Philosophy - Asking questions seeking

answers 1st Edition Stephen Stich

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/philosophy-asking-questions-seeking-answers-1st-edi
tion-stephen-stich/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Philosophy - Asking questions Seeking Answers F3Thinker

!

https://textbookfull.com/product/philosophy-asking-questions-
seeking-answers-f3thinker/

Communication Research Asking Questions Finding Answers

Joann Keyton

https://textbookfull.com/product/communication-research-asking-
questions-finding-answers-joann-keyton/

Philosophy at 3 AM Questions and Answers with 25 Top

Philosophers 1st Edition Richard Marshall

https://textbookfull.com/product/philosophy-at-3-am-questions-
and-answers-with-25-top-philosophers-1st-edition-richard-
marshall/

God Questions Answers 1st Edition Jim Andrakin

https://textbookfull.com/product/god-questions-answers-1st-
edition-jim-andrakin/
Cultural Anthropology: Asking Questions about Humanity
Robert L Welsch

https://textbookfull.com/product/cultural-anthropology-asking-
questions-about-humanity-robert-l-welsch/

The Art of Asking Questions 7th Edition Stanley Le

Baron Payne

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-art-of-asking-questions-7th-
edition-stanley-le-baron-payne/

Neurology board review : questions and answers 1st

Edition Mcgregor

https://textbookfull.com/product/neurology-board-review-
questions-and-answers-1st-edition-mcgregor/

100 Questions Answers About Lymphoma 3rd Edition Holman

https://textbookfull.com/product/100-questions-answers-about-
lymphoma-3rd-edition-holman/

Neurosurgery Self-Assessment Questions and Answers

Rahul Shah

https://textbookfull.com/product/neurosurgery-self-assessment-
questions-and-answers-rahul-shah/
 PHILOSOPHY
Asking Questions - Seeking Answers

STEPHEN STICH
THOMAS DONALUDSON

OXFORD
UNIVERSITYPRESS
 Philosophy
Asking Questions—Seeking Answers
 Philosophy
Asking Questions—Seeking Answers

SLEPHEN STICH
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

TOM DONALDSON
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.It furthers the
University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing
worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and
certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© 2019 by Oxford University Press

Fortitles covered by Section 112 of the US Higher Education

Opportunity Act, please visit www.oup.com/us/he for the
latest information about pricing and alternate formats.

All rights reserved. Nopart of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, withoutthe prior permission in
writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law,bylicense, or under
terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must notcirculate this work in any other form

and you must imposethis same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names:Stich, Stephen P., author.
Title: Philosophy: asking questions -seeking answers / written by Stephen
Stich and Thomas Donaldson.
Description: 1 [edition]. | New York : Oxford University Press, 2018.|
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018016169 | ISBN 9780199329960 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH:Philosophy -Introductions.
Classification: LCC BD21 .S773 2018 | DDC 100—dc23 LCrecord available
at heeps://Iccn.loc.gov/2018016169

9876543210
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
 CONTENTS
eee ee

Preface xi

CHAPTER1 WhatIs Philosophy? 1

Philosophy Is Everywhere 1
See Se

WhatIs a Philosophical Question? 2

The Philosophical Method 4
Philosophy and Science 5
WhyBother? 6
Discussion Question 6
Notes 6

CHAPTER 2 What Are Arguments, and How Should We

Evaluate Them? 7
Li Introduction 7
Premises and Conclusions 8
Pe RPNAWAYWHN

Evaluating Arguments 11
Deductive Validity 12
Induction and Abduction 13
Multistep Arguments 16
Evaluating Multistep Arguments 18
Some Arguments to Evaluate 21
Answers to Problems 23
What to Lookat Next 26
Glossary 27
Notes 28
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER3 Does God Exist? 29

1. Introduction 29
‘The First Cause Argument 31

SNARK AYWN
Some Questions about the First Cause Argument 35
Leibniz's Cosmological Argument 36
The Design Argument 38
Criticisms of the Design Argument 41
Anselm's Ontological Argument 46
What, If Anything, Is Wrong with Anselm's Ontological
Argument? 49
9. A Pragmatic Case for Theism? 50
10. Conclusion 53
Glossary 53
Comprehension Questions 54
Discussion Questions 55
What to Look at Next 57
Notes 58

CHAPTER4 Why Does God Leave Usto Suffer? 59

. Introduction 59
SNARAWN

Three Logical Puzzles for Theists 60

Introducing the Problem of Evil 62
‘Three Inadequate Responses 64
Rethinking the Nature of God 66
Theodicy 67
Skeptical Theism 70
. Conclusion 71
Glossary 72
Comprehension Questions 73
Discussion Questions 73
What to Look at Next 75
Notes 75

CHAPTER5 Can We Be Completely Certain of Anything? 77

1. Introduction 77
. Descartes’s Project 77
AwWsA WN

Certainty Is Hardto Find 79

Achieving Certainty 83
Vivid and Clear Perception 85
Descartes’s Theism, and His Solution to the Evil Demon
Problem 86
7. The Cartesian Circle 88
 Contents vii

8. Descartes’s Legacy 89
9. Conclusion 91
Glossary 91
Comprehension Questions 92
Discussion Questions 93
What to Look at Next 94
Notes 95

CHAPTER6 Can We Trust Our Senses? 97

1. Rationalism and Empiricism 97
Indirect Realism 98
NARARYN

Primary and Secondary Qualities 101

Do Material Objects Really Exist? 105
Berkeley's Idealism 106
Direct Realism 112
. Conclusion 113
Glossary 114
Comprehension Questions 116
Discussion Questions 117
What to Look at Next 119
Notes 119

