 2α2 ÞðτsÞ þ ðα2 þ 3α þ 2Þ
ð1:6Þ
α0 ðτsÞ2 þ α1 ðτsÞ þ α2
¼
where the design equations of coefficients αi (i ¼ 0,1,2) are already defined as
α0 ¼ ðα2 þ 3α þ 2Þ
α1 ¼ ð8 2α2 Þ ð1:7Þ
α2 ¼ ðα 3α þ 2Þ
2
Another approach for obtaining the second-order approximation for sα is using

the continued fraction expansions [9], [10] of the two functions
2 þ ð1 þ 2αÞðτsÞ
ð1 þ τsÞα ffi ð1:8Þ
2 þ ð1 2αÞðτsÞ
α
1 ðτsÞ þ ð1 αÞ=2
1 ffi ð1:9Þ
τs þ 1 ðτsÞ þ ð1 þ αÞ=2
where (1.8) is the approximation for high frequencies ω > > 1, and (1.9) the
approximation for ω < < 1.
α
Noting that the product ð1 þ τsÞα 1 τsþ1
1
¼ ðτsÞα , a second-order approx-
imation can therefore be written as shown is (1.10).
2ð1 þ αÞðτsÞ2 þ ð5 α2 ÞðτsÞ þ 2ð1 αÞ

ðτsÞα ffi
2ð1 αÞðτsÞ2 þ ð5 α2 ÞðτsÞ þ 2ð1 þ αÞ
ð1:10Þ
¼
where the design equations of coefficients αi (i ¼ 0, 1, 2) are defined as
α0 ¼ 2ð1 þ αÞ
α1 ¼ ð5 α2 Þ ð1:11Þ
α2 ¼ 2ð1 αÞ
Although there are additional methods for obtaining the rational approximations
of the variable sα, such as Carlson’s, Matsuda’s, and Oustaloop’s methods,
according to [11], the CFE is an attractive choice in terms of phase and gain
error. Thus, the aforementioned procedure of the second-order approximation of
the CFE will be adopted in the framework of this work.
6 1 Introduction
1.2 Literature Overview
Integrators and differentiators are very useful building blocks for performing signal
conditioning in biomedical applications. They are employed for realizing filters,
oscillators, and impedance emulators, and in control systems. Fractional-order digital
implementations of such circuits have been already published in the literature [12–16].
Significant research effort is going on to develop fractional-order capacitors, also
known as constant phase elements (CPEs) as stand-alone two-terminal devices. For
example, CPEs have been developed by utilizing electrolytic process [17], fractal
structures on silicon [18], by dipping a capacitive type polymer-coated probe in a
polarizable medium [19–21], and most recently in [22] using graphene. All the
aforementioned solutions are not commercially available and, also, suffer from the
benefit of on-line adjustability. Existing techniques for emulating a CPE mostly rely on
passive RC trees, the components of which can be obtained by several suitable methods
such as the continued fraction expansion [23–26]. Following this approach, a number
of fractional-order circuits have been published in the literature [2, 27–34], where
various kinds of RC network topologies have been utilized. Another important element
for performing fractional-order signal processing is the fractional-order inductor (FOI),
which could be easily performed through the combination of a fractional-order capac-
itor and a generalized impedance converter (GIC) [35]. A summary of design equations
for deriving RC networks is given in Table 1.2a, 1.2b, where the Foster and Cauer
networks have been utilized. The derived expressions have been obtained taking into
account that the impedance/admittance of a CPE using the CFE will be
Table 1.2a A systematic presentation for realizing fractional-order capacitors using RC networks
(Foster I, and Foster II)
Network type Foster I Foster II
Circuit topology
R1 R2 Rn Ro
Ro C1
R1
C1 C2 Cn R2 C2
Rn Cn
Impedance/admittance X
n 1
Ci Y ðsÞ 1 X n
Ri
1
Z ðsÞ ¼ R0 þ ¼ þ
i¼1
sþ 1
Ri Ci
s R0 i¼1 s þ Ri1Ci
General form of partial frac- X
n
ri Y ðsÞ k X n
ri
tion expansion of (1.12) Z ðsÞ ¼ k þ ¼ þ
i¼1
s pi s s i¼1 s pi
Design equations for calculat- 1 1 1 1
R0 ¼ k, Ci ¼ , Ri ¼ R0 ¼ , C i ¼ ,
ing values Ri, Cia ri Ci jpi j k ri
1
Ci ¼
Ri jpi j
a
k and ri are constant terms, pi are the poles of impedance
1.2 Literature Overview 7
Table 1.2b A systematic presentation for realizing fractional-order capacitors using RC networks
(Cauer I, and Cauer II)
Network type Cauer I Cauer II
Circuit topology
R1 R2 Rn C1 C2 Cn
C1 C2 Cn Ro R1 R2 Rn Ro
Impedance/admittance 1 1 1 1 1
Z ðsÞ ¼ R1 þ Z ðsÞ ¼
C1 s þ R2 þ 1 1 1
þ þ þ
1 1 1 R1 C 1 s R2

Rn þ C n s þ R0 1 1 1

1 1 1
þ þ
Rn Cn s R0
General form of partial 1 1 1 1 1
Z ðsÞ ¼ qr1 þ Z ðsÞ ¼ þ
fraction expansion of qc1 s þ qr2 þ qr1 qc1 þ qr2 þ
(1.12) 1 1 1 s

1 1 1
qrn þ qcn s þ qr0 qrn þ qcn þ qr0
s
Design equations for Ri ¼ qri (i ¼ 0, . . . , n) Ri ¼ 1/qri (i ¼ 0, . . . , n)
calculating values Ri,Cia Cj ¼ qcj ( j ¼ 1, . . . , n) Cj ¼ 1/qcj ( j ¼ 1, . . . , n)
coefficients qri (i ¼ 0,. . .,n), qcj ( j ¼ 1,. . .,n) are that obtained from the CFE
a
1 αn sn þ αn1 ωo sn1 þ þ α1 ωo n1 s þ α0 ωo n

Z ðsÞ ¼ ð1:12aÞ
Cωo α0 sn þ α1 ωo sn1 þ þ αn1 ωo n1 s þ αn ωo n
α0 sn þ α1 ωo sn1 þ þ αn1 ωo n1 s þ αn ωo n

Y ðsÞ ¼ Cωo ð1:12bÞ
αn sn þ αn1 ωo sn1 þ þ α1 ωo n1 s þ α0 ωo n
Nevertheless, these realizations are problematic when it is desired to change the

characteristics of the designed emulator, since all the values of the passive compo-
nents of the tree have to be changed. Thus, only a fixed approximation for a specific
element valid over a center prespecified bandwidth with acceptable magnitude and
phase errors is offered. Another significant research effort that has gained a growing
research interest is the utilization of fractional-order calculus in filter design.
Implementation of fractional-order filters in fully digital form [36–39] offers the
advantages of easy design, reliability, programmability, and better noise rejection
in comparison with the corresponding analog realizations.
On the other hand, the digital implementation suffers from the high power
consumption associated with the required analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
Analog realizations of fractional-order filters have been already introduced in
discrete component form in [12], [21], [28], [32–34], [40–43]. The used active
elements were operational amplifiers (op-amps), second-generation current con-
veyors (CCIIs), and current feedback operational amplifiers (CFOAs). Because of
the employment of passive resistors, an additional automatic tuning circuitry is
required for compensating the deviations from the desired frequency response.
8 1 Introduction
Another important drawback is the absence of programmability, making these