CHAPTER7 ¥WilltheSun Rise Tomorrow? 121

1. Introduction 121
Making Predictions 122
NAW YH

Hume's Problem 124

Karl Popper 127
Peter Strawson 130
Epistemically Basic Beliefs 132
. Beyond Enumerative Induction 134
Glossary 136
Comprehension Questions 136
Discussion Questions 137
What to Look at Next 138
Notes 139

CHAPTERS WhatIs Knowledge? 141

1. Introduction 141
2. Three Kinds of Knowledge 141
3. Analyzing Propositional Knowledge: The Easy
Part—Beliefand Truth 142
Vili CoNTENTS

4. Analyzing Propositional Knowledge: The Hard

Part—Justification 143
Foundationalism 145

POnawy
Coherentism 148
Internalism and Externalism 150
Fallibilism and Skepticism 152
Gettier Cases—A Challengeto the Justified True Belief
Account of Knowledge 154
Glossary 155
Comprehension Questions 156
Discussion Questions 157
Whatto Look at Next 159
Notes 159

CHAPTER 9 Do We Have Free Will? 161

1. What Is Determinism? 161
2. Hard Determinism 163
3. Soft Determinism 166
4. Libertarianism 170
Glossary 174
Comprehension Questions 174
Discussion Questions 175
What to Look at Next 176
Notes 177

CHAPTER 10 HowIs Your Mind Related to Your Body? 179

Introduction 179
DAWAYWN SE

Cartesian Dualism 182

Philosophical Behaviorism 187
‘The Mind-Brain Identity Theory 193
Functionalism 197
. Backto Dualism? 203
Glossary 204
Comprehension Questions 207
Discussion Questions 207
What to Look at Next 209
Notes 211

CHAPTER 11 Will You Be the Same Person in Ten Years? Could

You Survive Death? 213
1. The Philosophical Issue and Its Practical Importance 213
2. The Soul Theory 217
 Contents ix

3. Problems for Soul Theory 219

4. Memory Theories 221
5. Personal Identity and the Brain 233
Glossary 235
Comprehension Questions 238
Discussion Questions 239
What to Look at Next 241
Notes 242

CHAPTER12 Are There Objective Truths about Right and

Wrong? 243
1. Introduction 243
Objective Truth 244
NAW YH

The Divine Command Theory 246

Cultural Relativism 249
Subjectivism and Expressivism 253
The Qualified Attitude Theory 256
. Conclusion 258
Glossary 259
Comprehension Questions 261
Discussion Questions 262
What to Look at Next 265
Notes 266

CHAPTER13 WhatReally Matters? 267

1. Introduction 267
2. Hedonism 268
3. Sartre 271
4. Susan Wolf on Meaningfulness 276
5. Conclusion 280
Glossary 281
Comprehension Questions 283
Discussion Questions 284
What to Look at Next 284
Notes 285

CHAPTER14 What Should We Do? (PartI) 287

1. Act Consequentialism and Act Utilitarianism 287
2. Objections to Act Utilitarianism 292
3. Rule Consequentialism and Rule
Utilitarianism 295
4. Kant’s Universalization Test 298
Xx CoNnTENTS

5. Kant’s Humanity Formula 301

6. Comparing Kantianism and Consequentialism 303
Glossary 304
Comprehension Questions 306
Discussion Questions 306
What to Look at Next 307
Notes 308

CHAPTER 15 What Should We Do? (Part II) 309

1. Introduction 309
2. Is It Morally Wrong to Go to the Opera While People
Are Starving? 310
3. Vegetarianism 315
4. Is Abortion Morally Wrong? 319
Glossary 327
Comprehension Questions 328
Discussion Questions 329
What to Look at Next 331
Notes 332

Appendix A: Reading and Writing Tips 334

Seven Tips on Reading Philosophy 334
Eighteen Tips for Writing Philosophy Papers 336
Appendix B: The Truth about Philosophy Majors 342
Careers 342
Salaries 346
Meaning 348
Notes 348
Resources 349
Glossary 350
Credits 367
Index 369
 PREFACE
eee

Whois this book for?

If you knowlittle or nothing about philosophy, and you wantto learn,
this is the book for you. Wewill introduce someof the biggest questions
in the subject; we keep it simple, and westart at the beginning.

Which philosophical topics do you cover?

You should check out our table of contents for a detailed answer, but
briefly:
« In the first chapter, we talk about what philosophyis.
¢ In the second chapter, we give you sometips on howto analyze
arguments.
« The third and fourth chapters are about God.
¢ Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 are about epistemology: a branch of
philosophytraditionally defined as the theory of knowledge.
¢ Chapters 9, 10, and 11 are about what kind of a thing youare.
Are you a purely physical thing, or do you have a nonphysical
component—a mind or soul? Do you havefree will? Could you
survive death?
¢ Chapters 12, 13, 14 are aboutethics.

xi
xii PREFACE

That’s a lot to cover in a small book.

Well, yes, but we have to admit that there are many philosophicaltopics
not covered in this book. There's not much aboutthe history of philoso-
phy. There's no political philosophyeither.
And the bookis incomplete in another way. Both of us were trained
in the Western philosophical tradition. This is a tradition that originated
in Europe and which has been strongly influenced by the Abrahamic
religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This book is really about
Western philosophy.If you wantto learn about other philosophical tra-
ditions, you should consider picking up one or moreof these books:
¢ Bryan W. Van Norden:Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy
¢ MarkSiderits: Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction
¢ J. N. Mohanty:Classical Indian Philosophy
¢ Lee M. Brown:African Philosophy: New and Traditional
Perspectives
¢ Kwasi Wiredu: A Companion to African Philosophy
¢ Susana Nuccetelli, Ofelia Schutte, and Otavio Bueno: A
Companion to Latin American Philosophy
¢ Eliot Deutsch and Ron Bontekoe: A Companion to World
Philosophies

Can an I ski
skip thee chapters
chapters that
that d don't interest me?
The chapters of this book are largely independent. You can read them in
any order, and you can omit chapters that don’tinterest you.

This stuff is interesting. WhatI else should lookat?

We make recommendationsfor further reading at the end of each chap-
ter. We recommend some movies too. And you mightlike to go to this
book’s website, www.oup.com/us/stich for links to podcasts, videos, and
so on.

How did you cometo write this book?

Somebookstake a long timeto create. This one has taken a very long
time. The story of how this book cameto be begins whenthe older of
the two authors, Stephen Stich, was assigned to teach the Introduction
to Philosophy lecture course shortly after he began his teaching career
 Preface xiii

at the University of Michigan,fifty years ago. It was a daunting assign-

ment since Stich had never taken an Introduction to Philosophy course
as an undergraduate. Nor had heever taken a big lecture course in phi-
losophy. The Michigan Intro course was very big—almost 400 students
taught in a huge lecture hall with both a mainfloor and a balcony. After
checking out the lecture hall, Stich wasterrified. He spent an entire
summerdoing nothing but preparing notesfor Intro to Philosophylec-
tures. His goal was to present students with the best case to be madefor
both sides on a range of hotly debated issues that are central to Western
philosophy.
WhenStich stepped out onto the stage on the first day of class, mi-
crophonein hand, he waspetrified. But about ten minutes into the lec-
ture, he paused to take a sip of water and thought to himself, “Hey, this
is fun!” He's been teaching an Introduction to Philosophy course almost
every year since 1968,andit is still fun. Every year, the course evolves
a bit, expanding material that went well in the previous few years and
dropping material that didn’t. What doesn't changeis the goal of focus-
ing on central issues in Western philosophy, presenting the best case for
both sides of every issue considered, and challenging students to make
up their own minds.
In 2010, Tom Donaldson,then a PhD studentat Rutgers University,
was a teaching assistant in Stich’s course. At one of the weekly meet-
ings with the course TAs, Stich noted that the course notes, which had
migrated to PowerPoint slides over the years, might be the basis for a
course textbook, but he doubted he would ever have enough time to
write the textbook on his own. Donaldson said he would beinterested
in working on that project. And that’s when the work on this book
began in earnest.
We metwith Robert Miller, ourterrific editor at Oxford University
Press, and planned to have the volume completed in about two years.
But lots of stuff slowed us down. Donaldson spent two yearsas a Junior
Fellow at Harvard, and then launched his teaching career at Stanford.
Stich was organizing large international research teams to study how
philosophical concepts varied across cultures. Chapters were written,
critiqued, and rewritten. Two years stretched to eight. Throughout
this long process, our goal has remained the same: to write a bookthat
would offer studentsa lively and sophisticated introduction to some of
the most important issues in Western philosophy, presenting both sides
xiv PREFACE

and encouraging students to make up their own minds about which side
has the strongercase.

Is there anyone that you wantto thank?

Lots of people have helped. Robert Miller and the staff at Oxford
University Press have been a constant source of good advice, encour-
agement, and patience. Robert also arranged for earlier drafts to be
critiqued by more than a dozen colleagues who teach the Introduc-
tion to Philosophy course at a wide range of colleges and universities.
Since their reports were anonymous, we can't thank these colleagues by
name, but their invaluable feedback has led to many improvements in
the book.
Our greatest debt is to the thousands of undergraduate students
whohavetaken Stich’s Introduction to Philosophy course overthelast
fifty years and to the dozens of graduate students who were teaching
assistants in the course. They offered, and continue to offer, the best
feedback on how to make the problems of philosophyclear, engaging,
and fun. The four most recent teaching assistants, Christopher Hauser,
Olivia Odoffin, David Rose, and Michael Schapira, deserve special
thanks since they used an earlier version of the material in this book
and gave us a steady stream of useful suggestions on how to make the
bookbetter.
Wewould also like to thank Tae Shin Lee for his advice on Chapter1,
Jorah Dannenbergfor his help with Chapter 14, Tessa Donaldsonfor her
advice on Chapter 3, and Meena Krishnamurthyfor helping us find the
right quotation from Martin LutherKingJr. Jennifer Wang and Thomas
Icard gave us helpful comments on manyparts of the book.

Stephen Stich
Tom Donaldson

Student and Instructor Resources

The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) (www
.oup-arc.com) houses a wealth of Instructor Resources, including an
Instructor’s Manual with chapter summaries, essay/ discussion ques-
tions, suggested Weblinks, and a glossary of key terms from thetext; a
Computerized Test Bank with multiple-choice and true/false questions
 Preface xv