structures not capable of fulfilling the demand for realizing programmable analog
filters. All the above designs offer one type of filter function, and therefore the
existence of filter topologies which are capable for implementing various types of
filter functions without modifying their core is very important from the design
flexibility point of view.
1.3 Book Objectives
The contribution made in this book is that the utilization of the second-order
approximation of CFE in order to present a systematic way for describing
the design equations of fractional-order generalized transfer functions, offered the
capability of designing the following analog integrated implementations for the first
time in the literature:
• Fractional-order differentiator/integrator topologies, which offer the following
benefits:
– Capability of being realized using the same topology
– The frequency characteristics as well as the fractional order α are able to be
easily electronically tuned
– Fully integratable topologies
– Resitorless realizations
– Only grounded capacitors are employed
– Operation in a low-voltage environment
• Fractional-order generalized filters, offering the following characteristics:
– Capability of realizing different families of filters (i.e., Butterworth,
Chebychev, etc.) using the same topology
– Capability of realizing different types of filters classified through the
bandform frequency response (i.e., lowpass, highpass, bandpass, etc.) using
the same topology
– All the above frequency characteristics as well as the fractional order are able to
be easily electronically tuned offering design flexibility and programmability
• Fully integrated fractional-order (capacitor and inductor) emulators, offering the
following attractive benefits:
– Electronic tuning of the impedance magnitude
– Electronic tuning of the fractional order
– Electronic tuning of the bandwidth of operation
1.3 Book Objectives 9

The main active cells that are employed are current mirrors, nonlinear
trancoductunce cells (known as S, C cells), and operational transconductance
amplifiers (OTAs). As a result, the designer has only to choose the appropriate
values of the dc bias currents in order to realize the desired transfer function, and
therefore the proposed schemes offer attractive features.
• Also, some interesting applications of the aforementioned designs will be
presented, where reasonable characteristics are offered making them attractive
candidates for realizing high performance fractional-order systems.
• Finally, simple circuit implementation setups are introduced for characterizing
fractional-order elements.
Consequently, the rest of the text of this book is organized as follows:
In Chap. 2, a systematic way of realizing fractional-order differentiator/integra-
tor topologies, as well as fractional-order generalized filters, is introduced. More
specifically, fractional-order filters of order α (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass,
all-pass), 1 þ α (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-stop), α þ β (low-pass,
high-pass, band-pass, band-stop), and n þ α are presented, where n and α,β are
the integer and fractional parts, respectively. The theoretical mathematical back-
ground, as well as the design equations obtained using the second-order approxi-
mation of CFE, is given in detail. As a result, the appropriate selection of active
building blocks that could be used for realizing these topologies is depended on the
designer demand.
In Chap. 3, the realization of fractional-order topologies using the current-mode
technique is presented. Current-mirror blocks are utilized for performing fractional-
order topologies. The realization of fractional-order filters of order 1 þ α with
programmable characteristics are presented, the behavior of which has been eval-
uated through simulation results. Moreover, fractional-order blocks, including
differentiators and lossy and lossless integrators are presented, which are able to
be realized using the same structure topology. Filters of order 1 þ α are also given
where current mirror building blocks are utilized for realizing the aforementioned
circuits. The performance of the proposed topologies has been evaluated through
simulation and comparison results using the Analog Design Environment of the
Cadence software.
In Chap. 4, the realization of fractional-order topologies using the voltage mode
technique is presented. The basic building block that has been employed for this
purpose is an OTA, As a result, fractional-order filters of order α, and α þ β, are
realized, where the filter schemes are generalized in the sense that they offer various
types of filter functions. The performance of the proposed topologies has been evalu-
ated through simulation and comparison results using the Analog Design Environment
of the Cadence software, which proof that they offer reasonable characteristics.
In Chap. 5, a systematic procedure in an algorithmic way for realizing fractional-
order capacitor and inductor emulators are introduced for the first time in the
10 1 Introduction
literature. Taking into account the offered benefits of the second-order approxima-
tion of the CFE, as well as the utilization of OTAs as active elements, the order,
impedance, and bandwidth of operation are able to be electronically tuned through
appropriate bias currents. The utilization of the already studied methods for emu-
lating fractional-order capacitors and inductors will be used for fabricating these
elements for the first time in the literature. The proposed designs are fabricated in
AMS 0.35 μm C35B4C3 CMOS technology, the right operation of which has been
verified through experimental results. As design examples, the performance of an
LβCα parallel resonator as well as a fractional band pass filter of order α þ β are
presented, which proofs that the fabricated designs offer attractive benefits and are
able to be utilized in high performance systems.
In Chap. 6, an attractive fractional-order topology capable for handling noisy
ECGs is introduced. The realization of this system is performed using the Sinh-
Domain technique. The performance of the proposed blocks has been evaluated
through the Analog Design Environment of the Cadence software. Taking into
account that the characterization of fractional-order elements is in general a
difficult, not straight forward, and cost-effective procedure, simple experimental
setups for characterizing fractional-order capacitors and supercapacitors are
introduced. In addition, fractional-order capacitors are employed in order to
emulate biological tissues using the well-known Cole-Cole model. Finally, the
design and evaluation of a fractional-order oscillator is realized proofing the
necessity of fractional calculus especially when compared with the
conventional way.
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Chapter 2
Procedure for Designing Fractional-Order
Filters
2.1 Introduction
Fractional-order differentiation and integration topologies offer attractive features

in various interdisciplinary applications. A typical application is the substitution of
conventional integer order parts of a system with the fractional-order parts, respec-
tively, where the existence of derivation/integration has a decisive position, and
offers important benefits. Also, they are able to be used in order to realize one of the
most important circuits in fractional-order theory, which is the fractal device. On
the other hand, fractional-order filters, offer more precise control of the attenuation
gradient, which is an efficient feature in biomedical engineering. Fractional-order
filters, differentiators, and integrators, will be presented in a systematic way that
describes the most important features of these structures; realizing such circuits
through the utilization of a general form enabling the capability of realizing
different kind of circuits by the same topology, which is very important from the
flexibility point of view. All the above will be performed through the utilization of
the second-order CFE, which is an efficient tool, in terms of accuracy and circuit
complexity, and has been described in Chap. 1 in detail. As a consequence, the main
benefit of this procedure is that having available the design equations, which are
expressed through integer-order functions, the capability of realizing these types of
functions utilizing different ways of circuit design could be achieved.
© The Author(s) 2017 13

G. Tsirimokou et al., Design of CMOS Analog Integrated Fractional-Order
Circuits, SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-55633-8_2
14 2 Procedure for Designing Fractional-Order Filters
2.2 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α)
Integrators and differentiators are very useful building blocks for performing signal
conditioning in biomedical applications. Also, they are employed for realizing
oscillators, impedance emulators, and in control systems. Fractional-order digital
implementations of such circuits have been already published in the literature [1–5].
The utilization of the second-order expressions of CFE is an appropriate tool for
realizing fractional-order differentiators and integrators in order to approximate the
variable (τs)α using the formula given in (2.1). In case that α ¼ 1, this transfer
function represents a differentiator, while for α ¼ 1 an integrator. In the range
(0 < α < 1), this element may generally be considered to represent a fractional-
order differentiator, while in the range (1 < α < 0), a fractional-order integrator.
ðτsÞα ¼ ð2:1Þ
2.2.1 Fractional-Order Differentiator
The transfer function, as well as the magnitude response of an integer-order

differentiator is given by the formula H(s) ¼ τs, and H(ω) ¼ ω/ωo, respectively.
The unity gain frequency is ωo ¼ 1/τ , where τ is the corresponding time-constant.
In addition the phase response is constant and equal to π/2. Thus, the transfer
function of a fractional-order differentiator will be given by (2.2) as
HðsÞ ¼ ðτsÞα ð2:2Þ
where (0 < α < 1) is the order of the differentiator. The magnitude response is given
as H(ω) ¼ (ω/ωo)α, from which is obvious that the unity gain frequency has the
same expression as in the case of its integer-order counterpart. Also, in this case the
phase response is constant but equal to απ/2 predicting the total reliance of phase
from the fractional-order α [6].
Comparing the above expressions of magnitude responses of fractional and
integer-order differentiator, it is obvious that at the same frequency the fractional-
order differentiator realizes a gain smaller than that achieved by its integer-order
counterpart. As a result, with the substitution of (2.1) into (2.2), the transfer
function of fractional-order differentiator is expressed as shown in (2.3), where αi
(i ¼ 0, 1, 2) is given by (1.6) or (1.10). Their values depend on the type of the
approximation that has been utilized.