per chapter(also available as a traditional “pencil-and-paper” Test Bank

in the Instructor’s Manual); and PowerPoint lecture outlines.
The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resource Center (ARC)
(www.oup-arc.com) also contains study materials for students, includ-
ing practice quizzes with multiple-choice and true/false questions taken
from the Test Bank, essay/discussion questions, chapter summaries, a
glossary of key terms from the text, and suggested Weblinks.
All instructor and student resources are also available as car-
tridges for Learning Management Systems. For more information,
please contact your Oxford University Press Sales Representative at
1-800-280-0280.
 THE TIME LINE OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
Philosophers Discussed
in This Volume
THE ANCIENT PERIOD
Socrates (c. 470-399 sce)
Democritus (c. 460-370 ace)
Plato (c. 428-348 sce)
Aristotle (384—322 sce)
Epicurus (341-270 sce)
THE MIDDLE AGES
Augustine of Hippo (St. Augustine)
(354-430)
Anselm (c. 1033-1109)
Thomas Aquinas (1225 -1274)
FROM THE RENAISSA NCE TO THE PRESENT
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618-1680)
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
George Berkeley (1685-1753)
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Thomas Reid (1710-1796)
David Hume (1711-1776)
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
William Paley (1743-1805)
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
William James (1842-1910)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
G. E. Moore (1873-1958)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)
Karl Popper (1902-1994)
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
A. J. Ayer (1910-1989)
Elizabeth Anscombe (1919-2001)
Peter Strawson (1919-2006)
Alvin Plantinga (1932-)
DerekParfit (1942—2017)
Peter Singer (1946-)
Susan Wolf (1952-)
Kwame Anthony Appiah (1954—)
Some Important Historical
Figures & Events
Athenians defeat Persians at Marathon
(490 sce)
Alexander the Great (356-323 sce)
Julius Caesar (100—44 sce)
Jesus Christ (c. 4 sce—30/33 ce)
Romans destroy the temple in Jerusalem
(70 ce)
Fall of the Roman Empire (476)
Muhammad(57 1-632)
Norman conquest of England (1066)
The Black Death (1346-1353)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Christopher Columbus “discovers”
America (1492)
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Rembrandtvan Rijn (1606-1669)
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
American Revolution (1775-1783)
French Revolution (1789-1791)
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Queen Victoria (1819-1901)
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844—1900)
SigmundFreud (1856-1939)
American Civil War (1861-1865)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Mao Zedong (1893-1976)
World War | (1914-1918)
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929 -1968)
World War Il (1939-1945)
Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima
(1945)
Apollo 11 commander Neil Armstrong
walks on the moon (1969)
Terrorist attack destroys World Trade
Center (2001)
 Philosophy

Asking Questions—Seeking Answers

The Death ofSocrates, painted by Jacques-Louis David in 1787. Socrates, thoughhe is
aboutto die,is still teaching. Plato sits at the foot of the bed.
 CHAPTER1
eee ee

WhatIs Philosophy?

1. Philosophy Is Everywhere
Many people think that philosophy is an esoteric subject. Admittedly,
professional philosophers in universities do sometimes devote them-
selves to abstruse questions. We have colleagues who've devoted many
years to figuring out exactly how “a” and “the” differ in meaning, and
we have friends whostay up late at night discussing whether God could
change the lawsoflogic.
But, in fact, philosophical questions often come up in everydaylife.
Think about the familiar question of whetherit is okay to buy andeat
meat. This is a philosophical question, and it quickly leads to others. As
well see in chapter 15, some vegetarians argue that you should not buy
meatbecauseit is wrongto inflict pain on animals. Meat eaters might reply
that it is okay to buy meat from humanefarmsorthatit is okay to buy the
meat of animals incapable of experiencing pain—oysters, for example.
Let’s think about that last claim for a moment. How canwetell
whether oysters experience pain? You might think that we can figure
out whether oysters experience pain by investigating their nervoussys-
tems. But to do this, wed have to understand the relation between con-
scious mental states (such as pain) and the nervous system—andthisis
a notoriously difficult philosophical problem. We'll discuss the topic in
chapter 10.
2 PuiLosopHy: ASKING QUESTIONS—SEEKING ANSWERS

Some Christians argue that it is okay to eat meat on the basis of

certain passages from the book of Genesis, including this one:
God blessed Noah andhis sons, and said to them, “Be fruitful and
multiply, and fill the Earth. The fear and dread of youshall rest on
every animal of the Earth, and onevery bird of the air, on everything
that creeps on the ground, and onall the fish of the sea; into your
hand they are delivered. Every moving thing thatlives shall be food
for you; and justas I gave you the green plants, I give you everything.”

Ofcourse, this argument won't convince vegetarians who aren't Jewish

or Christian, and even someJews and Christians question this approach
to scripture.
In a few minutes of conversation, we've already come across some
deep and important philosophical questions:
« Is it okay to eat meat?
« Howis consciousnessrelated to the nervous system?
¢ Does Godexist?
« Is the Bible a good source of information about God’s wishes?
These are not esoteric questions. You may not think about such ques-
tions every day, but everyone has to confront philosophical questions
from timeto time.

2. WhatIs a Philosophical Question?

It might strike you that the list of philosophical questions we present
havelittle in common. Whyareall these classified as philosophical ques-
tions? Whatis a philosophical question?
According to a popular story, when G. E. Moore (a prominent
British philosopherof the early twentieth century) was asked whatphi-
losophyis, he simply pointed to his bookshelf and said that philosophy
is “what all these booksare about.” We sympathize:it is far from easy to
say whatall the different philosophical questions have in common.But
we will try to give you a more informative answer than Moore.
Part of the answer, we think, is that much of philosophy concerns
“normative” questions—thatis, questions about right and wrong, good
and bad. This includes questions about how weshould live (“Is it okay
to eat meat?”), what constitutes good reasoning (“Whatare the limita-
tions of the scientific method?”), and how society should be structured
(“Should it be compulsory to vote?”).
 WhatIs Philosophy? 3

A list of philosophical questions

+ Is it possible to travel backward in time?
+ Is it good to be patriotic? Whatare the differences,if any,
betweenpatriotism and nationalism?
+ Why does God permit so muchsuffering?
+ Whatis the difference between knowledge and opinion?
+ Whatis the scientific method? Can we usethe scientific
methodin ethics?
+ Could a digital computer have consciousness?
* God is sometimessaid to be “all powerful.” But what does that
mean?
* How can wedistinguish true experts from charlatans?
+ Do you have a nonphysical soul, which will persist after your
death?
* Do you havefree will?
+ Whatis art?
- When,if ever,is it okay to lie?
* Can we knowanything for certain?
- In social science, to what extent should we assume that people
makechoicesrationally?
+ What limits are there,if any, to the right to free speech?
+ Is it good to havefaith?If so, whatis faith?
+ Whoshould beallowedto vote in elections?
+ What are numbers?

Anotherpart of the answeris that philosophers spend a lot of time

questioning our most basic assumptions. For example,it is a central princi-
ple of Christian thought that God exists and that the Bible is a good source
of information about him. Philosophers question these assumptions.
This last choice of example is perhaps misleading because it might
suggest that philosophyis an antireligious activity. In fact, it is not only
religious assumptionsthat are challenged by philosophers. Philosophers
also scrutinize the basic assumptions of science, politics, art... every-
thing. Which may explain why philosophy has sometimes been regarded
as a subversive activity. Indeed, the ancient Greek thinker Socrates
(c. 470-399 sce), who is sometimes regardedas the founder of the West-
ern philosophical tradition, was condemnedto death for “corrupting the
youth.” In a Socratic spirit, we hope that this book will corrupt you.
4 PutLosopuy: ASKING QUESTIONS—SEEKING ANSWERS

3. The Philosophical Method

Philosophers attempt to state their views clearly and precisely, and they
give explicit arguments fortheir claims.
We should explain what we mean when wesaythat philosophers
attempt to state their views clearly and precisely. In 1948, philosophers
Frederick Coppleston and Bertrand Russell debated the existence of
God. Their discussion beganlikethis:
COPPLESTON: As weare going to discuss the existence of God,
it might perhaps be as well to come to someprovisional
agreement as to what we understand by the term “God.”I
presume that we mean a supreme personal Being—distinct
from the world and Creator of the world. Would you agree—
provisionally at least—to accept this statement as the mean-
ing of the term “God”?
RUSSELL: Yes, I accept this definition.
COPPLESTON: Well, my positionis the affirmative position that
such a Being actually exists, and that His existence can be
proved philosophically. Perhaps you would tell me if your
position is that of agnosticism or of atheism. I mean, would
you say that the non-existence of God can be proved?
RUSSELL: No,I should notsay that: my position is agnostic.’

Notice that the two philosophersaren't contentjust to say that Cop-

pleston believes God exists while Russell doesn’t. They articulate their
disagreement more precisely than that. They agree on what they mean
by “God,and theyclarify that Coppleston believes God’s existence “can
be proved philosophically,” while Russell's position is agnostic—thatis,
Russell doesn't believe God exists, but he doesn't think that God’s nonex-
istence can be proven.’ What do we mean whenwesaythat philosophers
attempt to give explicit argumentsfor their claims? Wewill talk about ar-
guments and howto evaluate them in the next chapter. For now,sufficeit
to say that philosophers don't like to defend their views merely by appeal
to authority or tradition. As we've said, one of the goals of philosophy
is to scrutinize received wisdoms;it defeats the point of the exercise to
assumethat the existing authorities have figuredit all out already.
This is not to say that appeals to authority are alwaysfallacious. On
the contrary, it is often perfectly appropriate to gather information from
experts. Our pointis that, in a philosophical context, our goal is to present
arguments for our views without simply leaning upon existing authorities.
 WhatIs Philosophy? 5

For example, suppose that you're thinking about how thestate

should be structured. You might find it helpful to read through clas-
sics like The Federalist Papers; however, in philosophical work you're
expected to present arguments for your claims, and “Hamilton said so”
or “Madisonsaid so” wontcutit.
It is perhaps for this reason that philosophers don't usually get in-
volved in the interpretation of sacred texts. This is part of what separates
philosophy from theology andreligious studies.

4. Philosophy and Science

It is sometimes suggested that philosophy is not needed anymore, be-
cause science has taken over. Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow
don't mince their words:
How doesthe universe behave? Whatis the nature of reality? Where
did all this come from? Did the universe need a creator? ... Tradi-
tionally these are questions for philosophy, but philosophy is dead.
Philosophy has not kept up with modern developments in science,
particularly physics. Scientists have becomethe bearers of the torch
of discovery in our quest for knowledge.*
Hawking and Mlodinoware right about onething:it is important
whenthinking about philosophical questions to keep up-to-date with
relevant workin the sciences. It would be a big mistake, for example,to
write about which animals can experience pain without drawing upon
the work of psychologists, zoologists, neuroscientists, and so on. But it
won'tsurprise you to learn that we reject Hawking’s claim that philoso-
phy is dead. Ourreason is simple: there are many philosophical ques-
tions currently unaddressed in the scientific literature. No matter how
much time you spend reading zoology and neuroscience journals, you
won'tfind an answerto the question of whetherit’s morally okay to eat
fish. Psychology and computer science journals won't tell you whether
it’s possible for a digital computer to be conscious. Psychology journals
contain important discoveries about human decision-making, but the
question of whether we havefree willis left unanswered.
In saying this, we don’t mean to imply that philosophical questions
can't ultimately be answered using scientific methods. Many philoso-
phers have madeit their goalto find ways of applying scientific methods
in new domains, and we applaudthese efforts. All we're saying is that
there are many philosophical questions which are currently outside the
scopeof the sciencesas they are usually delimited.
6 PuiLtosopHy: ASKING QUESTIONS—SEEKING ANSWERS