αo 2 α1 1
α2 s þ α2 τ s þ τ2
1
H diff ðsÞ ¼ ð2:3Þ
s2 þ αα12 1τ s þ ααo2 τ12
2.2 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α) 15
2.2.2 Fractional-Order Integrator
The transfer function of a fractional-order lossless integrator could be written as

shown in (2.4), while the magnitude response is given as H(ω) ¼ (ωo/ω)α, where
ωo ¼ 1/τ is the unity gain frequency of the integrator. Its phase response will be a
constant equal to απ/2.
1
H ðsÞ ¼ ð2:4Þ
ðτsÞα
The corresponding expressions of its integer-order counterpart with the same

unit gain frequency will be H(ω) ¼ ωo/ω and π/2, respectively. By using the same
order of approximation as in the case of fractional-order differentiator, the transfer
function in (2.4) could be approximated as it is demonstrated in (2.5), where αi
(i ¼ 0,1,2) is given by (1.6) or (1.10).

α2 2 α1 1
α0 s þ α0 τ s þ τ 2
1
H int ðsÞ ¼ ð2:5Þ
s2 þ αα10 1τ s þ αα20 τ12
Taking into account that the transfer function in (2.3) and (2.5) have an integer-
order form, they could be easily performed either by the typical functional block
diagram (FBD) of the follow-the-leader-feedback (FLF) topology depicted in
Fig. 2.1a, or the inverse-follow-the-leader, multi-feedback (IFLF) topology given
in Fig. 2.1b, where the notation (xGi) implies a scaled replica of the corresponding
output. The transfer function is that in (2.6). Comparing (2.3) and (2.5) with (2.6)
Fig. 2.1 FBD for realizing fractional-order differentiator/integrator of order α using (a) FLF
current-mode topology, (b) IFLF voltage-mode topology
Table 2.1 Design Transfer function τ1 τ2

expressions of time-constants
H(s) ¼ (τs)α α2 α1
τi for approximating τ τ
fractional-order α1 α0
differentiator, lossless
H ðsÞ ¼
1 α0 α1
integrator with unity gain ðτsÞα τ τ
α1 α2
frequency (ωo ¼ 1/τ)
Table 2.2 Design Transfer function G2 G1 G0

expressions of gain factors Gi
H(s) ¼ (τs)α α0 1 α2
for approximating fractional-
order differentiator, lossless α2 α0

integrator with unity gain 1 α2 1 α0
frequency (ωo ¼ 1/τ) H ðsÞ ¼
ðτsÞα α0 α2
the derived expressions of time-constants τi and gain factors Gi (i ¼ 0,1,2) are as

summarized in Tables 2.1, and 2.2, respectively.
G2 s2 þ Gτ11 s þ τG1 τ02

H ðsÞ ¼ ð2:6Þ
s2 þ τ11 s þ τ11τ2
2.3 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α)
Fractional-order filters of order α where (0 < α < 1) will be presented and some of
the most critical frequencies have been derived in order to be fully characterized.
From the stability point of view, this system is stable if and only if α > 0 and α < 2,
while it will oscillate if and only if α > 0 and α ¼ 2; otherwise it is unstable. The
derived frequency responses of filters of order α exhibit a stopband attenuation
proportionate to the fractional-order α, which offers a more precise control of the
attenuation gradient compared to the attenuation offered in the case of integer-order
filters of order n, which is 6n dB/oct [6–19].
Thus, low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and all-pass filters of order α will be
presented. Also, using a general topology, all the aforementioned type of filters
could be realized, using the same core. The most important critical frequencies that
will be studied are the following:
• ωp is the frequency at which the magnitude response has a maximum or a
minimum and is obtained by solving the equation dω d
jHðjωÞjω¼ωp ¼ 0
pffiffiffi
• ωh is the half-power frequency at which jH ðjωÞjω¼ωh ¼ jHðjωÞjω¼ωp = 2
• ωrp is the right-phase frequency at which the phase ∠H( jω) ¼ π/2
It should be mentioned that ωrp exists only if α > 1.
2.3 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α) 17
2.3.1 Fractional-Order Low-Pass Filter (FLPF)
The transfer function of a FLPF is that in (2.7), where κ is the low-frequency gain
and ωo 1/τ the pole frequency. The magnitude and phase response are given by
(2.8). The critical frequencies are summarized in Table 2.3, where the magnitude
and phase values are also given. Using (2.8), the expressions for the ωh and the
corresponding phase are these in (2.9).
ωo α 1
H ðsÞ ¼ κ
α α
¼κ α ð2:7Þ
s þ ωo ðτsÞ þ 1
κ
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jH ðjωÞj ¼ r 2α α ffi ð2:8aÞ
ω ω
απ
ωo þ 2 ωo cos 2 þ 1
0 α 1
ω
sin απ
1 B ωo 2 C
∠HðjωÞ ¼ ∠κ tan @ α απ A ð2:8bÞ
ω
ωo cos 2 þ 1
In addition, the peak and right-phase frequency are found as ωp ¼ ωo[cos(απ/

2)]1/α, and ωrp ¼ ωo/[cos(απ/2)]1/α. The stopband attenuation gradient of the
fractional-order low-pass filter order α is equal to 6α dB/oct.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
απ ffi απ α
1=
ω h ¼ ωo 1 þ cos 2 cos ð2:9aÞ

2 2
0 1
απ
B sin 2 C
∠H ðjωÞω¼ωh ¼ ∠κ tan 1 @ απ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
απffiA ð2:9bÞ
2cos 2 þ 1 þ cos 2 2
2.3.2 Fractional-Order High-Pass Filter (FHPF)
The transfer function of a FHPF with high-frequency gain κ and pole frequency
ωo 1/τ is that in (2.10). The magnitude response and phase response are given by
(2.11), while all the critical frequencies are summarized in Table 2.4.
Table 2.3 Magnitude and ω jH( jω)j ∠jH( jω)j

phase values at important
!0 κ ∠κ
frequencies for the FLPF
ωo κ ∠κ απ/4
2 cos απ
4
!1 0 ∠κ απ/2
!
ωh 1 sin ðαπ
κ pffiffiffi 2Þ
∠κ tan 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2cos ðαπ
2 Þþ 1þcos 2 ðαπ 2Þ
Table 2.4 Magnitude and ω jH( jω)j ∠jH( jω)j

phase values at important
!0 0 ∠κ þ απ/2
frequencies for the FHPF
ωo κ ∠κ þ απ/4

2 cos απ4
!1 κ ∠κ
0 1
ωh 1 απ
κ pffiffiffi απ B sin C
2 ∠κ þ tan 1 @qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
ffiA
2 1 þ cos 2 απ 2
ωo α s α ðτsÞα
H ðsÞ ¼ κ ¼ κ ð2:10Þ
sα þ ω o α ðτsÞα þ 1
α
κ ωωo
jH ðjωÞj ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2α α ffi ð2:11aÞ
ω ω
απ
ωo þ 2 ωo cos 2 þ 1
0 α απ 1
ω
sin
B ωo 2 C
∠H ðjωÞ ¼ ∠κ þ απ=2 tan 1 @ α απ A ð2:11bÞ
ω
ωo cos 2 þ 1
The corresponding expressions for the ωh and phase at this frequency are given
by (2.12). In addition, the peak, and right-phase frequency are found as ωp ¼ ωo/
[cos(απ/2)]1/α, and ωrp ¼ ωo[cos(απ/2)]1/α. From these expressions it is seen
that both ωp and ωrp exist only if α > 1. Also, the stopband attenuation gradient of
the fractional-order high-pass filter of order α is equal to þ6α dB/oct.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
απ ffi απ α
1=
ω h ¼ ωo 1 þ cos 2 þ cos ð2:12aÞ

2 2
0 1
απ
απ B sin C
∠H ðjωÞω¼ωh ¼ ∠κ þ tan 1 @qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
απ ffiA ð2:12bÞ
2 1 þ cos 2
2
2.3.3 Fractional-Order Band-Pass Filter (FBPF)
The transfer function of a FBPF with peak-frequency gain κ and pole frequency
ωo 1/τ is that in (2.13), where the magnitude and phase is as shown in (2.14a) and
(2.14b), respectively. In order to obtain a FBPF response, the condition α > β
should be fulfilled. All the critical frequencies are summarized in Table 2.5.
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It had engaged itself, before I commenced my observations, upon a
roast gigot of mutton, which happened to lie near it. This it soon
nearly finished. It then cast a look of fearful omen at a piece of cold
beef, which lay immediately beyond, and which, being placed within
reach by some kind neighbour, it immediately commenced to, with
as much fierceness as it had just exemplified in the case of the
mutton. The beef also was soon laid waste, and another look of
extermination was forthwith cast at a broken pigeon-pie, which lay
still farther off. Hereupon the eye had scarcely alighted, when the
man nearest it, with laudable promptitude, handed it upwards.
Scarcely was it laid on the altar of destruction, when it disappeared
too, and a fourth, and a fifth, and a sixth look, were successively cast
at other dishes, which the different members of the party as
promptly sent away, and which the Mouth as promptly dispatched.
By this time all the rest of the party were lying upon their oars,
observing with leisurely astonishment the progress of the surviving,
and, as it appeared to them, endless feeder. He went on, rejoicing in
his strength, unheeding their idleness and wonder, his very soul
apparently engrossed in the grand business of devouring. They
seemed to enter into a sort of tacit compact, or agreement, to indulge
and facilitate him in his progress, by making themselves, as it were,
his servitors. Whatever dish he looked at, therefore, over the wide
expanse of the table, immediately disappeared from its place. One
after another, they trooped off towards the head of the table, like the
successive brigades which Wellington dispatched, at Waterloo,
against a particular field of French artillery; and still, dish after dish,
like said brigades, came successively away, broken, diminished,
annihilated. Fish, flesh, and fowl disappeared at the glance of that
awful eye, as the Roman fleet withered and vanished before the
grand burning-glass of Archimedes. The end of all things seemed at
hand. The Mouth was arrived at a perfect transport of voracity! It
seemed no more capable of restraining itself than some great engine,
full of tremendous machinery, which cannot stop of itself. It had no
self-will. It was an unaccountable being. It was a separate creature,
independent of the soul. It was not a human thing at all. It was
everything that was superhuman—everything that was immense—
inconceivably enormous! All objects seemed reeling and toppling on
towards it, like the foam-bells upon a mighty current, floating
silently on towards the orifice of some prodigious sea-cave. It was
like the whirlpool of Maëlstrom, everything that comes within the
vortex of which, for miles around, is sure of being caught,
inextricably involved, whirled round and round and round, and then
down that monstrous gulph—that mouth of the mighty ocean, the
lips of which are overwhelming waves, whose teeth are prodigious
rocks, and whose belly is the great abyss!
Here I grew dizzy, fainted, and—I never saw the Mouth again.
RICHARD SINCLAIR;
OR, THE POOR PRODIGAL IN THE AISLE.
By Thomas Aird.
Chapter I.
With many noble qualities—firmness, piety, integrity, and a