5. Why Bother?
Students in their first philosophy class (especially those for whom the
class is compulsory!) often ask why they should bother with philosophy.
Ouransweris that philosophyis inevitable. We all have to think about
howto live, and so weare forced to think about normative questionsat
onetime or another. What's more, we nowlivein pluralist societies; that
is, we live with people whose worldviewsdiffer greatly from our own.
Whenwe meet such people and try to understand our differences, we
are forced to discuss our basic assumptions—andthis is philosophy.
So even though philosophical questions don’t come up every day,
we're all forced to confront them sometimes. We hopethis book helps you
to think about philosophical questions and to reach your own conclusions.
And evenif you aren't able to reach your own conclusions, we think
you can benefit from the time spent thinking the issues through. In such
cases, philosophy shows you something important aboutthe limitations
of your knowledge. What's more, even if you can’t find the right answer
to a philosophical question, you maystill be able to achieve a deeper
understanding of other people's views about the topic. And the better
weunderstand each other’s views, the better we understand each other.

Discussion Question
1. Lookat the list of philosophical questions with a friend. Do the two
ofyou disagree about the answerto a question?If you find a disagree-
ment, can you articulate it precisely? Then, how well can you give an
argument supporting your view?

Notes
1. Gen. 9:1-3 (NRSV).
2. You maybeableto find partsof this discussion online. Fora full transcript,
look in Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (London: Routledge,
2004), 125-152.
3. Russell and Coppleston could perhaps have beenstill more precise about
their disagreement. Their claim that Godis “supreme”is, we think, slightly
obscure. We suspect that when Coppleston says that Godis “supreme,” he
meant that Godis all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly morally good—
butit’s hard to be completely sure.
4, Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow, The Grand Design (New York:
Bantam Books, 2010), 1.
 CHAPTER; 2
eee

What Are Arguments, and How

Should We Evaluate Them?

1. Introduction
You probably know people who have profoundly different worldviews
from you and profoundly different views about howto lead a good life.
Perhaps you disagree whether there is a god, whetherit’s okay to eat
meat, or whether morality is objective. Philosophy is a conversation
about questions like these; a conversation between people with very
different personal convictions. In philosophy, evocations of personal
feelings are usually oflittle value because people's feelings about philo-
sophical questions differ so greatly. Appeals to authority and tradition
are not much better: one person's revered authority is another person's
discredited blowhard.
So whatis to be done? The short answeris that philosopherspresent
arguments for their views.
Sometimes, the word “argument”is used to mean dispute or debate
or quarrel. That's not what we mean. An argument,in our sense,is an at-
temptto justify some conclusion by rational means. Here is an example:
The quality of government in a country correlates positively with
voter turnout: the greater the voter turnout, the better the govern-
ment. Therefore, low voter turnout causes bad government. So if
youreeligible and you fail to vote, you make the government worse.
What’s more, democracy can only persist if enough people turn out
8 PuiLosopHy: ASKING QUESTIONS—SEEKING ANSWERS

to vote; therefore, if you're eligible to vote and you don't do so, you
imperil democracyitself. It follows that if you're eligible to vote,it’s
morally wrong for younot to doso.

The conclusion of this argumentis that if a person is eligible to vote,

then it’s morally wrongfor her not to do so. If you are unconvinced, you
should be able to articulate where exactly you think the argumentfails.
And perhaps you should back up yourclaims by presenting arguments
of your own... and so the conversation that is philosophy continues.
In this chapter, we discuss the structure of arguments, and we talk
about how to evaluate arguments.It will help to use simple examples;
indeed, some of our examples may seem rather goofy. But please don't
be put off: there's nothing goofy about the techniques we describe in
this chapter. We're describing the methods of the world’s foremost
philosophers.

2. Premises and Conclusions

Hereis the simplest argument you'll find in this book:
Noelephant is a reptile. Jumbo is an elephant. Therefore, Jumbo is
nota reptile.

The conclusion of this argumentis that Jumbo is not a reptile. The other
two statements are premises—these are statements that the writer as-
sumes while making her case for the conclusion. The premises are the
starting points of the argument. Sometimesit’s helpful to write an argu-
mentin this form, with a horizontal line separating the premises from
the conclusion:
Noelephantis a reptile.
Jumbois an elephant.
Jumbois not reptile.
The advantage of presenting arguments this wayis that it makes it ex-
plicit what the conclusion of the argument is and what the premises are
Here is another example:
Fido didn’t comein throughthecatflap:it’s tiny, and Fidois a large dog.

In this case the writer assumes that the cat flap is tiny and that Fidois
a large dog; these are his premises. He infers that Fido could not have
comein throughthecatflap; this is his conclusion.
 What Are Arguments, and How Should We Evaluate Them? 9

Thecatflapis tiny.
Fidois a large dog.
Fido didn't comein throughthecatflap.

Sometimes a writer will add extraneous comments to an argument:

One of you ate the cookies, for Pete's sake! Since you all deny it—
whichis infuriating—one of you must be lying. (Why do we have to
do this every week?)

The argumentin this passageis this:

Oneof you ate the cookies.
Each of you denies having eaten the cookies.
Oneofyouis lying.

“For Pete's sake,” “whichis infuriating,” and “Why do wehaveto dothis

>> «

every week?”are not parts of the argument; they are mereasides.