thorough affection for his family—the father of the poor prodigal,
Richard Sinclair, had many of the hard points of the Scottish
character; a want of liberality in his estimate of others, particularly of
their religious qualities; a jealousy about his family prerogative,
when it was needless to assert it; and a liking for discipline, or, as he
styled it, nurture, without tact to modify its applications. Towards his
eldest son—a shy and affectionate youth—his behaviour, indeed,
seemed distinctly opposite to what we may characterise as its usual
expression—overbearing gravity. Without this son’s advice, he never
ventured on any speculation that seemed doubtful. He was softly
amenable to the mild wisdom of the lad, and paid it a quiet
deference, of which, indeed, he sometimes appeared to be ashamed,
as a degree of weakness in himself. But the youth had never
disobeyed his parents’ will in any one particular; he was grave and
gentle; and his father, who had been brought up amidst a large and
rugged family, and was thus accustomed to rather stormy usages,
was now at a loss, in matters of rebuke, how to meet this new species
of warfare, which lay in mild and quiet habits, and eventually became
afraid of the censure which was felt in the affectionate silence of his
eldest son.
This superiority might have offended old Sinclair’s self-love; but
the youth, as already stated, made ample amends, by paying in his
turn a scrupulous and entire deference to his parent, whom he thus
virtually controlled, as a good wife knows to rule her husband, by not
seeming to rule at all. From this subdued tone of his favourite
prerogative in the father before us there was a reaction—something
like a compensation to the parental authority—which began to press
too hard upon his second son Richard, who, being of a bolder
character than his brother, was less scrupulously dealt with; besides
that the froward temperament of this younger boy frequently
offended against what his father honestly deemed propriety and
good rule.
He lost no opportunity, when Richard had done anything in the
slightest degree wrong, of checking him with disproportioned
censure, and of reminding him of what he owed to his parents; and
this was repeated, till bearing blame in the boy became a substitute
for gratitude—till the sense of obligation, instead of being a special
call to love, was distinctly felt to be an intolerable burden. From all
these circumstances there naturally grew up a shyness betwixt father
and son, which was unintentionally aggravated by Richard’s mother,
who, aware of her husband’s severe temper, tried to qualify it by her
own soft words and deeds of love. This only brought out the evil
more distinctly in its hard outline; and the very circumstance that
she constantly tried to explain into good his father’s austerity became
her own refutation, and stamped that austerity as a great degree of
tyranny.
Home thus became associated with disagreeable feelings to young
Richard Sinclair; who, being a boy of a giddy character, and naturally
self-willed, could not cling to the good, despite of the admixture of
evil. He neglected his books, fell into gross irregularities; and the
admonitions of his father, rendered useless from the above miserable
system of discipline, were now, when most needed, thoroughly
despised. The death of his elder brother, by which he was left an only
son, softened for a while the harsh intercourse which subsisted
between Richard and his father, and checked the youth for a little in
his bad habits. But vice overcame him anew; and, growing daily
worse, he at length completed the character of the prodigal, by
running off to sea, hardening his heart against his father’s worth, and
heedless of the soft affection of his mother.
The hardships of a sea-faring life, heightened by a series of
peculiar misfortunes, still farther aggravated by a long course of bad
health, gradually subdued the young prodigal’s heart; and after the
lapse of several years we find him on his way returning to his native
village, clad in the meanest attire, slow and irregular in his step; his
countenance, besides being of a dead yellow hue from late jaundice,
thin and worn to the bone; yet improved in his moral nature, caring
not for pride, ready to forgive, and anxious to be forgiven; and, above
all, yearning to confess his crimes and sorrows to a mother’s
unchanging love.
About the noon of an October day, he reached the churchyard of
his native parish, his heart impelling him first to visit the burying-
ground of his family, under the fear, not the less striking because
altogether vague, that he might there see a recent grave; for he had
heard nothing of his parents since his first departure to sea. As he
entered the graveyard by a small postern, he saw a funeral coming in
by the main gate on the opposite side; and wishing not to be
observed, he turned into a small plantation of poplars and silver firs,
which hid the place of graves from the view of the clergyman’s manse
windows. Onward came the sable group slowly to the middle of the
churchyard, where lay, indicating the deep parallel grave beside it,
the heap of fat, clammy earth, from which two or three ragged boys
were taking handfuls, to see, from its restless crumbling, whether it
was the dust of the wicked, which, according to a popular belief,
never lies still for a moment. The dark crowd took their places round
the grave; a little bustle was heard as the coffin was uncovered; it was
lowered by the creaking cords, and again the heads of the company
were all narrowly bent over it for a moment. Not a sound was heard
in the air, save the flitting wing of some little bird among the boughs;
the ruffling of another, as, with bill engulfed in its feathers, it picked
the insects from its skin; and the melancholy cry of a single
chaffinch, which foretold the coming rain.
In natural accordance with the solemnity of the mourners before
him, our youth, as he stood in the plantation, raised his hat; and
when the crowd drew back to give room to the sexton and his
associates to dash in the earth, he leant upon the wall, looking
earnestly over it, to recognise, if possible, the prime mourner. At the
head of the grave, more forward a little than the others, and apart in
his sad privilege, stood a man, apparently about sixty years of age, of
a strong frame,—in which yet there was trembling,—and a fine open
bald forehead; and, notwithstanding that the face of the mourner
was compressed with the lines of unusual affliction, and bowed down
over his hat, which with both hands was pressed upon his mouth,
Richard saw him and knew him but too well—Oh, God! his own
father! And wildly the youth’s eyes rambled around the throng, to
penetrate the mystery of his own loss, till on his dim eyeballs reeled
the whole group, now scattered and melted to mist, now gathered
and compressed into one black, shapeless heap.
But now the thick air began to twinkle, as it still darkened; and the
rain, which to the surprise of all had been kept up so long, began to
fall out in steep-down streams from the low-hung clouds, driving the
black train from the half-finished grave, to mix with a throng of other
people, apparently assembling for public worship, who ran along the
sides of the church in haste to reach the doors. The bell began to toll,
but ceased almost in a minute; the clergyman hurried by in his white
bands; and before Richard could leave the plantation and advance
into the churchyard,—perhaps for the purpose of inquiring who was
the person just entombed,—every one was in save that bareheaded
man—God bless him!—who, heedless of the rain, still stood by the
sexton, whose spade was now beating round the wet turf of the
compacted grave. The young prodigal had not the heart, under a
most awful sense of his own errors, which now overcame him, to
advance to his afflicted father. On the contrary, to avoid his
observation, he slunk away behind the church, and by a door, which
likewise admitted to an old staircase leading to a family division of
the gallery, he got into a back aisle, thickly peopled with spectral
marbles, which, through two or three small panes, admitted a view of
the interior of the church. “Have I lived not to know,” said he to
himself, “when comes God’s most holy Sabbath-day? Assuredly, this
loss of reckoning, this confusion of heart, is of very hell itself. But
hold—to-day is Monday; then it must be the day after a solemn
commemoration, in this place, of Christ’s bleeding sacrifice for men.
I shall sit me down on this slab a while, and see if there may be any
good thing for me—any gleam of the glorious shield that wards off
evil thoughts and the fears of the soul—any strong preparation of
faith to take me up by the hand, and lead me through my difficulties.
At all events, I shall try to pray with the good for the mourners, that
claim from me a thousand prayers: and God rest that dead one!”
Owing to the unusual darkness in the church, the twenty-third
psalm was chosen by the clergyman, as one that could be sung by
most of the congregation without referring to the book; and its
beautiful pastoral devotion suited well with the solemn dedication
which yesterday had been made of a little flock to the care of the
Great Shepherd, and with their hopes of His needful aid. And the
sweet voices of the young, who in early piety had vowed themselves
to God, seemed to have caught the assured and thrilling song of the
redeemed; and their white robes, as they rose to pray, twinkled like
glimpses of angels’ parting wings, bringing home more deeply to the
heart of the poor youth in the aisle a sense of his misery as an alien
and an outcast from the ordinances of salvation.
Richard made an effort to attend to the instructions of the
clergyman; but his heart was soon borne away from attention; and so
anxious did he become in the new calculation, which of his father’s
family it might be whom he had just seen interred, that he could not
refrain from going out before the church windows and looking at the
new grave. Heedless of being seen, he measured it by stepping, and
was convinced, from its length, that either his mother or his sister
Mary must be below. “God forbid!” he ejaculated, “that it should be
my poor mother’s grave! that she should be gone for ever, ere I have
testified my sense of all her love!” It struck him, with a new thought
of remorse, that he was wishing the other alternative, that it might be
his sister Mary’s. And then he thought upon early days, when she
who was his first playmate led him with her little hand abroad in
summer days to the green meadows, and taught him to weave the
white-fingered rushes, and introduced him, because she was his
elder, to new sports and playfellows; whose heart, he knew, would
brook to lie beneath the cold flowers of the spring sooner than give
up its love for him, prodigal though he was; and how was the
alternative much better, if it was she whom he had lost! As he made
these reflections, he was again sauntering into the aisle, where,
sitting down in his former seat, the sad apprehension that his mother