Sometimes a writer will explicitly identify her conclusion and
premises. Very often, however, it takes some effort on the part of the
readerto find them. There are certain giveaway words and phrases often
used to mark the conclusion of an argument. For example:
therefore hence
consequently te)
in conclusion thus
it follows that necessarily
then weinfer that
implies that
Consider for example this argument:
If taxes are not increased, the budget deficit will become verylarge.
Weshould notlet the budget get out of control. Thus, taxes should be
raised.
The word “thus” indicates that “taxes should be raised” is the conclu-
sion. The other two sentences are premises.
Another way of marking the conclusion of an argumentis to use the
verb “must.” For example:
Jonathan must be home becausehiscaris in the driveway.

The conclusion of this short argument is that Jonathan is home; the

premise is that Jonathan’ caris in the driveway.
10 PuiLrosopuy: ASKING QuUESTIONS—SEEKING ANSWERS

There are also certain giveaway words andphrasesin English that a

writer can use to indicate that some statement is a premise:
I suppose that it is assumed that
since because
for as
on the groundsthat for the following reason
follows from the fact that given that
may be inferred from the fact that
Consider for example this argument:
Alan must have burnt the bagel because there is smoke in the kitchen.

The word “because” indicates that “there is smokein the kitchen”is a

premise. “Alan burnt the bagel”is the conclusion.
Sometimesa writer will not use giveaway expressions. For example:
John stole the laptop. It was either John or Ashni, and Ashni would
neversteal.

There are no giveaway wordshere, so we just have to apply common

sense to figure out what's the conclusion of the argument and what the
premisesare.
It was either John or Ashni whostole the laptop.
Ashni would neversteal.
Johnstole the laptop.

Look at these arguments. In each case, identify the premises and the
conclusion:
(a) Tom was at the party, for sure. He must have been drinking
because everybody at the party was drinking.
(b) Everyone wholives in Snooty Towersis stuck up. Mehdilivesin
Snooty Towers. Therefore, Mehdiis a snob.
(c) You should stop dating James. He swears at strangers in the
street, he never leaves a tip when he goesto a restaurant, and
his breath smells.
(d) The walking stick won't be very useful to Li Na: the stick is
rather short, and sheis verytall.
(e) Along holiday would be better for both of us, so we should go
forit!
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Lincoln, Abraham, 117, 149
Little Falls, N.Y., 22, 42
Little Tennessee river, 135
Liverpool, 110
Locks, 45
Logan, 155
London, 110
Long House, the, 18
Longstreet, General, 168
Lookout Mountain, 173
Losantiville, 124
Louisville, 117, 127
Lulbegrud creek, 151
Luray, 131, 132
Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 126

McClellan, General, 132

Mail, first, received at Utica, 24
Mail bags, race of the, 109
Mail coaches, 94
Manhattan island, 14, 15
Marble, 104, 168, 171
Maryland, 86
Memphis, 172
Middlesboro, 153
Milestone on Braddock’s road, 90
Missionary Ridge, 173
Mobile, 174
Mohawk valley, 16–19, 31, 42, 59
Monongahela river, 93, 96, 111
Morris, Gouverneur, 42
Mount Vernon, 41, 86
Nash, Oliver, 163
Nashborough (Nashville), 163, 171, 173
National Road, the, 91, 93, 96, 123
New Amsterdam, 14
New Jersey, Scotch-Irish in, 66
New Netherlands, 14
New river (Great Kanawha), 134
New York Central Railway, 20, 30, 58, 60, 62
New York City, 2, 7, 14
New York state, 27;
well adapted for canal, 44
Newburg, N.Y., 60
Noah’s Ark, 49
Nolichucky river, 159
Norfolk and Western Railway, 133
North Adams, Mass., 5
North American Review, 102
North Carolina, 137, 146
North-German Lloyd line, 108

Ocmulgee river, 179

Ogden, Utah, 109
Ohio Company, 88
Ohio country, French in, 89
Ohio river, 76, 98, 111, 123, 127, 152
Oil City, 120
Omaha, 109
Oneida Indians, 17
Oneida Carrying Place, 22
Onondaga salt, 27, 113
Ontario, lake, 18, 22, 33
Oriskany, 29, 30, 35
Oswego, 32
Oswego river, 22
Otsego lake, 98
Oyster industry, 104

“Packers,” 72
Packets, 50
Parton, James, cited, 120
Penn, William, 66
Pennsylvania, settlement of, 66
Pennsylvania Railroad, 77–85
“Pennsylvania Dutch,” 66
Pennsylvania canal, 74
Phelps, Abner, 9
Philadelphia, 41, 63
Pike, Pittsburg, 72;
Frederick, 93
Pineville gap, 143, 147
Pittsburg, 64, 71, 75, 83, 107, 156;
description of, 111, 115, 120, 122;
pike, 72
Pittsfield, Mass., 5
Point Pleasant, 155
Portage Railway, Allegheny, 75, 76, 80
Post, John, 23, 24
Potomac Company, 99
Potomac river, 86, 106
Powell, Ambrose, 142
Powell’s river, 134, 142
Prairies in Kentucky, 152
Princeton College, 66
Providence, R.I., 4
Puncheon floors, 140