was dead laid siege to his heart. Her mild image, in sainted white,
rose to his mind’s eye; and she seemed to bend over him, and to say
to him, “Come, my care-worn boy, and tell me how it has fared with
you in the hard world?” This vision soon gave place to severe
realities; and in bitter sadness he thought of her who came each
night to his bedside when he was a little child, to kiss him, and
arrange the clothes around him that his little body might be warm.
With a reeling unsteadiness of mind which, from very earnestness,
could not be stayed upon its object, he tried to remember his last
interview with her, and the tenor of his last letter to her, to find out
what kind expressions he had used, till, painfully conscious that he
could muster little to make up an argument of his love, he was again
left to guess his mother’s anguish of soul in her last hour over his
neglect, and to grapple with the conviction that his own folly had
brought her down prematurely to the grave. At length his heart,
becoming passive amidst the very multitude and activity of
reflections that were tugging at it from all sides, yielded to the
weariness which the day’s fatigue, acting upon his frame, worn by
late fever, had induced, and he fell into a deep sleep. When he awoke,
the voice of the clergyman had ceased, and all was silence in the
church; the interior of which as he looked through the small pane, he
saw had been darkened by the shutting of the window-boards. Next
moment he glanced at the aisle door and saw it closed upon him.
Then looking round all over the place, with that calmness which
signifies a desperate fear at hand, “Here I am, then!” he exclaimed;
“if that door be locked upon me, as I dread it is!” Cautiously he went
to it, as if afraid of being resolved in his dreadful apprehension; and,
after first feeling with his hand that the bolt was drawn upon him, he
tried to open it, and was made distinctly aware of his horrid
captivity. Sharply he turned aghast, as if to address some one behind
him; then turning again to the door, he shook it with all his strength,
in the hope that some one might yet be lingering in the churchyard,
and so might hear him. No one, however, came to his assistance; and
now the reflection burst full and black upon him, that here he might
remain unheard till he died of hunger. His heart and countenance
fell, when he remembered how remote the churchyard was from the
village, and from the public way, and how long it was till next Sunday
should come round. From boyhood recollection he remembered well
this same aisle door; that it was black on the outside, with here and
there large white commas to represent tears; and that it was very
thick, and yet farther strengthened by being studded with a great
number of large iron nails.
“Yet I must try to the very utmost,” he said, “either to break it or
make myself be heard by the inmates of the manse, which is my best
chance of release.” Accordingly he borrowed as much impetus as the
breadth of the vault allowed him, and flung himself upon the door in
a series of attacks, shouting at the same time with all his might. But
the door stood firm as a rock despite of him; nor could he
distinguish, as he listened from time to time, the slightest symptoms
of his having been heard by any one. He went to the small grated
window which lighted this house of death, and after watching at it for
some time, he saw an old woman pass along a footpath beyond the
graveyard, with a bundle of sticks upon her head; but she never
seemed to hear him when he called upon her. A little afterwards he
saw two boys sauntering near the gate of the burying-ground; but
though they heard him when he cried, it only made them scamper
off, to all appearance mightily terrified.
Chapter II.
With the calmness almost of despair, when the closing eve took
away his chance of seeing any more stray passengers that day, the
poor youth groped his way to his marble slab, and again sat down
with a strange vacuity of heart, as if it would refuse further thought
of his dismal situation. A new fear came over him, however, when
daylight thickened at the grated window of his low room, and the
white marbles grew dark around him. And not without creeping
horror did he remember that from this very aisle it was that old
Johnny Hogg, a former sexton, was said to have seen a strange vile
animal issue forth one moonlight night, run to a neighbouring
stream, and after lapping a little, hurry back, trotting over the blue
graves, and slinking through beneath the table stones, as if afraid of
being shut out from its dull, fat haunt. Hurriedly, yet with keen
inspection, was young Sinclair fascinated to look around him over
the dim floor; and while the horrid apprehension came over him,
that he was just on the point of seeing the two eyes of the gloating
beast, white and muddy from its unhallowed surfeits, he drew up his
feet on the slab on which he sat, lest it should crawl over them. A
thousand tales—true to boyish impressions—crowded on his mind;
and by this rapid movement of sympathetic associations, enough of
itself, while it lasts, to make the stoutest heart nervous, and from the
irritation of his body from other causes, so much was his mind
startled from its propriety that he thought he heard the devil ranging
through the empty pews of the church; and there seemed to flash
before his eyes a thousand hurrying shapes, condemned and fretted
ghosts of malignant aspect, that cannot rest in their wormy graves,
and milky-curdled babes of untimely birth, that are buried in
twilights, never to see the sun.
Soon, however, these silly fears went off, and the tangible evil of
his situation again stood forth, and drove him to renew his cries for
assistance, and his attacks upon the door, ere he should be quite
enfeebled by hunger and disease. Again he had to sit down, after
spending his strength in vain.
By degrees, he fell into a stupor of sleep, peopled with strange
dreams, in all of which, from natural accordance with his waking
conviction that he had that day seen his mother’s burial, her image
was the central figure. In danger she was with him—in weariness—in
captivity; and when he seemed to be struggling for life, under
delirious fever, then, too, she was with him, with her soft assuaging
kiss, which was pressed upon his throbbing brow, till his frenzy was
cooled away, and he lay becalmed in body and in spirit beneath her
love. Under the last modification of his dream, he stood by confused
waters, and saw his mother drowning in the floods. He heard her
faintly call upon his name; her arms were outstretched to him for
help, as she was borne fast away into the dim and wasteful ocean;
and, unable to resist this appeal, he stripped off his clothes and
plunged in to attempt her rescue. So vivid was this last part of his
vision, that in actual correspondence with the impulse of his dream,
the poor prodigal in the aisle threw off his clothes to the shirt to
prepare himself for swimming to her deliverance. One or two cold
ropy drops, which at this moment fell from the vaulted roof upon his
neck, woke him distinctly, and recalled him to a recollection of his
situation as a captive. But being unable to account for his being
naked, he thought that he had lost, or was about to lose, his reason;
and, weeping aloud like a little child, he threw himself upon his
knees, and cried to God to keep fast his heart and mind from that
dismal alienation. He was yet prostrate when he heard feet walking
on the echoing pavement of the church; and at the same time a light
shone round about him, filling the whole aisle, and showing
distinctly the black letters on the white tombstones.
His first almost insane thought was that a miraculous answer was
given to his prayer, and that, like the two apostles of old, he had won
an angel from heaven to release him from his midnight prison. But
the footsteps went away again by the door, and ceased entirely;
whilst at the same time the light was withdrawn, leaving him to curse
his folly, which, under an absurd hope, had lost an opportunity of
immediate disenthralment. He was about to call aloud, to provoke a
return of the visitation, when, through the grated window of the
aisle, he observed a light among the graves, which he set himself to
reconnoitre. It was one of those raw, unwholesome nights, choked up
with mists to the very throat, which thicken the breath of old men
with asthma, and fill graveyards with gross and rotten beings; and,
though probably not more than twenty yards distant, Sinclair could
not guess what the light was, so tangled and bedimmed was it with
the spongy vapours.
At length he heard human voices, and was glad to perceive the
light approaching his window. When the men, whom he now saw
were two in number, had got within a few yards of him, he called out,
—
“I pray you, good people, be not alarmed; I have been locked up in
this aisle to-day, and must die of hunger in it if you do not get me
out. You can get into the church, and I doubt not you will find the key
of this aisle-door in the sexton’s closet. Now, I hope you have enough
of manhood not to let me remain in this horrid place from any silly
fears on your part.”
Instead of answering to this demand, the fellows took instantly to
their heels, followed by the vehement reproaches of our hero, whose
heart at the same time was smitten by the bitter reflection, that every
chance of attracting attention to his captivity was likely to be
neutralized by the superstitious fears of such as might hear him from
his vault. In a few minutes the light again approached, and after
much whispering betwixt themselves, one of the men demanded who
and what the prisoner was.
“I can only tell you farther,” replied Sinclair, “that I fell asleep in
this place during the sermon,—no very creditable confession, you will
observe,—and that, when I awoke, I found myself fairly entrapped.”
The men retired round the church, and with joy Richard heard
next minute the rattling of the keys as they were taken from the
sexton’s closet. In another minute he heard the door of his dungeon
tried; it opened readily; and with a start, as if they thought it best at
once to rush upon their danger, his two deliverers, whom he
recognised to be of his native village, advanced a little into the aisle,
the foremost bearing the light, which he held forward and aloft,
looking below it into the interior, to be aware for what sort of captive
they had opened. No sooner did Sinclair stand disclosed to them,
naked as he was to the shirt—for he had not yet got on his clothes—
than the sternmost man, with something between a yell and a groan,
bended on his knees, whilst his hair bristled in the extremity of his
terror, and catching hold of his companion’s limbs, he looked
through betwixt them upon the naked spirit of the aisle. The
foremost man lowered the light by inches, and cried aloud,—
“Fear-fa’ me! take haud o’ me, Geordie Heart! It’s the yellow dead
rising from their graves. Eh! there’s the lightning! and is yon no an
auld crooked man i’ the corner?”
“Will Balmer! Will Balmer! whaur are ye?” cried the other, from
between Will’s very knees, which, knocking upon the prostrate man’s
cheeks, made him chatter and quiver in his wild outcry.
“Oh! there’s the lightning again! Gin we could but meet wife and
bairns ance mair!” ejaculated the foremost man.
“Lord have mercy on my widow and sma’ family!” echoed the
sternmost.
“Tout! it’s but the laird’s drucken mulatto after a’!” said the
former, gathering a little confidence.
“Oh, if it were! or but a man wi’ the jaundice, our days might be
lengthened,” cried the latter.
Richard advanced to explain; but at that moment the dull
firmament in the east, which had been lightning from time to time
(as often happens previously to very rainy weather), opened with
another sheeted blaze of white fire, the reflection of which on
Richard’s yellow face, as he came forward, seemed to the terrified
rustics a peculiar attribute of his nature. With a groan, he in the van
tried a backward retreat; but being straitened in the legs, he tumbled
over his squatted companion. Leaving his neighbour, however, to sit
still upon his knees, he that was the foremost man gathered himself
up so well, that he crept away on his hands and feet, till, getting right
below the bell-rope at the end of the church, he ventured to rise and
begin to jow it, making the bell toll at an unusual rate. The inmates
of the manse were immediately alarmed; and first came the
minister’s man, who demanded the meaning of such ill-timed,
ringing.
“Oh! Tam Jaffray! Tam Jaffray! sic a night’s in this kirkyard! If sae
be it’s ordeened that I may ring an’ live, I’ll haud to the tow. Oh! Tam
Jaffray! Tam Jaffray! what’s become o’ puir Geordie Heart? If the
Wandering Jew o’ Jerusalem, or the Yellow Fever frae Jamaica, is no
dancing mother-naked in the aisle, then it behoves to be the dead
rising frae their graves. I trust we’ll a’ be found prepared! Rin for a
lantern, Tam.—Eh! look to that lightning!”
A light was soon brought from the manse; and a number of people
from the village having joined the original alarmists, a considerable
muster advanced to the aisle door just as Sinclair was stepping from
it. Taking the light from one of the countrymen, he returned to the
relief of the poor villager, who was still upon his knees, and who,
with great difficulty, was brought to comprehend an explanation of
the whole affair. The crowd made way as Sinclair proceeded to leave
the graveyard; but whether it was that they were indignant because
the neighbourhood had been so much disturbed, or whether they
considered that proper game was afoot for sportive insolence, they
began to follow and shout after him—
“Come back, ye yellow neegur! we’ll no send ye!—stop him! Come
back, ye squiff, and we’ll gie ye a dead subject!—Stop the
resurrectionist!—After him, gie him a paik, and see if he’s but a batch
o’ badger skins dyed yellow—hurrah!”
Sinclair wishing, for several reasons, to be clear at once of the mob,
was in the act of springing over the dyke into the plantation already
mentioned, when he was struck by a stick on the head, which
brought him back senseless to the ground. The crowd was instantly
around the prostrate youth, and in the caprice or better pity of
human nature, began to be sorry for his pale condition.
“It was a pity to strike the puir lad that gate,” said one. “Some folk
shouldna been sae rash the day, I think,” remarked another. “Stand
back,” cried Tam Jaffray, pushing from right to left; “stand back, and
gie the puir fallow air. Back, Jamieson, wi’ your shauchled shins; it
was you that cried first that he was a resurrectionist.”
The clergyman now advanced and asked what was the matter.
“It’s only a yellow yorlin we’ve catched in the aisle,” cried an
insolent clown, who aspired to be the prime wit of the village; “he
was a bare gorblin a few minutes syne, and now he’s full feathered.”
This provoked a laugh from groundlings of the same stamp, and the
fellow, grinning himself, was tempted to try another bolt,—“And he’s
gayan weel tamed by this time.”
“Peace, fellow,” said the minister, who had now seen what was
wrong; “peace, sir, and do not insult the unfortunate. I am ashamed
of all this.”
By the directions of the clergyman, the poor prodigal was carried
into the manse, where he soon recovered from the immediate
stunning effects of the blow he had received.
“How is all this?” was his first question of surprise, addressed to
his host. “May I request to know, sir, why I am here?”
“In virtue of a rash blow, which we all regret,” answered the
minister.
“I crave your pardon, sir,” returned the youth. “I can now guess
that I am much indebted to your kindness.”
“May we ask you, young man,” said the clergyman, “how it has
happened that you have so alarmed our peaceful neighbourhood?”
The poor prodigal succinctly stated the way of his imprisonment in
the aisle; and with this explanation the charitable old clergyman
seemed perfectly satisfied. Not so, however, was his ruling elder,
who, deeming his presence and authority indispensable in any
matter for which the parish bell could be rung, had early rushed to
the scene of alarm, and was now in the manse, at the head of a
number of the villagers. He, on the contrary, saw it necessary to
remark (glancing at his superior for approbation),—
“Sae, mind, young man, in times future, what comes of sleeping in
the time of two peeous and yedifying discoorses.”
“A good caution, John,” said the mild old minister; “but we must
make allowances.”
“Was it you that struck me down?” said Richard eagerly to an old
man, who, with evident sorrow working in his hard muscular face,
stood watching this scene with intense interest, and who, indeed, was
his own father.
Smitten to the heart by this sudden question of the youth,
ashamed of his own violent spirit on such a night, and grieved, after
the explanation given, for the condition of the poor lad before him,
old Sinclair groaned, turned quickly half round, shifted his feet in the
agony of avowal,—then seizing his unknown prodigal boy by the
hand, he wrung it eagerly, and said,—
“There’s my hand, young man, in the first place; and now, it was
me indeed that struck you down, but I thought——”
“Oh! my prophetic conscience!” interrupted the poor prodigal,
whilst he looked his father ruefully in the face, and returned fervently
the squeeze of his hand. “Make no apologies to me, thou good old
man; thy blow was given under a most just dispensation.”
“I sent two neighbours,” said the old man, still anxious to explain,
“to see that all was right about the grave. I heard the alarm, and
came off wi’ my stick in my hand. I heard them crying to stop ye, for
ye were a resurrectionist. I saw ye jumping suspiciously into the
planting. Ye maun forgie me the rest, young man, for I thought ye
had been violating the grave of a beloved wife.”
“My own poor mother!” sobbed forth the prodigal.
Old Sinclair started—his strong chest heaved—the recollection of
his rash blow, together with the circumstance that it had been
dispensed on such a solemn night, and near the new grave of one
whose gentle spirit had been but too much troubled by the harshness
and waywardness of both husband and son, came over his heart with
the sudden conviction that his boy and himself were justly punished
by the same blow, for their mutual disrespect in former years.
Yearning pity over that son’s unhappy appearance, and the natural
flow of a father’s heart, long subdued on behalf of his poor lost
prodigal, were mingled in the old man’s deep emotion; and he sought
relief by throwing himself in his boy’s arms, and weeping on his
neck.
His sturdy nature soon recovered itself a little; yet the bitter spray
was winked from his compressed eyes as he shook his head; and the
lower part of his face quivered with unusual affliction, as he said in a
hoarse whisper—
“My own Richard!—my man, has your father lived to strike you to
the ground like a brute beast, and you sae ill?—on the very day, too,
o’ your mother’s burial, that loved ye aye sae weel! But come away wi’
me to your father’s house, for ye are sick as death, and the auld man
that used ye ower ill is sair humbled the night, Richard!”
The prodigal’s heart could not stand this confession of a father. His
young bosom heaved as if about to be rent to pieces; the mother, and
hysterica passio of old Lear, rose in his straitened throat,
overmastering the struggling respiration, and he fell back in a violent
fit. His agonized parent ran to the door, as if seeking assistance, he
knew not what or where; then checking himself in a moment, and
hastening back, yet without looking on his son, he grasped the
clergyman strongly by the hand, crying out, “Is he gone?—is my
callant dead?”
Ordering the people to withdraw from around the prostrate youth,
whose head was now supported by the clergyman’s beautiful and
compassionate daughter, the kind old pastor led forward the
agonised father, and pointing to his reviving son, told him that all
would soon be well again. With head depressed upon his bosom, his
hard hands slowly wringing each other, while they were wetted with
the tears which rained from his glazed eyes, old Sinclair stood
looking down upon the ghastly boy, whose eye was severely swollen,
whilst his cheek was stained with the clotted blood which had flowed
from the wound above the temples, inflicted by his own father.
After standing a while in this position, the old man drew a white
napkin from his pocket, and, as if himself unable for the task, he gave
it to one of his neighbours, and pointed to the blood on the face of his
prodigal boy, signifying that he wished it wiped away. This was done
accordingly; and, in a few moments more, Richard rose, recovered
from his fit, and modestly thanking the clergyman and his beautiful
daughter for their attentions to him, he signified his resolve to go
home immediately with his father. The kind old minister would fain
have kept him all night, alleging the danger of exposing himself in
such a state to the night air; but the youth was determined in his
purpose; and old Sinclair cut short the matter by shaking the hand of
his pastor, whilst, without saying a word, he looked him kindly in the
face to express his thanks, and then by leading his son away by the
arm.
The villagers, who had crowded into the manse, judging this one of
those levelling occasions when they might intrude into the best
parlour, allowed the father and son to depart without attempting
immediately to follow—nature teaching them that they had no right
to intermeddle with the sacred communings of the son and father’s
repentance and forgiveness, or with the sorrow of their common
bereavement. Yet the rude throng glanced at the minister, as if
surprised and disappointed that the thing had ended so simply; then
slunk out of the room, apprehensive, probably, of some rebuke from
him. The ruling elder, however, remained behind, and wherefore
not?
THE BARLEY FEVER—AND REBUKE.
By D. M. Moir (“Delta”).
Sages their solemn een may steek,
And raise a philosophic reek,
And, physically, causes seek
In clime and season;
But tell me Whisky’s name in Greek,
I’ll tell the reason.—Burns.
On the morning after the business of the playhouse happened,[13] I