Queen City, the, 124

Queenstown, 110
Quincy, Mass., 53

Railways:
through the Berkshires, 9, 10;
from Albany to Schenectady, 9, 53;
early, 53, 56;
opposition to, 55;
growth of, 60, 109, 181;
West Shore, 59;
Erie, 60;
New York Central, 20, 30, 58, 60, 62;
Wabash, 102;
Baltimore and Ohio, 99, 101, 102, 110;
Southern Pacific, 109;
Union Pacific, 109;
Lake Shore, 110;
Norfolk and Western, 133;
Southern, 134, 170
Reading, Pa., 79
Red Star line, 108
Redstone, 117
Richardson, Judge John, 46
Rivers important in a country’s growth, 5–7, 16, 17, 24, 26, 31, 41,
122, 126, 133
Roads, in New England, 4, 6, 7;
stage, 64;
development of, 72;
indifference to, 87;
national interest in, 92;
Braddock’s, 90;
Cumberland, 93;
 Frederick, 93;
National, 91, 93, 96;
Wilderness (Boone’s trail, Kentucky road, Virginia road, Caintuck
Hog road), 127, 149
Roanoke, 134
Robertson, James, goes to Watauga, 137;
pacifies the Indians, 139;
helps protect the new settlement, 155;
founds Nashborough, 163;
trusted by the people, 164;
portrait, 164;
ability, 172
Rochester, N.Y., 25, 52
Rochester, Colonel, 26, 41, 61, 132
“Rolling roads,” 88
Rome, 22, 46, 61
Roosevelt, Theodore, cited, 137, 140, 160
Ross’s Landing, 174

Sails on cars, 105

St. Clair, General, 124
St. Leger, General, 33, 61
Salt, 27, 61, 113
Samp mortars, 21
San Francisco, 109
Saratoga, 38
Schenectady, 19, 42, 47, 61
“Schonowe,” 19
Schuyler, Fort (Utica), 23
Schuyler, Han Yost, 37
Schuylerville, 38
Scotch-Irish, 66, 136
Seneca river, 24
Seneca lake, 25
Settlement:
in New England, 4;
in New York, 14, 24;
in Pennsylvania, 66;
in the Ohio country, 117;
in Tennessee, 135, 170;
in Kentucky, 148
Sevier, John, goes to Watauga, 138;
fights on the frontier, 155;
plans to attack Ferguson, 160;
returns home, 162;
portrait, 162;
monument to, 165;
other honors, 166;
on the Tennessee river, 172
Shelby, Isaac, 155, 159, 165
Shelbyville, 165
Shenandoah valley, 88, 107, 130, 132
Sheridan, 133
Shippensburg, Pa., 71
Shreve, Captain, 117
Slate, 104
“Smoky City, The,” 120
South Mountain, Pa., 132
Southern Pacific Railway, 22
Southern Railway, 134, 170
Speed of early trains, 105
Spotswood, Alexander, 129
Springfield, Mass., 6, 10
Stanwix, Fort, 22, 23, 34, 37, 61, 149
Stark, General, 38
Staunton, Va., 135
Steamboats, 118
Stephenson, George, 53
Stillwater, 38
Susquehanna valley, 26, 41, 46, 104
Swift Run Gap, 130
Sycamore Shoals, 160
Sydney, Australia, 109
Syracuse, 27, 52, 57, 61

Tarleton, Colonel, 159

Teamsters of early days, 64, 69
Tennessee, 134, 154, 164, 172;
University of, 170
Tennessee river, 134, 142, 163, 167, 172, 174
Ticonderoga, 32, 37, 38
Tidewater country, 87, 130
Timber, 104, 180
Toll houses, 68, 87
Toll rates, 94
Tom Thumb, 106
Trails, old, 4, 6, 17, 19, 22, 25, 28, 72
Tramways in England, 54
Transylvania Company, 148
Travel, early, 5, 22, 56, 64, 91
Trow Plat, 23
Trunk line, 57
“Tubal Cain of Virginia,” 129
Tudor, Frederick, 4
Twentieth Century Limited, 56

Union Pacific Railroad, 109

University of Tennessee, 170
Utica, 21, 23, 37, 57, 61

Valley of east Tennessee, 135;

of Virginia, 132
Valley, the Great, 71, 130, 132, 134, 136, 139
Valleys as natural roads, 5–7, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26, 31, 41, 126, 133,
142, 152, 156
Van Curler, Arent, 17, 19, 57, 61
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 58
Ventura, the, 109
Vincennes, Ind., 158
Virginia, 129, 154;
valley of, 132

Wabash Railway Company, 102

Wabash river, 158
Walker, Dr. Thomas, 142
Ward, Nancy, 139
Washington, D.C., 91, 93, 94
Washington, George, 41, 60, 86, 112, 133;
part taken by, in road making, 88–92, 98
Washington, Lawrence, 89
Watauga Settlement, 135–141, 144, 146, 159
Waterford, 47
West, the, 40, 60
Westfield valley, 6
West Shore Railway, 59
Wheeling, 94, 107, 122
White, Hugh, 21
Whitesboro, 21
Wilderness Road, 127, 149
Willett, Captain Marinus, 35
William and Mary College, 142
Wills creek, 89, 102
Wills mountain, 93
Winchester, Va., 132, 135
Windmills, Dutch, 15
Wood creek, 22, 42

Yadkin valley, North Carolina, 146

 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was
obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook
that support hyperlinks, the page references in the List of
Illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations.
Portions of the captions of some illustrations were taken
from the List of Illustrations.
The images have not been descreened because doing so
lost too much detail.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or
correct page references.
Page 18: The pronunciation mark above the first “o” in “ĭr-
ṓ-kwoi´” was an inverted “T”, which was only visually
approximated here.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM TRAIL
TO RAILWAY THROUGH THE APPALACHIANS ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to
abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using
and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this
agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms
of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with
its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it
without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United

States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United
States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form