had to take my breakfast in my bed,—a thing very uncommon for me,
being generally up by cock-craw, except on Sunday mornings whiles,
when ilka ane, according to the bidding of the Fourth
Commandment, has a license to do as he likes,—having a desperate
sore head, and a squeamishness at the stomach, occasioned, I
jalouse, in a great measure from what Mr Glen and me had discussed
at Widow Grassie’s, in the shape of warm toddy, over our cracks
concerning what is called the agricultural and the manufacturing
interests. So our wife, puir body, pat a thimbleful of brandy—Thomas
Mixem’s real—into my first cup of tea, which had a wonderful virtue
in putting all things to rights; so that I was up and had shapit a pair
of leddy’s corsets (an article in which I sometimes dealt) before ten
o’clock, though, the morning being gey cauld, I didna dispense with
my Kilmarnock.
13. See ante, “My First and Last Play,” p. 394.
At eleven in the forenoon, or thereabouts,—maybe five minutes
before or after, but nae matter,—in comes my crony Maister Glen,
rather dazed-like about the een, and wi’ a large piece of white
sticking-plaister, about half-a-nail wide, across one of his cheeks,

Design of CMOS Analog Integrated Fractional Order Circuits Applications in Medicine and Biology 1st Edition Georgia Tsirimokou

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Design of CMOS Analog Integrated Fractional Order Circuits Applications in Medicine and Biology 1st Edition Georgia Tsirimokou

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Design of CMOS Analog Integrated

Fractional Order Circuits Applications

Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits 2nd eddition

Systematic Design of Analog CMOS Circuits Using Pre

CMOS Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuit Design: Practices

Radiation Hardened CMOS Integrated Circuits for Time

Functional and impulsive differential equations of

CMOS Circuits for Biological Sensing and Processing 1st

5G and E-Band Communication Circuits in Deep-Scaled

An Introduction to Systems Biology Design Principles of

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10059

Design of CMOS Analog

ISSN 2191-8112 ISSN 2191-8120 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935037

© The Author(s) 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Rio Patras, Greece Georgia Tsirimokou

2.5.5 Design Equations for Generalized Filters

6 Applications of Fractional-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Georgia Tsirimokou received B.Sc. degree in Physics and M.Sc. degree in

1.1 Fractional Calculus

© The Author(s) 2017 1

where n-1 α n and Γ() is the gamma function.

where f (0) is the initial condition.

ZðsÞ ¼ κsα ¼ ðκωÞα ej 2

where κ is a constant and α is a fractional-order.

Fig. 1.1 Classification

At α ¼ 2, it represents the well-known frequency-dependent negative resistor

1 αx ð1 þ αÞx ð1 αÞx ð2 þ αÞx ð2 αÞx

α0 ðτsÞn þ α1 ðτsÞn1 þ þ αn1 ðτsÞ þ αn

Table 1.1 Rational approximation for (τs)α

α3 ¼ (α3 þ 6α2 11α þ 6)

α2 ¼ (6α4 150α2 þ 864)

α4 ¼ (α4 10α3 þ 35α2 50α þ 24)

ðα2 þ 3α þ 2ÞðτsÞ2 þ ð8 2α2 ÞðτsÞ þ ðα2 3α þ 2Þ

where the design equations of coefficients αi (i ¼ 0,1,2) are already defined as

Another approach for obtaining the second-order approximation for sα is using

2ð1 þ αÞðτsÞ2 þ ð5 α2 ÞðτsÞ þ 2ð1 αÞ

where the design equations of coefficients αi (i ¼ 0, 1, 2) are defined as

1.2 Literature Overview

1 αn sn þ αn1 ωo sn1 þ þ α1 ωo n1 s þ α0 ωo n

α0 sn þ α1 ωo sn1 þ þ αn1 ωo n1 s þ αn ωo n

Nevertheless, these realizations are problematic when it is desired to change the

Another important drawback is the absence of programmability, making these

1.3 Book Objectives

– Only grounded capacitors are employed

Fractional-order differentiation and integration topologies offer attractive features

© The Author(s) 2017 13

2.2 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α)

2.2.1 Fractional-Order Differentiator

The transfer function, as well as the magnitude response of an integer-order

HðsÞ ¼ ðτsÞα ð2:2Þ

2.2.2 Fractional-Order Integrator

The transfer function of a fractional-order lossless integrator could be written as

The corresponding expressions of its integer-order counterpart with the same

Table 2.1 Design Transfer function τ1 τ2

Table 2.2 Design Transfer function G2 G1 G0

the derived expressions of time-constants τi and gain factors Gi (i ¼ 0,1,2) are as

G2 s2 þ Gτ11 s þ τG1 τ02

2.3 Fractional-Order Generalized Filters (Order α)

2.3.1 Fractional-Order Low-Pass Filter (FLPF)

In addition, the peak and right-phase frequency are found as ωp ¼ ωo[cos(απ/